The Role(s) of Native Speakers in L2 Translation
Abstract
7
Full text
The Role(s) o Na i e Speake s in L2 T ansla ion
Da id M aček
ABSTRACT:
T ansla ing in o anon-mo he ongue (L2 ansla ion) has ecei ed inc easing a en ion om ans-
la ion schola s o e he pas wo decades in esponse o he g owing p opo ion o his di ec ion in
ansla ion ma ke s in mos pa s o he wo ld. One o he aspec s o L2 ansla ion ha emains
a ela i ely uncha ed e i o y is he ole o na i e speake s. Al hough hey a e no mally in ol ed
in ela i ely ew ansla ions om alanguage o limi ed di usion in o amajo language di ec ly as
ansla o s, na i e speake s need no be en i ely absen om L2 ansla ion as i has been sugges ed
ha hey can assume di e se oles in he p ocess and ha coope a ion wi h na i e speake s b ings
ob ious bene i s o L2 ansla o s. The p esen s udy aims a p o iding amo e complex pic u e o
he na i e speake ’s ole(s) in L2 ansla ion, d awing on he esul s o a ecen p ojec on he quali-
a i e and sociological aspec s o L2 ansla ion. By ocusing on he ques ionnai es ha he 40 sub-
jec s, p o essionals and ad anced ansla o ainees, submi ed be o e pa icipa ing in a ansla-
ion expe imen , he s udy in ends o shed mo e ligh on he iews, p e e ences and habi s o Czech
ansla o s ega ding hei coope a ion wi h na i e speake s, discussing he possibili ies as well as
limi a ions o na i e-speake pa icipa ion in L2 ansla ion.
KEYWORDS:
consul an , in o man , L1 ansla ion, L2 ansla ion, na i e speake , e ision
1. INTRODUCTION
Wi h ansla ion in o anon-mo he ongue (L2 ansla ion) ha ing become a ac o
li e in mos pa s o he wo ld, his di ec ion o ansla ion has also ecen ly been
a equen opic o esea ch in T ansla ion S udies. Since he la e 1990s, esea ch-
e s ha e ocused on di e se aspec s o non-na i e ansla ion. Some ha e explo ed
L2 ansla ion as ap ocess and p oduc , analysing, among o he hings, he quali y
o li e a y and non-li e a y L2 ansla ion, s ylis ic aspec s and explici a ion, some
ha e deal wi h he ma ke and sociological aspec s ( equency, a es, cus ome ex-
pec a ions e c.), and o he s s ill ha e discussed he eaching o L2 ansla ion. Many
o hose indings ha e helped p o e he un enabili y o he golden ule p oposed by
se e al T ansla ion S udies au ho i ies se e al decades ago whe eby ansla ing in o
one’s mo he ongue is he only na u al, accu a e and e ec i e di ec ion while L2
ansla ion is an undesi ed p ac ice (c . Newma k, 1988; c . Ladmi al, 1979). Recen
esea ch has inc eased he gene al unde s anding o L2 ansla ion, p esen ing i
as acomplex issue which dese es se ious discussion and u he s udy and, a he
same ime, sugges ing i is ap ocess whe e success depends on mo e han one ac o .
Al hough L2 ansla ion implies, by de ini ion, an absence o na i e speake s o
he a ge language in he capaci y o ansla o s, hey may s ill be in ol ed in he
ansla ion p ocess, albei in o he oles. This aspec o non-na i e ansla ion, how-
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e e , emains ela i ely unde - esea ched and i is he aim o he p esen pape o
shed mo e ligh on he ole(s) o na i e speake s in L2 ansla ion.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 L2 TRANSLATION: AWORLDWIDE REALITY
Despi e he abo e men ioned ecommenda ions by ansla ion schola s and, in some
coun ies, ins i u ional guidelines obliga ing p o essionals o only ansla e in o hei
mo he ongue, L2 ansla ion has become a ac o li e mo e o less h oughou he
wo ld. L2 ansla ion is a equen p ac ice mainly in coun ies using languages o
limi ed di usion, as sugges ed by ecen ansla ion ma ke su eys in ol ing Slo e-
nian (c . Hi ci, 2005), C oa ian (c . Pa lo ić, 2007), Czech (c . S oboda, 2011), Polish
(c . Pie zak, 2013) and Slo ak (c . Ličko, 2014). The ob ious eason seems o be an in-
su icien supply o na i e speake s, as Ge a d McAles e no es: “ he olume o wo k
exceeds he numbe o a ailable ansla o s who a e majo language na i e speake s”
(McAles e , 1992, p.292). An al e na i e explana ion is o e ed by Paulina Pie zak,
who says ha he “ eason o he p e alence o Polish ansla o s among all he ans-
la o s wo king in o he English language is p ima ily he p ice”, adding ha commis-
sioning a ansla ion in o English o aPolish ansla o is simply mo e cos -e ec i e.
(Pie zak, 2013, p.235)
Howe e , e en su eys conduc ed in coun ies whe e “majo ” languages a e spo-
ken no e alow a ailabili y o quali ied na i e speake s o he a ge language ela i e
o he demand, i.e. mainly he need o ca e o he huge quan i ies o ansla ion in o
English. This appea s o be he case in Ge many (c . Schmi , 1998), Spain (c . Kelly e
al., 2003) and China (c . Pym, 2016).
2.2 NATIVE AND NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS AS TRANSLATORS
Al hough L2 ansla ion has become as anda d p ac ice in mos pa s o he wo ld
and apopula esea ch opic in con empo a y T ansla ion S udies, his does no mean
ha asubs an ial amoun o ansla ion is no done by na i e speake s (L1 ansla-
ion). Schola ly deba es, hus, e ol e a ound he me i s as well as challenges associ-
a ed wi h L1 and L2 ansla ions. Some o he au ho s who add ess he opic discuss
he ypes o ex s app op ia e o ei he L1 o L2 ansla ion.
The e seems o be gene al ag eemen ha o all he ex ypes ha a e no mally
ansla ed, exp essi e ex s such as li e a y o jou nalis ic wo ks seem o be leas
sui able o ansla ing ou o one’s mo he ongue, as he exp essi e and me apho ic
use o language would be e y likely o pose p oblems o a ansla o no ully in
con ol o he lexical ichness o he a ge language (Snell-Ho nby, 2000). Amo e
ho ough explana ion is gi en by Jiří Le ý, who a gues ha “ he g ea e he ole o
language in he a is ic s uc u e o he ex , he mo e di icul ansla ion becomes”
(Le ý, 2011, p.48). Le ý’s poin is aken u he by Xenia Liashuk, who sugges s ha
less eplicable (o , indeed, non- eplicable) s uc u es ypical o mos li e a y gen es
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call o a ansla o o g ea lexibili y and c ea i i y based on he b oades possible
mas e y o he a ge language, which is na u ally mo e likely o be ound in na i e
speake s. (Liashuk, 2014)
This does no mean, howe e , ha success ul L2 li e a y ansla o s do no exis .
In he g ound-b eaking a emp o pu some o he adi ional iews on di ec ionali y
o empi ical es , he Slo ene schola Nike Poko n (2005) analysed nine ansla ions
o Slo ene p ose in o English done by na i e speake s o Slo ene, na i e speake s
o English as well as na i e speake s o nei he o he wo. Poko n ound, among
o he hings, ha some ansla o s, despi e being na i e speake s o only one o he
languages in ol ed in hei ansla ion wo k, ha e excellen skills in bo h, enabling
hem o p oduce na i e-sounding li e a y ansla ions.1 Poko n’s analysis also ound
ha some o he ansla o s who we e na i e speake s o he a ge language (i.e. L1
ansla o s) p oduced s ylis ically less han pe ec ansla ions, a inding which is
ha dly su p ising gi en he abundance o T ansla ion S udies li e a u e con aining
examples o s ylis ic in elici ies in L1 li e a y ansla ion.
When conside ing which ex ypes a e mo e app op ia e o L2 ansla ion,
Snell-Ho nby (2000) sugges s in o ma i e ex s, which a e highly con en ionalised
wi h ega d o hei e bal and non- e bal elemen s (e.g. ins uc ions o use, public
announcemen s, comme cial co espondence and scien i ic epo s) and ope a i e
ex s such as ou is b ochu es. These ex ypes lend hemsel es mo e easily o L2
ansla ion, pa icula ly i hey a e in ended o in e na ional audiences, i.e. whe e
ansla o s a e expec ed o use In e na ional English o McEnglish, alingua anca
lacking he lexical ichness and idioma ici y equi ed in he ansla ion o exp essi e
ex s. McAles e goes e en u he , a guing ha anon-na i e ansla o may no only
be as compe en o ansla e such ex s as ana i e speake bu some imes e en be e
p epa ed o such asks as she “may w i e in asimple language wi h ewe cul u e-
speci ic e e ences, and hus one mo e sui ed o an audience o whom English is
asecond language” (McAles e , 1992, p.293). Compe ence is unde s ood he e as he
abili y o ansmi he message in acomp ehensible language, su icien ly co ec no
o cause amusemen on he pa o he eade , in o he wo ds o p oduce “ ansla ions
ha a e eliable and espec able” (ibid., p.297).
Xenia Liashuk, employing F an išek Miko’s s yle-de ining ca ego ies (Miko,
1970), a gues ha he mo e ac ual/in o ma i e and con en -o ien ed (and less ex-
p essi e/emo ional and ecei e -o ien ed) a ex is, he mo e i s ansla ion depends
on success ully mas e ing he s yle pe cei ed as na u al in he gi en gen e. The
ansla ion o in o ma i e ex s is, he e o e, mo e app oachable o aL2 ansla o
as long as she is able o de elop an ac i e epe o y o con ex ual equi alen s, by be-
ing in pe manen con ac wi h ex s o he gi en gen e in bo h wo king languages.
(Liashuk, 2014)
1 I mus , howe e , be admi ed ha Poko n’s L2 ansla o s we e no ypical na i e speak-
e s o Slo ene. The pe sonal his o y o some o he ansla o s sugges s ha English was
no a o eign language bu asecond language o hem. As Roman Ličko poin s ou , his is
ac ucial dis inc ion as “ he e is asigni ican di e ence be ween ansla ing ali e a y ex
in o asecond language and ende ing i in o one’s o eign ongue” (Ličko, 2014, p.46).
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Pe sonal expe ience as well as empi ical esea ch seem o sugges , hen, ha he
easibili y o L2 ansla ion is e y much dependen on he ype and gen e o he
sou ce ex and, in some con ex s, he na u e o he a ge - ex ecipien s, a he
han me ely on he ansla o ’s language compe ence. The conclusion seems o be ha
whe e na i e-speake ansla o s a e in unde supply, some o he wo k can be done
easonably well by hei non-na i e pee s.
2.3 NATIVE SPEAKERS AS CONSULTANTS AND REVISERS
As has been poin ed ou se e al imes abo e, asigni ican numbe o ansla o s ha e
o be eady o accep assignmen s in ol ing ansla ion in o anon-na i e language.
Howe e , L2 ansla o s need no wo k alone. The common p ac ice— h oughou
his o y as well as oday— is o L2 ansla o s o coope a e wi h na i e speake s, who
may assume di e se oles in he p ocess, as empi ical e idence shows.
When inqui ing abou he pa icula s age a which na i e speake s a e in ol ed
in L2 ansla ion om Slo ak in o English, Ličko (2014) ound ha 64.7% o he e-
sponden s who coope a e wi h ana i e speake do so in he edi ing s age only, i.e. o
p oo eading he a ge ex o elimina e e o s o g amma , ocabula y and s yle.
As many as 21.6% o he esponden s ely on he assis ance o ana i e speake du -
ing he p e-edi ing s age, i.e. h oughou he ansla ion p ope . O he s poin ed ou
ha coope a ion is no necessa ily limi ed o ei he o he wo s ages, saying ha
hey some imes enlis ed he se ices o na i e speake s o bo h p oo eading and
con inuous ad ice.
As udy by Elke S .John (2003) in es iga ed how na i e-speake in o man s can
be bene icial o he di e en s ages o L2 ansla ion du ing ansla o aining. In
a ideo- eco ded expe imen , one Japanese s uden and one Chinese s uden we e
asked o ansla e a ex wi h an in o ma i e and ope a i e unc ion in o English;
each o he ansla o s was assigned ana i e speake o English as an in o man .
Two main a eas we e iden i ied whe e he na i e speake s o e ed help: g amma
(speci ic i ems epo ed by S .John’s esponden s included p eposi ions, a icles—
especially whe e he ansla o ’s L1 lacks hem— wo d o de , ac i e s. passi e
oice) and use o language (e.g. lexical choices, colloca ions). Al hough in he ex-
pe imen he na i e speake s o e ed asu p isingly g ea deal o ad ice, S .John
admi s ha wi h mo e specialis and e minology-laden ex s, ana i e speake wi h
no knowledge o he opic in ol ed would p obably be o much less help o he L2
ansla o . S .John also poin s o u he limi a ions o na i e-speake in o man s,
no ing ha hei insigh s may no be absolu ely eliable and ha hey may lack he
me alanguage necessa y o explain some o hei in ui ions. S .John hus concludes
ha na i e speake s a e “bes deal wi h as one o anumbe o in o ma ion sou ces,
wi h some a en ion being gi en o wha each can bes o e he ansla o ”. (S . John,
2003, p.11)
An e en mo e de ailed accoun o he na i e speake ’s possible in ol emen in
L2 ansla ion— and a ema kable insigh in o he psychology o he L2 ansla o
elying on na i e-speake assis ance— is p o ided by Pede sen (2000). Sha ing his
own bes p ac ice as aL2 ansla o o Danish ex s in o English, Pede sen no es ha
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a e he i s d a ing, he ex goes h ough h ee s ages: enewed compa ison wi h
he o iginal, e ision by ana i e speake , and he inal edi ing pe o med by he L2
ansla o . The na i e e ise is mainly expec ed o p oduce o mula ions ha a e s y-
lis ically mo e accep able o na i e speake s han he ansla o ’s own. An in e es ing
ema k is made in ela ion o he use o he na i e in o man as asupplemen o he
dic iona y: “I I eel easonably su e ha he o she will come up wi h an accep able
English solu ion, he e is no need o spend alo o ime digging i ou o dic iona ies
mysel .” (Pede sen, 2000, p.112) Pede sen’s e ise s a e some imes gi en he sou ce
ex and some imes no , depending on he na u e o he ex and he e ise ’s com-
pe ence in Danish. Appa en ly, he ole o he na i e speake he e is mo e one o
ap oo eade and/o in o man han e ise p ope i e ision is unde s ood— as is
no mally he case in ansla ion p ac ice and esea ch— as checking he ansla ion
agains he sou ce ex o accu acy and comple eness.
In a ema k wi h much pedagogical po en ial, Pede sen no es ha no all changes
p oposed by ana i e speake should be au oma ically accep ed, because “accep ing
asugges ion which is good English may mean ge ing oo a away om he sou ce
language ex ” (Pede sen, 2000, p.112). Pede sen goes on o poin ou , howe e , ha
e en i he ansla o has o ejec he na i e in o man ’s sugges ion o lack o accu-
acy, she may be inspi ed by i o imp o e he ex , making i ead mo e na u al and
idioma ic han he o iginal o mula ion. On he o he hand, na i e speake s end o
ha e hei own p e e ences, which, s ylis ically accep able as hey a e, may no nec-
essa ily be be e han he L2 ansla o ’s own w i ing. Summing up he possibili ies
and limi a ions o na i e-speake pa icipa ion in L2 ansla ion, Pede sen concludes
ha “wo king wi h an in o man hus does no ee ansla o s om he obliga ion o
exe cise hei own judgmen ”. (Pede sen, ibid.)
Apa om na i e speake s’ pe sonal limi a ions, he e a e pu ely p ac ical is-
sues ha can s and in he way o an e icien use o na i e speake s. Using he ex-
ample o na i e speake s o English in he Slo ak ansla ion ma ke , Roman Ličko
poin s o se e al p ac ical di icul ies associa ed wi h he in ol emen o na i e
speake s in L2 ansla ion in amino language communi y. Fi s , he pa icipa ion
o ana i e speake in a ansla ion assignmen means addi ional inancial cos s o
be incu ed by he cus ome , a ac which mos cus ome s seem o be unawa e o .
Second, while he demand o na i e speake s is ela i ely high, hei se ices a e
di icul o come by as he e a e ew na i e speake s a ailable in he coun y and
hey a e e y likely o con inue o be absen om mos L2 ansla ions in he o esee-
able u u e (Ličko, 2014).
As is e iden om he abo e o e iew o ecen esea ch and discussions ega d-
ing di ec ionali y in ansla ion, na i e speake s can con ibu e o he ansla ion
p ocess in anumbe o ways. I hey canno be used di ec ly as ansla o s— as
seems o be he case in an inc easing numbe o coun ies and se ings— hey can
assis anon-na i e ansla o in a ious capaci ies ela ed o linguis ic as well as non-
linguis ic consul a ion a di e en s ages o he p ocess. Howe e , hei in ol emen
ca ies se e al po en ial isks ha should be conside ed in p ac ice and which a e
wo h u he inqui y.
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3. METHODS
3.1 RESEARCH CONTEXT
The p esen s udy is pa o ala ge-scale esea ch p ojec , conduc ed a Cha les Uni-
e si y’s Ins i u e o T ansla ion S udies in 2016–2018. Taking up he calls o u he
esea ch o help des igma ize L2 ansla ion (Pa lo ić, 2007), he p ojec aims a in-
es iga ing ansla ion in o anon-mo he ongue, including ex ual and sociological
aspec s, be ween Czech, alanguage o limi ed di usion, and English and F ench, wo
majo languages equen ly demanded in he Czech ansla ion ma ke and in a i-
ous o he a eas o employmen .
Wha ollows is ab ie desc ip ion o he p ojec ’s me hodology. The esea ch pop-
ula ion comp ised 40 ansla o s, na i e speake s o Czech. Twen y o hem we e
p o essionals who g adua ed om he Ins i u e’s p og amme in ansla ion eigh o
i een yea s ago and ha e had an unin e up ed ansla ing ca ee since, he o he
hal being s uden s in he second yea o hei mas e ’s p og amme in ansla ion.
Hal o he p o essionals and s uden s ansla e be ween Czech and English, he o he
hal be ween Czech and F ench.
Da a was ga he ed in se e al ways, combining quan i a i e and quali a i e me h-
ods. The i s sou ce o da a we e ansla ions p oduced unde expe imen al se ings,
whe eby each subjec p oduced a o al o ou ansla ions (ap omo ional ex and
alegal one we e i s ansla ed om L2 in o L1 and la e acompa able pai o ex s
was ansla ed om L1 o L2). Ap oduc -o ien ed quali a i e analysis o he ansla-
ions was conduc ed by apanel o assesso s, wi h wo o h ee na i e speake s e alu-
a ing each di ec ion o ansla ion.
To be e unde s and he complexi y o he ansla ion p ocess and sociology,
ase ies o ques ionnai es was adminis e ed o each esponden . Ap e- ansla ion
ques ionnai e inqui ed abou hei gene al a i udes and habi s ega ding L1 and L2
ansla ion, p o iding aluable psycho-sociological da a on he pe sonali y o he
ansla o s hemsel es, a opic s ill ela i ely unde - esea ched in L2 ansla ion e-
sea ch. Pos - ansla ion ques ionnai es we e designed o explo e in mo e de ail he
di icul ies aced by he ansla o s as well as he s a egies and esou ces employed
o o e come he challenges.
3.2 DATA COLLECTION
Since he p esen s udy is conce ned wi h he ways in which na i e speake s o (no
only) English and F ench assis na i e Czech ansla o s in he p ocess o L2 ans-
la ion in he Czech ma ke , I u ned o he e lec ions p o ided by Czech ansla o
ainees and p o essionals as he p ima y sou ce o da a. The e o e, he p e- ansla-
ion ques ionnai es desc ibed abo e we e analysed o shed mo e ligh on he iews
and expe ience o Czech ansla o s ega ding na i e speake s and hei inpu as
consul an s and e ise s. Al hough he subjec s pa icipa ed in he ansla ion expe -
imen only wi h one o hei o eign wo king languages ( ansla ing be ween Czech
and ei he English o F ench), hey we e in i ed, a e illing ou he p ima y ques-
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ionnai e conce ning he language o he expe imen , o sha e hei expe ience and
iews on asecond o eign language which hey use as ansla o s (i hey ha e one).
The e o e, whene e quan i a i e da a is discussed, my analysis o he esul s will
ine i ably include wo se s o da a: 40 esponden s answe ing abou hei p ima y
wo king o eign language, ha is ei he English o F ench, wi h 24 o hem p o id-
ing an ex a se o answe s conce ning hei second o eign language, i.e. English (12),
Spanish (5), Ge man (4), F ench (2), Russian (1).
A o al o ou i ems in he p e- ask ques ionnai e deal , ei he di ec ly o indi-
ec ly, wi h he opics unde discussion he e. Two o he ques ions we e ela ed o
na i e-speake consul a ions:
— Do you consul na i e speake s when ansla ing ou o you na i e language? Choose
one answe : always/mos o he ime— some imes— ne e .2
— Explain wha issues a e consul ed on ( ocabula y, e minology and ealia we e
o e ed by way o example).3
The o he wo ques ions inqui ed abou he subjec s’ expe ience ega ding e ision
and/o p oo eading by (no only) na i e speake s:
— A e you ansla ions ou o you na i e language e ised/p oo ead? Choose one an-
swe : always/mos o he ime— some imes— ne e — Ido no know.4
— Explain who he e ise /p oo eade is (ana i e speake o aCzech colleague),
whe he he e ision/p oo eading applies o he en i e ex o di icul sec ions only,
whe he you a e able o see he e ised/p oo ead ex , and— supposing you ha e
asay in he e ision p ocess— o wha ex en you accep he changes p oposed.5
The ollowing sec ion o he pape will discuss indings yielded om he abo e i ems
o he ques ionnai e. Answe s o some o he sub-ques ions can be ansla ed in o
quan i a i e da a; howe e , he p ima y ambi ion o he s udy is o analyse and dis-
cuss he esponden s’ mo e ex ended answe s in which hey sha ed hei expe ience
and iews on he subjec .
2 The exac wo ding o he ques ion in Czech is: “Využí á e při překladu do cizího jazyka
é o jazyko é kombinaci konzul ace s odilým mlu čím? Vybe e jednu zmožnos í: ždy
nebo ě šinou— někdy— nikdy.”
3 The exac wo ding o he ques ion in Czech is: “Roz eď e odpo ěď na o ázku č.12 (např.nej-
čas ěji p o o ěřo ání lexika, e minologie, eálií…).”
4 The exac wo ding o he ques ion in Czech is: “P ocházejí aše překlady do cizího jazyka
é o jazyko é kombinaci jazyko ou e izí/ko ek u ou? Vybe e jednu zmožnos í: ždy
nebo ě šinou— někdy— nikdy— ne ím.”
5 The exac wo ding o he ques ion in Czech is: “Roz eď e odpo ěď na o ázku č.10 (kdo
e izi/ko ek u u p o ádí; zda je o odilý mlu čí, nebo jiný Čech; zda se e ize/ko ek u-
a ýká celého ex u, nebo jen ob ížných mís ; zda má e ždy možnos z e ido aný pře-
klad idě ; pokud má e možnos se k e izi/ko ek uře yjádři , do jaké mí y změny ak-
cep uje e…).”
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14 STUDIE ZAPLIKOVANÉ LINGVISTIKY 1/2019
4. FINDINGS
4.1 CONSULTATIONS
The i s pa o he sec ion de o ed o p esen ing empi ical da a will discuss (a) he
equency wi h which he Czech pa icipan s o ap ojec on L2 ansla ion seek ad-
ice om na i e-speake in o man s when ansla ing ou o hei mo he ongue,
and (b) he a eas, linguis ic o o he wise, ha a e he objec o he consul a ions.
4.1.1 FREQUENCY
Consul a ion is he e unde s ood o co e any ype o si ua ion whe e aCzech ansla-
o doing a ansla ion in o anon-mo he ongue app oaches ana i e speake o he
a ge language, du ing he ansla ion p ocess (i.e. excluding he edi ing s age), o
discuss adi e si y o issues ela ing o he ansla ion being done.
The esponden s we e i s asked how o en hey consul ed ana i e speake du -
ing L2 ansla ion, ha ing he ollowing op ions: always/mos o he ime— some-
imes— ne e . In summa y, o he 40 esponden s, mos (21) epo ed ha hey sough
na i e-speake consul a ion “some imes”, 11 “ne e ”, while only 8 said “always/mos
o he ime”. No signi ican di e ence in he dis ibu ion o answe s was no ed be-
ween s uden s and p o essionals. Simila da a was ob ained om he answe s ela -
ing o he esponden s’ second o eign language (24 esponden s), wi h amajo i y
(13) epo ing ha hey “some imes” consul ed ana i e speake , 7 esponden s saying
“ne e ”, and only 4 saying “always/mos o he ime”. The quan i a i e da a is p e-
sen ed in Cha s 1 and 2 below.
Cha 1:F equency o consul a ions (FL1: answe s gi en by esponden s abou hei i s o eign
language).
4
11
5
4
10
6
Always/mos o
he ime
Some imes Ne e
How o en do you consul na i e speake s
du ing L2 ansla ion? = 40 (FL1)
P o essionals = 20
S uden s = 20
How o en do you consul na i e speake s
du ing L2 ansla ion? = 24 (FL2)
P o essionals = 15
S uden s = 9
How o en a e you L2 ansla ions e ised?
= 40 (FL1)
P o essionals = 20
S uden s = 20
How o en a e you L2 ansla ions e ised?
= 24 (FL2)
P o essionals = 15
S uden s = 9
2
9
4
2
4
3
Always/mos o
he ime
Some imes Ne e
11
6
12
10
6
1
3
Always/mos
o he ime
Some imes Ne e I don' know
10
1 1 3
5
301
Always/mos
o he ime
Some imes Ne e I don' know
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DAVID MRAčEK 15
Cha 2:F equency o consul a ions (FL2: answe s gi en by esponden s abou hei second o eign
language).
4.1.2 ISSUES SUBJECT TO CONSULTATIONS
The p esen sec ion aims o p o ide ade ailed ypology o he a ious issues ha a e
he subjec o consul a ions demanded o na i e speake s by he esponden s pa ic-
ipa ing in he su ey. The esponden s we e no es ic ed in e ms o he leng h o
hei answe s and, as men ioned abo e, ocabula y, e minology and ealia we e o -
e ed by way o example.
The a ea epo ed by mos esponden s (24 esponden s: 17 FL1, 7 FL2) was o-
cabula y, i.e. seeking na i e-speake ad ice on he app op ia eness o lexical choices.
Some o he esponden s ga e mo e speci ic answe s, men ioning ha hey con ac ed
na i e speake s in o de o check he use o colloca ions (3) and idioms (4). Ano he
b oad ca ego y equen ly men ioned (12 esponden s: 9 FL1, 3 FL2) was s yle, wi h
one esponden explici ly saying ha she asked ana i e speake o judge he s ylis ic
e ec o ma ked linguis ic ea u es p oposed by he in he L2 ansla ion.
B oad and a he ague as he ca ego ies o ocabula y and s yle a e, he p edomi-
nance o hese issues in he esponden s’ answe s seems o be in line wi h obse a-
ions and indings epo ed by some o he au ho s w i ing on he subjec , including
Elke S .John (see sec ion 2.3 abo e). These p ocess- ela ed da a can also be iewed
om he pe spec i e o p oduc quali y as some au ho s ha e sugges ed ha ocab-
ula y and s yle a e amo e equen sou ce o e o s han g amma . Fo ins ance,
Mi osla Poš a (1999) makes agene al obse a ion ha he majo i y o de iciencies
in ansla ion a e no quali a i e e o s (e o s p ope , e.g. g amma ). Ra he , hey
a e quan i a i e e o s, i.e. ea u es no con o ming o p e alen usage; also, hey a e
p oduc s o decision-making, being “al e na i es chosen by he ansla o in p e e -
ence o o he op ions. In o he wo ds, his is he ealm o s ylis ics.” (Poš a, 1999, p.91).
In an a emp o p esen ha d da a on language mis akes in L2 ansla ion, Da id
M aček (2017) explo ed he equency and ypology o g amma and s yle e o s in
4
11
5
4
10
6
Always/mos o
he ime
Some imes Ne e
How o en do you consul na i e speake s
du ing L2 ansla ion? = 40 (FL1)
P o essionals = 20
S uden s = 20
How o en do you consul na i e speake s
du ing L2 ansla ion? = 24 (FL2)
P o essionals = 15
S uden s = 9
How o en a e you L2 ansla ions e ised?
= 40 (FL1)
P o essionals = 20
S uden s = 20
How o en a e you L2 ansla ions e ised?
= 24 (FL2)
P o essionals = 15
S uden s = 9
2
9
4
2
4
3
Always/mos o
he ime
Some imes Ne e
11
6
12
10
6
1
3
Always/mos
o he ime
Some imes Ne e I don' know
10
1 1 3
5
301
Always/mos
o he ime
Some imes Ne e I don' know
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22 STUDIE ZAPLIKOVANÉ LINGVISTIKY 1/2019
esponden s as o hei expe ience, deg ee o us and sense o esponsibili y. Some
ga e a he gene al answe s; o ins ance, he ela i ely equen “Iaccep mos o he
changes” ype o answe was gi en equally o en by p o essionals and s uden s. Two e-
sponden s, who indica ed ha hei s was always ana i e-speake e ise , seem o ully
us hei collabo a o s, saying ha hey “de ini ely” o “na u ally” accep he changes.
Ano he , also ap o essional collabo a ing almos in a iably wi h na i e speake s, said
ha she accep ed nine y-nine pe cen o he changes as he e ise s a e ellow ansla o s.
Howe e , a ew esponden s said, in a a he ague manne , ha hey accep ed
only some o he changes. Two o hese (bo h s uden s) poin ed ou ha hey checked
he e ised ex ca e ully and e e sed some o he e ise ’s p ocedu es o elimina e
any shi s o meaning ha migh ha e been in oduced by he na i e speake , espe-
cially whe e na i e speake s wo ked wi hou he sou ce ex . I does seem, hen, ha
i is impo an o dis inguish be ween e ision and p oo - eading, a e minological
dis inc ion which was le unsol ed by he au ho s o he ques ionnai e. Ano he
s uden esponden said ha she had o decline some o he e ise ’s sugges ions
because she had o make he ex con o m o he e minological and o he speci ici-
ies demanded by he cus ome (as she poin ed ou , she would no mally expec he
e ise o only imp o e he ex in e ms o s yle and comp ehensibili y).
Se e al o he ema kable poin s we e aised as o whe he o no o accep all
changes p oposed by na i e-speake e ise s. Fi s , no e e y na i e speake is
quali ied enough o do aquali ied e ision. Second, he ansla o may ha e abe e
domain-speci ic knowledge— and also adi e en eel o he language— han he
e ise . Finally, and pe haps mos impo an ly, he ansla o should use he own
judgemen when deciding which changes o accep and which o ejec because, a e
all, i is he ansla o who is esponsible o he quali y o he end p oduc . Pe haps
no su p isingly, hese ema ks we e all made by p o essionals, which may poin o
he ac ha p o essionals end o be mo e awa e o hei own esponsibili y o he
quali y o he p oduc and also o he limi a ions associa ed wi h na i e speake s;
mo eo e , hey seem o be in line wi h he expe ience p esen ed by ansla ion schol-
a s (c . Pede sen in sec ion 2.3).
Finally, some o he answe s e eal some hing abou he in e ac ion be ween
ansla o s and e ise s. Fo ins ance, mo e han one esponden said ha hey dis-
cussed he p oposed changes wi h hei e ise s, ei he in pe son, o ia elephone
o Skype. One esponden , as uden , e en has wo egula na i e-speake collabo a-
o s: he i s is asked o do amo e ho ough e ision, which is hen discussed by he
ansla o and he e ise . The esul , asemi- inalized p oduc , is gi en o ano he
na i e speake , who is esponsible o checking he o e all luency o he a ge ex .
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
“All oo o en, he ansla o has been en isaged as amo e o less soli a y indi idual
and he e has been asense in which asking o linguis ic ad ice is an admission o
inadequacy.” (S . John, 2003, p.11) The image o he ansla o depic ed in he abo e
quo e was sha e ed by S .John’s own expe imen and se e al o he au ho s (c . sec-
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DAVID MRAčEK 23
ion 2 o he p esen pape ). Wi hou making s ong claims abou he ep esen a i e-
ness o my sample, he p esen pape , oo, has e ealed ha ansla o s can— and
o en do— enjoy he bene i s o collabo a ion wi h o he indi iduals, p o essional o
o he wise, who may o may no sha e he ansla o ’s mo he ongue, and can assume
adi e si y o oles in he ansla ion p ocess.
Conside ing he opic o he p esen pape , i.e. he ole(s) o na i e speake s in
L2 ansla ion, he answe s ob ained om ques ionnai es ha we e adminis e ed o
apopula ion o 40 Czech p o essional and no ice ansla o s e eal, i s and o e-
mos , ha he esponden s do asubs an ial amoun o ne wo king as hey seek ad ice
om na i e speake s on a a ie y o issues, wi h lexical choices clea ly leading he
lis . A he same ime, howe e , he answe s sugges apossible u u e end whe eby
L2 ansla o s wo king in o English may be elying less and less on na i e-speake
in o man s as English is becoming a“supe -high- esou ce” language in e ms o he
amoun o linguis ic ma e ial a ailable online. As ega ds e ision, mos o he e-
sponden s ha e hei L2 ansla ions e ised on a egula basis.
The quan i a i e da a can be compa ed o he indings o esea che s who ha e
explo ed he ansla ion ma ke s in coun ies whe e o he languages o limi ed di -
usion a e spoken. Fo ins ance, in his su ey o he Slo ak ansla ion ma ke in-
ol ing 111 ansla o s who egula ly ansla e om hei na i e Slo ak in o English
as a o eign language, Roman Ličko inqui ed, in e alia, abou he ex en o na i e-
speake in ol emen in L2 ansla ion, in any ole, i.e. including consul an s and e-
ise s. He ound ha “ he majo i y o Slo ak ansla o s o English coope a ed wi h
na i e speake s e y li le— i.e. ei he occasionally (38.2%) o e en a ely (20.9%)”
(Ličko, 2014, p.50). Simila ly, Na aša Pa lo ić, in he su ey in ol ing 193 C oa ian
ansla o s, ound ha “only aslim numbe o esponden s ha e hei ansla ion
e ised by ana i e speake on a egula basis” (Pa lo ić, 2007, p.88). Bo h Ličko and
Pa lo ić ci e he insu icien numbe o compe en L1 English speake s a ailable in
he local ma ke and cus ome s’ gene al unwillingness o pay o he ex a cos o
e ision as he possible easons. The mo e op imis ic esul s shown by he p esen
s udy may ha e o do wi h he ac ha , unlike he wo su eys conduc ed in Slo akia
and C oa ia, he Czech pa icipan s we e all g adua es o nea -g adua es o auni e -
si y deg ee p og amme in ansla ion, implying apossibly heigh ened awa eness o
hei own limi s ega ding L2 ansla ion skills.
Fu he mo e, he answe s in which he esponden s we e able o explain hei
expe ience wi h L2 e ision in mo e de ail e eal no small amoun o a ia ion e-
ga ding wha Czech ansla o s hink abou , on he one hand, na i e speake s’ oles
and skills and, on he o he , hei own abili ies, limi s and esponsibili ies as ega ds
non-na i e ansla ion. P o essionals, in gene al, came ac oss as mo e con iden
bu also esponsible han s uden s, al hough he la e also demons a ed ag owing
awa eness o he speci ic demands o L2 ansla ion, c ucial o he de elopmen o
hei sel -e icacy.
Al hough na i e speake s o he a ge language may be absen om asubs an ial
numbe o L2 ansla ions, he bene i s o hei assis ance “mus be mo e han ob i-
ous o all p ac icing ansla o s” (Ličko, 2014, p.51). I is hen he ask o ansla o
aining o ensu e ha he p o essionals o omo ow a e p esen ed he ull pic u e
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24 STUDIE ZAPLIKOVANÉ LINGVISTIKY 1/2019
o he possibili ies and limi a ions o co-ope a ion wi h na i e speake s. A e all,
McAles e (1992, p.296) no es ha s uden s should be encou aged o wo k collab-
o a i ely wi h na i e speake s o o he languages du ing ansla o aining, “ he
aim being no only o ge he s uden s o p oduce as good a i s e sion as possible,
bu also o ain hem in using ana i e-speake e ise e ec i ely”. Howe e , his
is no easy ask as na i e speake s end o a y in linguis ic as well as ex alinguis-
ic compe ence; u he mo e, s uden s should be augh o comba he “un o una e
endency o commissione s o ansla ions o use a e ise independen ly o he
o iginal ansla o ” (ibid.).
I is, howe e , impo an o admi ha in he p esen a icle, Iha e p esen ed
aconside able numbe o ema kable iews on he pa icipa ion o na i e speake s
in L2 ansla ion as seen by non-na i e ansla o s and he eali ies o he ansla ion
ma ke . I is equally in e es ing o explo e he issue o L2 ansla ion om he pe -
spec i e o na i e speake s hemsel es, ocusing on hei iews which a e no doub
in o med o ala ge ex en by hei expe ience as eade s and e ise s o L2 ansla-
ions. He e a e some o he ques ions ha I eel a e wo h in es iga ing: How di icul
is e ision o L2 ansla ions o na i e speake s? How o en do hey eel ha he en-
i e p ocess o L2 ansla ion plus na i e-speake e ision is cos -e ec i e? And how
o en do hey eel ha he inal esul o his double p ocess eally con o ms o hei
own quali y expec a ions? These ques ions (and many mo e ela ed o na i e speak-
e s’ iewpoin s) ha e ha dly been add essed by ansla ion heo y and esea ch, bu
he ollowing quo e om as a emen by William Lise, p esiden o he Japan Associa-
ion o T ansla o s, may poin o some o he possible answe s; conside he wo ds
in i alics: “[…] almos all o Japan’s Japanese-English ansla ion is done by Japanese
w i ing English as a o eign language, which is hen he objec o he oic damage- epai
e o s by o eign ew i e s.” (Lise, 1997, p.27)
To b idge his gap in ou unde s anding o na i e speake s’ pa icipa ion in L2
ansla ion, he long- e m p ojec o which he p esen s udy was apa sough o
conside he issue om he na i e speake ’s pe spec i e as well. Da a was ga he ed
h ough in e iews wi h apopula ion o na i e speake s o English and F ench, and
analysed o ind ou mo e abou hei long- ime expe ience as ansla o s and e is-
e s in he Czech ansla ion ma ke (c . Duběda e al., 2018).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The a icle p esen s da a ob ained in an ongoing esea ch p ojec suppo ed by he Czech Science
Founda ion (GA ČR) unde no.16-03037S, panel P406. P ojec i le: Di ec ionali y in ansla ion:
quali a i e and sociological aspec s.
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<da id.m acek@ .cuni.cz>
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