Women in Poverty During the Socialist Era in Hungary

IBOLYA CZIBERE Women in Po e y Du ing he Socialis E a in Hunga y A ypical ea u e o he ea ly socialis sou ces demons a ing he paupe dom o he ag a ian and indus ial Hunga ian socie y be o e 1945 is ha hough hey p o ed o be eally ho ough and can be u ilized well e en oday, mos o hem we e w i en as a o m o poli ical p opaganda highligh ing he peculia i ies o he capi alis supp ession be o e 1945 while igno ing he su i al o po e y in o he imes ollowing 1945. Conside ing hese sou ces i may seem ha he poli ical and economic ansi ion a e 1949 a once sol ed he unce ain ies o social dep i a ion, howe e hey supp essed he ac s ha he go e nmen s in he pe iod ollowing he Wo ld Wa II could no manage he excessi e po e y de eloped be ween 1900 and 1945. Tabooing he cha ac e is ics and p opo ions o po e y p e en ed he e a om acing he p oblem. Acco ding o Szalai (1998) he e en s ollowing he Wo ld Wa II gi e dual explana ion o he wo o emos dilemmas o he social de elopmen p eceding he wa pe iod. Th ough hose e en s „ he p e-wa exhaus ion o he capi alis ic mode niza ion” and „ he desin eg a ional c isis” p esen in he „semi- eudal, semi- ci il” milieu o he 1930s and he 1940s can be in e p e ed. One o he ac o s is ha he poo o he e a we e o a g ea ex en ela ed o es a e ela ions. Thei basis and eplacemen we e no abo e all p o ided by he mode n p ole a ian s a a ha ing se led in owns: „ he once » allen behind« we e ec ui ed om hose excluded om ci il de elopmen s and om he social g oups a leas pa ly clu ched o he indus ial wo ld and subo dina ed o es a e ela ions o he coun yside. The mass base o po e y eme ged om des i u e ag icul u al p ole a ians, day labou e s aking ei he indus ial o ag icul u al jobs, mano ial maids, dwa holde s nei he able o li e on ag icul u e no able o ind pe manen u ban jobs, and om millions o poo peasan y.” (Szalai 1998: 52.) Acco ding o ano he ac o hey emained poo no only due o hei low income o lack o weal h bu 158 METSZETEK 2013/2-3. szám „… he ins i u ions o mode nisa ion we e all closed be o e hem. The e o e po e y in p e-wa Hunga y was no a ma e o inequali y which could ha e been esol ed by axes, income edis ibu ion o mode n social insu ance […]. The phenomenon i sel was expec ed o unde go a mode niza ion p ocess: he undamen al ques ion was o b eak he es a e ela ions while es ablishing he homogenous, in eg a ed blood low o he socie y” (Szalai 1998:52.) Tha is why Szalai poin s ou ha despi e he social e o ms and signi ican ideological ansi ion he s uc u al cons uc ion o he sys em occu ed „pa alell wi h p ese ing es a e ela ions”. As a ma e o ac , he socialis sys em did no hing bu ans o med he p e-wa po e y. „The o me mano ial maids u ned in o oo wo ke s o s a e a ms, he o me ag a ian p ole a ians in o commu ing unskilled wo ke s, he poo peasan s in o semi skilled labou e s o a me s’ coope a i es o indus ial companies. Howe e , hei s a us and es a e subo dina ion ne e eally al e ed, nei he did he adi ional ules o beha iou ne e eco ded s ill » eadily« p ac ised by e e ybody owa ds hem. The undiminished ep oduc ion o po e y […] pe sis ed. No low income was he o emos and he mos d ama ic ea u e o his si ua ion bu he exclusion om he use o he p e alen social ins i u ions.” (Szalai 1998: 53.) In acco dance wi h i Lőcsei (2008) w o e ha in ha yea o he 20 h cen u y (i.e. in 1949) when equali y be ween men and women was egis e ed in o cons i u ion, app oxima ely wo hi d o he Hunga ian popula ion li ed in amilies o which hie a chy, economic s uc u e, li es yle and hough s we e de e mined by he adi ions o he 18 h and 19 h cen u ies. Unde such ci cums ances he si ua ion o poo women p oceeded in a speci ic way. Gene ally speaking he mos signi ican change in hei li es p o ed o be he secession om amily-household ies ha eme ged g adually. Du ing he i s pe iod, up un il he beginning o he 1950s he p ocess o secession mani es ed a kind o pe iodici y. The shi no mally happened when he amily was sho o money so in he las eso mean women we e o ced o en e employmen (Gyáni 1987). Only hose young gi ls we e excep ions o he ule who had al eady been in ol ed in ea ning ac i i ies ou side hei amilies be ween he Wo ld Wa s, paid as household maids, day-labou e s o ac o y wo ke s. Ibolya Czibe e – Women in Po e y Du ing he Socialis E a in Hunga y 159 Women in he bo om s a a o labou ma ke – he wo king poo The mos conside able al e a ion in he li es and labou di ision s a us o women a ose when indi idual peasan a ming was almos o ally elimina ed a he end o he 1950s and a he beginning o he 1960s in Hunga y. The change b ough an o e whelming impac on amily li e, labou s uc u e and alue sys em which was manis es ed in he as ans o ma ion o he s uc u e o emale employmen . Following he o ganiza ion o p oduc i e coope a i e socie ies e en he las bas ions o he adi ional peasan way o li e we e de e io a ed, he undamen ally shaken o me he edi a y pa ia chal e hos and he pa ia chal gende ela ions slowly and g adually al e ed in he di ec ion o equali y be ween gende s. The imp o ing educa ional le el o women due o he in oduc ion o compulso y educa ion con ibu ed o he abo e changes o a g ea ex en . Howe e slow i was, he p og ess also esul ed in he imp o ing condi ions o males and emales in semi skilled o unskilled wo king s a us li ing on he po e y le el o he age. Be o e he Wo ld Wa II he a io o he popula ion comple ing he eigh yea s o elemen a y school was ema kably low, hus he di e ence was s iking i compa ed o he con empo a y s a is ical da a showing he p opo ion eaching 40% in he la e 1950s o ea ly 1960s. As a esul speci ic and no el emale disad an ages e ol ed. The d awbacks de eloped be ween gende s wi hin g oups wi h di e en quali ica ions. Due o he echnical de elopmen he numbe o skilled labou e s and hei p opo ion among wo ke s was con inuously g owing which enhanced male s a us meanwhile gene a ing he mos s ikingly disad an ageous emale si ua ion. Males could access o mo e honou able and well paid jobs whe eas women mainly added o he ci cle o he mos badly paid semi skilled labou e s. In addi ion he inc easing p opo ion o skilled wo ke s among men led o a dec ease in he numbe o male unskilled and semi skilled labou e s. To illus a e he p og ess in 1959 only 45% o semi skilled labou e s p o ed o be emale, whils 5 yea s la e hei p opo ion eached 51,6%. The e is no doub ha du ing his pe iod due o mechaniza ion he demand o semi skilled labou e s ose a a quick pace. Women no ecei ing indus ial ainings we e p ima ily admi ed and employed in hese jobs. O he ac o s also played oles in he g owing numbe o semi skilled emale wo ke s. Acco ding o Tu gonyi and Fe ge (1969) he emale wo k su plus o ced women o unde ake e en badly paid semi skilled jobs. A he same ime he au ho s highligh he da a acco ding o which i was mo e di icul o women o acqui e a quali ica ion. One eason o his could be ha male ca ee s de eloped in a di e en 160 METSZETEK 2013/2-3. szám way: men could a he ob ain a quali ica ion e en o e he age o 25. I is a ema k o g ea impo ance since a e eaching he wo king age and comple ing he educa ional ci cle all males could en e he labou o ce ma ke . Fo women he condi ions we e no so a ou able, a ha ime hey could only unde ake jobs when hey could no ely on hei male b eadwinne s any mo e. The olde was a woman, he highe was he chance o his si ua ion o happen, ha is o e he age o 40 a emale ha dly had any o he chance han o wo k as a semi skilled o mainly as a skilled labou e . Mo eo e , om a emale pe spec i e a mul ila e al d awback conce ning emale educa ion o hei con inua ion o s udies can also be de ec ed. (1) As i was s a ed abo e a ela i ely small numbe o women pa icipa ed in indus ial oca ional aining. No only his mean a disad an age o hem bu he ac ha emale and male oca ional ainings we e no equi alen . Du ing his pe iod males ecei ed an educa ion o h ee o e en mo e yea s, while o women he du a ion o educa ion was subs an ially sho e . (2) In cou se and aining sys ems he majo i y o pa icipan s we e males, hey could join longe ainings p o iding wide knowledge, allowances o wo king hou s and assignmen s, whe eas women ha dly had any p ospec s o such oppo uni ies. Among he easons i has been ound ha socialis i ms we e no willing o spend on u he educa ion o women, pa ly because hey we e a aid ha hey would be no able o mee he labou and wage demands adjus ing o highe quali ica ions. Bu i was e en mo e impo an ha hey did no ind aining emales p o i able since hey would bea and b ing up child en so educa ional in es men s would be all los . (3) Unila e al oca ional aining o women gene a ed and main ained u he d awbacks in he labou o ce ma ke which was s ill domina ed by adi ional emale jobs. As a esul o ex ile and clo hing ades exclusi ely emales we e ained. Acco ding o con empo a y s a is ics (1966-67) o e 21 % o emale s uden s in oca ional schools we e ained in hese indus ial ields (Tu gonyi-Fe ge 1969). The oca ional aining sys em aised se e al p oblems in he abo e men ioned e a, since oca ional aining o women p o ed o be neglec ed, so he adi ional ways o employmen we e s ill ollowed. As a esul on his le el oca ional aining could no ende i possible o emales o be in ol ed in he social di ision o labou equal o males as labou o ce, hus i ein o ced he o me ly exis ing inequali y be ween gende s. Ano he segmen o inequali y could be ealised in he p opo ions o ob ainable labou ea nings. A ha ime among he employed indus ial labou e s in Hunga y a e age ea nings o emales moun ed up o he 65% o a e age wages ea ned by males. As a u he p oblem he dis ibu ion o emale- male wages was adically con as ing. On he one hand i compa ed o males he e we e mo e women wi h low incomes and less wi h be e ea nings, on he o he hand Ibolya Czibe e – Women in Po e y Du ing he Socialis E a in Hunga y 161 emale ea nings we e much less di e en ia ed which educed he likelihood o a minimum o emale wo ke s o ge o e a ce ain wage le el. The e a e mo e explana ions a ailable why emale a e age ea nings could no ca ch up wi h male wages a ha ime. Acco ding o a epo announced by KSH in 1962 an objec i e ac o pe cei ed was ha women we e no able o o e come he disad an age loaded on hem by he o me educa ional sys em. In g ea e p opo ions hey had only en e ed he labou o ce ma ke in he p e ious 10-15 yea s so hey did no possess enough ou ines. Mo eo e , due o hei physiological na u e hey could no pe o m as well as men who could demons a e mo e s eng h in blue colla jobs equi ing physical powe . In jobs demanding ex eme s eng h employmen o emales was no a all allowed which o cou se mean ha hey we e o ally excluded om jobs o e ing he bes ea nings. Ano he ac o could be ealised in he adi ions o emale employmen ; as a pa o he disc imina ion agains emales oo ed in he pas , wo king ac i i ies conside ed o be adi ionally emale (eg. ades in ex ile indus y) we e ab o o ma ched wi h lowe wages as compa ed o male ades which demanded alike e o s and quali ica ions. As a hi d ac o a pe spec i e mos ly accep ed by women can be men ioned. Since men a e b eadwinne s, hey a e en i led o be paid highe wages han emales. This so o di e en ia ion was deeply es ablished in Hunga ian socie y o such a g ea ex en ha as an i e u able p emise i was in e p e ed and acknowledged as one o he mos na u al elemen s o social p ac ice. Li e and wo k condi ions o emale wo ke s Rega ding wo k condi ions subs an ial ac o s a e he deg ee o ha dness, he condi ions and ci cums ances ela ed o he wo k place, bu also he ime able and he numbe o shi s a e o g ea signi icance. As li es o all blue colla wo ke s, li es o women we e also g ea ly a ec ed by he echnical de elopmen . The ex en o mechaniza ion was s ikingly b oadening, whe eas he numbe o manual ades was simul aneously dec easing. Though he ex en o physical s ain was declining g ea ly easing he li es o blue colla labou e s, he p ocess pa ed he way o mono onous, epe i i e, d ea y wo king ac i i ies. As a esul o he echnical ad ancemen , he wo k p ocess was di ided in o i s elemen s, so each labou e pe o med only one o wo mo emen s o he whole wo k p ocedu e. Subsequen ly a g ea numbe o unskilled labou e s and wo ke s wi h minimum skills we e employed which led no only o he abo e men ioned nega i e aspec s bu also o he dehumaniza ion o wo k. Labou e s wo king in sub unc ions could no see hei wo k i in he p oduc ion p ocess. These ac s a e impo an o be unde lined he e since hese ypes o 162 METSZETEK 2013/2-3. szám in luences de alua ing he con ex o labou we e he cha a c e is ics o wo k places employing emales (Szeben 1983). E en i me hods based on Taylo ism and i s ad ancemen s p o ed o be excep ionally e icien and p omo ed p oduc i i y while u ilizing unskilled labou o ce, i is an in e es ing ac ha a ha ime he in oduc ion o echnology u ned ou o be ap mainly in a eas and sec o s employing p ima ily unquali ied women. The consequences led o inequali y o wages. In Hunga y be o e 1945 – wi h he backg ound o highly open and hidden unemploymen –wages paid in ha d blue colla jobs and se e e wo king condi ions we e mos ly unde he a e age. Unde hese ci cums ances he main ocus o a de enceless labou e was no a all o pick he bes al e na i e bu p ima ily o ind any job o make a li ing. In he yea s ollowing he Wo ld Wa II he size o wages g adually came in o he on when choosing a job o applying o wo k. „The quick pace indus ializa ion wen hand in hand wi h he la ge scale es ablishmen o wo k places p o iding ull employmen . The g owing possibili y o he selec ion o jobs happened o make employmen p o iding be e condi ions along wi h be e labou con en mo e appealing. Thus a sho age o labou o ce a ose in many jobs equi ing physical s eng h and in jobs wi h un a ou able condi ions. No e en highe wages can compensa e o he nega i e ci cums ances. Howe e »be e wages« in many cases can o e shadow indi idual demands ela ed o con en equi emen s o he wo k, bu his endency does no seem o be alid o jobs wi h ha d wo k and ha sh condi ions…” (Szeben 1983: n.d.) A ha ime less and less wo ke s we e eady o unde ake ha d, di y jobs wi h mo e shi s because he need o no mal wo k condi ions was conside ably g owing. In his sys em aiming o ull employmen , employees could s and a chance o ealising hei needs when choosing ades o applying o jobs. The ela i e bu den o jobs pe o med wi h ha d wo k in di icul condi ions was g owing, so he ela i e s a us o hese jobs was descending. Howe e , Szeben (1983) poin ed ou ha du ing ha pe iod he e m used o desc ibing blue colla wo k al e ed ela i ely as . Fo ins ance, cleaning as a o me ly unde paid ypical emale job all a once u ned in o a well-paid „dange ous” and „ha m ul” male ade including window cleaning, loo a nishing e c. Simul aneously, men would no ha e unde aken mono onous emale blue colla jobs which equi ed de eloped manual skills and had o be pe o med acco ding o me hods based on mo emen analysis, e en i hey had been paid by a highe wages han he con empo a y a e age. I is wo h men ioning ha some companies in he coun yside (eg. b ick wo ks) o ganised so called c oss-shi s Ibolya Czibe e – Women in Po e y Du ing he Socialis E a in Hunga y 163 be ween he a e noon and nigh shi s. Female wo ke s who could wo k om 6 o 8 pm o 2 o 4 am welcome his oppo uni y because no only could hey handle hei household asks, bu hey also a i ed home in ime o eed he animals and send hei child en o school. These de ails a e leading us o he analysis and in e p e a ion o he p essu es o li e ci cums ances. Li e condi ions o women in he second hal o he 1960s was s udied by Júlia Tu gonyi and Zsuzsa Fe ge. Thei pionee scien i ic wo k ocused on wo undamen al ques ions. They aimed a (1) e ealing he double p essu es ha is how women could keep balance be ween wo k and household ac i i ies, and (2) unco e ing he ex a bu dens o being a mo he . Acco ding o hei indings in Hunga y a he end o he 1960s he di ision o labou in wo king class amilies ollowed en i ely adi ional pa e ns. Gene ally speaking, i compa ed o men women had ex a s ains, besides emales om he wo king class we e in an especially di icul si ua ion because hey had a mo e household commi men s, mo e du ies han o s a wo ke s. Day by day a e hey had comple ed hei unde paid mono onous, physically and men ally exhaus i e ac o y wo k, housekeeping laid u he assignmen s on hem. Acco ding o he au ho s he phenomenon may be associa ed wi h he male pa ia chal way o hinking which was ep esen ed by membe s o „ he mos de enceless laye o socie y”. „This phenomenon can be easily combined wi h hose […] esea ch da a acco ding o which blue colla wo ke s we e mo e agains he employmen s a us o hei wi es han whi e colla labou e s. So he link is ob ious, since he jus i ica ion o emale jobs was less accep ed by men, hey we e no willing o elie e he consequences o he si ua ion no desi able o hem." (Tu gonyi- Fe ge 1969: 69.) Among he possible bu less dis inc i e explana o y causes i was ound ha labou e s we e opposed o hei wi es wo king s a us because ac o y wo k a mo e encumbe ed emale li e in con as wi h ha o whi e colla wo ke s’. On he one hand emale ac o y labou e s did no ha e he po en ial o ha ing he housekeeping comple ed by o he s, on he o he hand hey we e much mo e exhaus ed a e inishing wo k han whi e colla women. As a mo e ep esen a i e ac o , i has been concluded ha he in e es s o male wo ke s we e di ec ly endange ed by emale employmen . Howe e , he au ho s emphasize ha he abo e easons a e no en i ely illus a i e o he scene, and hey conside emale d awbacks as no being deducible om con empo a y objec i e ci cums ances. Among he easons „ adi ional ixa ions”, old-es ablished p ejudices sanc i ied by socie y can also be de ec ed. 164 METSZETEK 2013/2-3. szám No e en he equalizing socialis concep ion was able o esol e he dilemma o labou di ision ha was especially disad an ageous o women, o which o cou se no only males’ a i ude was esponsible. „Ins ead o »p o es ing« agains di ision o labou , he majo i y o women ound i a kind o »na u al« phenomenon, and hey would ha e pe cei ed i »unna u al» and humilia ing i he husband as he head o he amily had been engaged in cooking o washing. As a e lec ion o mode n male a i udes wi h i s oo s de i ing om he long ago ea o i al y wi h emale wo k o ce, he base o a simila app oach is easy o be pinpoin ed: in a socie y in which he only igh ul job o a woman is housekeeping, i is he only way how a emale can jus i y he igh o li e. These p ejudicies ha e s ill been wai ing o be o e come.” (Tu gonyi-Fe ge 1969: 69.) The esea che s’ in es iga ion ca ied ou in he sphe e o mo he hood also suppo ed he abo e ideas. In hei c i ique hey called a en ion o a nega i e e ec o ma e ni y bene i while no igno ing i s bene icial aspec s. Al hough i allows he igh o a woman o be a mo he o mo e yea s, bu a e a while „ his igh a he u ns in o a commi men : i becomes a equi emen acco ding o which he p ima y ask o he woman, he mo he is o se e he child en and he amily.” (74) This idea was supplemen ed by Répássy (1983) who obse ed o he de e io a ing ac o s ha a ha ime signi ican ly ha dened he li es o women om u al a eas. As such an agg a a ing ac o he ecognized emale pa icipa ion in small-scale ag icul u al p oduc ion implemen ed in household and subsidia y a ms. Mos women om amilies in ol ed in ag icul u al p oduc ion we e also engaged in o he o ms o ea ning ac i i ies. No only was housekeeping expec ed almos exclusi ely o hem, bu as a u he load women had o comple e a conside able pa o a ming wo k. Tha is he eason why con empo a y analyses o en spoke abou „ he h ee p o essions” o coun y women. In ano he app oach Valuch (2002) highligh ed ha due o he ea angemen o u al popula ion he s a us o women no ably changed, p io o he yea o 1949 almos all o hem (as wi es o sel -employed a ming men) we e conside ed as dependan s. Following collec i isa ion a g ea pe cen age o women became ac i e wage ea ne s. F om ha on, he si ua ion o u al women in he labou o ce ma ke was cons an ly a gued, since collec i e a ms, hei subsec o s and ac o ies oge he we e no able o esol e ull employmen o women, so he wo king s a us o mos emale labou e s was consequen ly classi ied as sel -employed. Valuch e e s o an ag a ian census accomplished in 1972 acco ding o which u al emale popula ion o e he age o 14, beyond compulso y educa ion and wi hou o icial employmen usually wo ked h ee and a hal hou s in he household a m on a e age Ibolya Czibe e – Women in Po e y Du ing he Socialis E a in Hunga y 165 and ca ied ou household du ies six hou s a day. Tha is o say no ma e i women we e employed in a ac o y o no , in he s uc u e o he ex a-p o essional ac i i ies u al emale ee ime was ully occupied by wo k, hus o al sel -exploi a ion o emales was achie ed. Acco ding o Fe ge (1983) due o he social esea ches ca ied ou in he 1960s i became ob ious and also exp essed ha much less de eloped in he ield o emale emancipa ion han i was sugges ed by he su ace phenomena and „ he sel -con en o icial p opaganda” sp ead in he i s hal o he 1950s. The p og ession expe ienced in emale employmen in he 1960s and 70s was clea ly associa ed wi h unde paid un- o unde quali ied occupa ional g oups. I also became e iden ha in he pos -wa pe iod ollowing he change o he poli ical sy em p ejudicies agains women su i ed in he Hunga ian socie y, so unde he same condi ions emale wages we e a lagging behind male ea nings. The in ol emen o „in e es s” in he cou se o discussion is conside ed bo h in e es ing and hough p o oking. In Fe ge’s wo ds „despi e all he cen al in en ions and decla ed aims ce ain »male in e es s« u ned ou o be p e alen ” (Fe ge 1983: 231). In he iew i was so because he di e en ia ion o in e es s on he basis o gende s emained o be ully abooed. Al hough emale in e es s we e men ioned once in a while, bu he possibly opposing „male in e es s” we e disguised as i hey did no exis . Why was i so? „Igno ing he di e si y o in e es s can be only ealized by he ac ha he e a e no o he social g oups in so di e en si ua ions, o which needs and in e es s would be so much in e wo en in many ields o li e. In ce ain cases we can alk abou indi idually a icula ed bu complemen a y, in e dependan needs wi h he same objec i es as e.g. in sexual li e o ep oduc ion. A e ounding a amily, he undamen al goals and conce ns a e simply common,[…]. Sha ed goals can ha e such an impo ance ha he sepa a e needs o bo h pa ies and gende s become au oma ically in e io o hem. […] I is mo e common ha emale indi idual conce ns »au oma ically« eme ge as subo dina e due o a his o ically en o ced na u al e lex o i a woman willingly and olun a ily dis ega ds he own indi idual needs.” (Fe ge 1983: 243.) „Woman ques ions” a ose when he his o ical e lex imposed on women s a ed o weaken and i has no been so na u al any mo e ha always and exclusi ely women ha e o gi e up hei indi idual needs and ambi ions in a ou o he amily o hei