Chester Alan Arthur: The forgotten American President who Changed the World through two Conferences (the International Meridian Conference of 1884 and the Berlin Africa Conference of 1884–1885)

Ches e Alan A hu : The o go en Ame ican P esiden who Changed he Wo ld h ough wo Con e ences ( he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence o 1884 and he Be lin A ica Con e ence o 1884–1885) ABSTRACT Ches e Alan A hu was he wen ie h- i s p esiden o he Uni ed S a es. His p esidency, om 1881–1885, was unplanned and monumen al, ye he is an o en o e looked igu e o his o y. When he is emembe ed, i is o domes ic e o m. He e his pa on he in e na ional s age, h ough he e en s o he In e na ional P ime Me idian Con e ence in 1884 in Washing on DC, an ea ly success o in e na ional ela ions, and his pa in he Be lin Wes A ica Con e ence o 1884–1885, h ough ecognizing he Congo lag, a e explo ed. How his cha ac e in luenced his ole, how i con as ed wi h Belgian King Leopold II, and A hu ’s place in ci il igh s his o y is also examined, as well as he de eloping impe ialism and Anglo-Ame ican o de o he wo ld. KEYWORDS In e na ional P ime Me idian Con e ence; Be lin Wes A ica Con e ence; Ame ican leade ship; im- pe ialism; in e na ional ela ions his o y; Ame ican Ci il Wa and Recons uc ion INTRODUCTION When asked o name an Ame ican p esiden , he his o ical hea yweigh s Geo ge Washing on, Ab aham Lincoln, F anklin Delano Roose el (FDR), o he mo e ecen Ba ack Obama, Donald T ump, o Joe Biden may come o mind. Ask someone o name any p esiden , and e en wi hin he Uni ed S a es, he chances ha hey will name Ches e Alan A hu a e ema kably low. In ac , Time Magazine lis ed him in an a - icle en i led, “Top 10 Fo ge able P esiden s”.2 P esiden A hu , despi e his lack o memo abili y, made consequen ial changes wi hin he Uni ed S a es and he wo ld a la ge. Chie among hese was his in i a ion o he na ions o he wo ld in 1884 o he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence, which o malized in e na ional ag eemen o G eenwich as he ze o o p ime me idian o ca og aphy and es ablished uni e - 1 2 “Top 10 Fo ge able P esiden s.” Time. Time Inc., Ma ch 10, 2009. h p://con en . ime. com/ ime/specials/packages/a icle/0,28804,1879648_1879646_1879694,00.h ml. OPEN ACCESS Megan Easley�Walsh� Megan Easley-Walsh, Independen Resea che ; PhD His o y, ORCiD: 0003-1767-256X, [email protected]. 37 sal ime. In addi ion, i was an ea ly success o diploma ic con e ence and in e na- ional ela ions, o eshadowing P esiden Wood ow Wilson’s in ol emen wi h he League o Na ions a e Wo ld Wa One and he ounding o he Uni ed Na ions in New Yo k Ci y ollowing Wo ld Wa Two. P esiden A hu also had in e es ing ies o ci il igh s. These ies included acase ha he ook as alawye and hen la e in ajudge ha he appoin ed as p esi- den . When A hu is emembe ed, i is o his wo k in comba ing c onyism. He changed he e hics behind go e nmen al ac ions h ough he Pendle on Ac . The S a ue o Libe y, he cen ena y o he end o he Ame ican Re olu ion, and mo e occu ed du ing A hu ’s p esidency. A he end o his p esidency, he Be lin Wes A ica Con e ence ook place. The Ame ican ambassado o Belgium p o ided in e - es ing links be ween Leopold II o Belgium and Ches e A hu himsel . The Be lin Con e ence, on he heels o he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence, o e e changed A ica and he wide wo ld. Cu iously, nowhe e on he o icial Whi e House His- o ical Associa ion websi e a e hese wo monumen al con e ences lis ed on Ches e A hu ’s biog aphy page.3 The Uni ed S a es b oadly, and A hu speci ically, impac ed he his o y o he A ican con inen ia wo p ominen con e ences in he yea s 1884 and 1885. While he Be lin Con e ence is he mos di ec in luence o e he A ican con inen , he Me idian Con e ence is an impo an p eceden in es ablishing Anglo-Ame ican in- luence on he wo ld. This a icle a emp s o ace he ole o P esiden A hu on he in e na ional s age, pa icula ly h ough wo pi o al con e ences: he Me idian Con- e ence and he Be lin Con e ence. Peace ul in e na ional consensus and ease and ai ness o ade we e impo an unde pinnings o hese Con e ences, pa icula ly om he iewpoin o P esiden A hu , and Ame ican ideals o en con as ed wi h Eu opean impe ialism du ing his ime. This a icle cons uc s ahis o ical na a i e and p o ides analysis by consul ing bo h p ima y and seconda y sou ces. I is di ided in o se e al key a eas: The P ime Me idian Con e ence o 1884; The Man Behind he P esidency; The Legacy o he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence; The Uni ed S a es, Anglo-Saxon Ideals, and Nine een h-Cen u y Impe ialism; The Be lin Con e ence; Opposi ion a Home and Ab oad; and Conclusion THE PRIME MERIDIAN CONFERENCE OF 1884 In 1884, wo majo map sys ems we e in place: he B i ish sys em wi h ze o longi ude placed a G eenwich and he F ench sys em wi h ze o longi ude unning h ough Pa is. As s eel acks we e laid ac oss he lands and eleg aph wi es connec ed owns, asys em o lines, auni ied sys em o he wo ld, was ecognized as being impo an . A he in i a ion o Ame ican P esiden Ches e A.A hu , he coun ies o he wo ld we e in i ed o assemble and de e mine whe e ha me idian would be placed. Ne e elec ed as p esiden , P esiden A hu came o powe when P esiden Ga ield was assassina ed in a ain s a ion and now ains we e pa ing he way o ap esiden ial dec ee. Fo cen u ies, sailo s had looked o he sky o na iga e by he s a s. In 1884, 3 In o ma ion on he con e ences’ exclusion on he websi e is accu a e as o Ap il 13, 2022. OPEN ACCESS M EGAN EASLEY�WALSH 38 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2022 he i ans o indus y and o science, he s a s o hei age, we e u ning he eyes o he na iga o s owa d anew No h S a ; i was o be ze o deg ees unning h ough G eenwich: he single and uni ied P ime Me idian. Eu opean expansion and conques , which came o such heigh du ing he Renais- sance, equi ed ha new lands be mapped. Ca og aphy became a ounda ion s one o he Renaissance and he “Age o Explo a ion”. In he nine een h cen u y, maps we e s ill needed o ecognize new lands and new bounda ies as Eu opean empi es and he sp eading coun ies o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica and Canada ex ended hei e i o ies. 1884 s ood a he heigh o he eme gen expanding capi alism o G ea B i ain and he less-mode nized sys ems o he o he na ions. Land owne ship had been clea , bu now ma i ime powe and g ea e global connec i i y equi ed an examina ion o his ma i ime so e eign y. By he 1880s, he expanding wo ld was also sh inking hanks o he ise o eleg aph wi es and ail oads. Con usion g ew as awo ld ha had once unc ioned wi h di e ing sys ems was b ough close oge he . San o d Fleming, a ep esen a i e a he In e na- ional Me idian Con e ence o 1884, w o e, “The mode o no a ion ollowed by common usage o ime immemo ial, wha e e i s applicabili y o limi ed a eas, when ex ended o a as con inen , wi h ane wo k o lines o ailway and eleg aph, has led o con u- sion and c ea ed many di icul ies. Fu he , i is insu icien o he pu poses o scien- i ic in es iga ion, so ma ked a ea u e o mode n inqui y.”4 The maps o he wo ld had become aTowe o Babel and wi h p og ess ad ancing, i was decided ha he e should be only one language o longi ude spoken. Tha is, i was ecognized ha  he emus be one single and undispu ed o igin: one P ime Me idian. THE MAN BEHIND THE PRESIDENCY Ches e A.A hu , he wen y- i s p esiden o he Uni ed S a es, who se ed om 1881–1885, ne e campaigned o be p esiden and ye eme ged as as eady hand o Ame ican democ acy and apowe ul o ce o change on he in e na ional on . I was a P esiden A hu ’s in i a ion ha he na ions o he wo ld ga he ed in Wash- ing on o a end he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence beginning on Oc obe 1, 1884. The issue was on his mind long be o e he na ions assembled. In a ious speeches o he House o Rep esen a i es and o he Sena e, he u ged hem o add ess he sa e y o he seas and in o med hem o his in en ion o engage he o he coun ies in co - espondence o de e mine i hey we e in e es ed in assembling o aCon e ence. He e a e his wo ds om his second S a e o he Union Add ess, on Decembe 4, 1882. I enew my ecommenda ion o such legisla ion as will place he Uni ed S a es in ha mony wi h o he ma i ime powe s wi h espec o he in e na ional ules o he p e en ion o collisions a sea. In con o mi y wi h you join esolu ion o he 3 d o Augus las , Iha e di ec ed he Sec e a y o S a e o add ess o eign Go e nmen s in espec o ap oposed con e ence o conside ing he subjec o 4 Recommenda ions Sugges ed by San o d Fleming, Oc obe 1884, Mic o iche ep oduced in online a chi es a ailable a h ps://a chi e.o g/de ails/cihm_03131. OPEN ACCESS 39 he uni e sal adop ion o acommon p ime me idian o be used in he eckoning o longi ude and in he egula ion o ime h ough- ou he ci ilized wo ld.5 This add ess was deli e ed o he Sena e and House o Rep esen a i es nea ly wo yea s be o e he na ions assembled. To be e unde s and he i s Ame ican p esiden who ini ia ed he assem- bling o he na ions on Ame ican soil, six y-one yea s be o e he es ablishmen o he Uni ed Na ions, i is in e es ing o look a he biog aphical de ails o he man. P esiden A hu , unlike his mo e con empo a y coun e pa s o ecen yea s, was shy and p i a e in his dealings. Un o una ely, o he sake o his o y and esea ch, many o his pape s we e bu ned. Wha does emain a e his o icial dealings and ske cheso hischa ac e om his days on he campaign ail, no o p esiden bu ice-p esiden . He was he unning ma e in he 1880 elec ion o James A.Ga ield. Despi e bo h candida es in he 1880 elec ion, Win ield Hancock o he Democ a s and James Ga ield o he Republicans, ca ying nine een s a es, he Republican icke won he elec ion wi h an elec o al o e o 214 o 155. A e only six mon hs in o ice, an assassin’s bulle cu h ough Ga ield’s p esi- dency and A hu became p esiden . The e a e wo i onic coincidences connec ed o he assassina ion. Fi s ly, he las p esiden o be assassina ed be o e Ga ield (also, he i s ) was Ab aham Lincoln, six een yea s ea lie . All h ee men, Lincoln, Ga - ield, and A hu we e connec ed wi h he Union A my du ing he Ci il Wa . Lincoln’s son, Robe Todd Lincoln, was wi h Ga ield du ing he assassina ion. Thei assassins had no hing o do wi h each o he , hough, aside om being disg un led. John Wilkes Boo h was asou he ne , upse wi h Lincoln o e he Ci il Wa , while Ga ield’s assas- sin, Cha les J.Gui eau, was upse o e no being ewa ded a ede al job. The second coincidence is somewha mo e abs ac , bu i is in e es ing o he ci - cums ances su ounding he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence. Ga ield was a he ain s a ion when he was assassina ed, making A hu p esiden , and ains we e ad i ing o ce in he Me idian Con e ence. The o icial Whi e House websi e s a es ha , “Publishe Alexande K.McClu e ecalled, ‘No man e e en e ed he P esidency so p o oundly and widely dis us ed, and no one e e e i ed … mo e gene ally e- spec ed.’ “6 His enuous beginning in he public eyes was no a aul o g ie ance o A hu ’s pas o own doing, bu a he was a esul o he public opinion o his pa y a he imes. The Gilded Age, especially in New Yo k, was ma ked by scandal and co up ion. Tha A hu came om New Yo k a such a ime was eason o he public o be wa y o his p esidency, bu A hu was his own man and became his own p esiden . In he wo ds o his eulogy in 1886, ame e wo yea s a e he Me id- ian Con e ence, he was emembe ed o his p esiden ial leade ship: “Gene al A hu ook up he eins o public au ho i y. F om he hou ha he el he obliga ions o he high du ies hus o ced upon him he seemed by asudden and na u al ap i ude o be illed wi h powe o execu e hem. F om ha momen he made i e iden o all ha 5 Second Annual Message (S a e o he Union Add ess) by P esiden A hu , 4Decembe 1882, P o ided by Mille Cen e o Uni e si y o Vi ginia. 6 Whi e House. Go Ches e A.A hu Biog aphy, a ailable a h p://www.whi ehouse.go / abou /p esiden s/ches e a hu . OPEN ACCESS M EGAN EASLEY�WALSH 40 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2022 he knew wha he ough o do, wha he wan ed o do, and how o do i . He was e e y inch aP esiden .”7 In ano he o hose qui ks o his o y, A hu ’s a he was aminis e o he s a e o New Yo k. One o he owns ha he p eached o was ap ly named, o he ole ha his son would play in he u u e Me idian Con e ence: G eenwich. A hu ’s p esi- dency was g ounded in ealism, a he han coincidence hough. Deeply in luenced by he disg un led assassin, Cha les J.Gui eau, who was upse a ha ing been denied a ede al job when he sho Ga ield, A hu u ned his a en ion o adecades-long p oblem. Documen s.Go explains his p oblem well, “Al hough P esiden Geo ge Washing on made mos o his Fede al appoin men s based on me i , subsequen P esiden s began o de ia e om his policy. By he ime And ew Jackson was elec ed P esiden in 1828, he ‘spoils sys em,’ in which poli ical iends and suppo e s we e ewa ded wi h Go e nmen posi ions, was in ull o ce.”8 The e ec o his o A hu was signing in o legisla ion he Pendle on Ci il Se ice Ac o 1883 ha de e mined ha ede al jobs would be me i -based only and ee o he co up ion ha had en- ci cled hem. The Pendle on Ac placed P esiden A hu in he spo ligh . Du ing he campaign in 1880, hough, A hu was cha ac e ized as shy and eluc an when he e was he sugges ion ha he would be hois ed on o he backs o suppo e s, “His ace ook on alook o pe plexi y; hen he blushed, and, u ning o a iend, begged ha hey migh do no such hing, and hey desis ed.”9 This hen, quie , shy, eluc an , is he man who made he bold mo e o assemble he na ions o he wo ld. Pe haps, i also explained why many o his pe sonal pape s we e des oyed. I is also impo an o no e ha A hu was no he e s while, young candida e hoping o gain pe sonal a o . Indeed, in he Biog aphical Ske ches campaign pam- phle o 1880, he was cha ac e ized as ollowing he will o he people, bu in anoble and i ing way, “He is an in elligen , pene a ing, judicious leade , and he would make his pa y he s ong igh a m o he popula will” and “He has been jus ly desc ibed as an illus a ion o he gen leman in poli ics. Alawye o high s anda d, s uden o b oad and a ied cul u e, his wide eading ins an a his command, o ine p esence, wi h a e social gi s and possessing he ap i ude which mee s any demand, wi hou an enemy in he wo ld, equally eady in as o y o aquo a ion, and as much a home in he lib a y as in he commi ee- oom, genial, chi al ous, and popula .” 10 Wi hou an enemy in he wo ld seems an only all oo app op ia e designa ion o aman who in i ed he wo ld o assemble. He was also eligiously sc upulous and mo ally up igh . By he ime he was p esiden , he had al eady s ood in he powe ul posi ion o Union gene al and, in 7 P oceedings o he Sena e and Assembly o S a e o New Yo k in ela ion o he dea h o Ches e A.A hu held a he Capi ol, Ap il 20, 1887, a ailable a h ps://a chi e.o g/de- ails/p oceedingso sen00newy/page/n9/mode/2up. 8 Ou Documen s.Go The Pendle on Ac , a ailable a h p://www.ou documen s.go /doc. php? lash= ue&doc=48. 9 Biog aphical Ske ches o Gene al James A.Ga ield and Gene al Ches e A.A hu , a ail- able a h ps://a chi e.o g/de ails/biog aphicalske 00ne i/page/n5/mode/2up. 10 Biog aphical Ske ches. OPEN ACCESS 41 ela ion o he bank oll ha he migh ha e accumula ed had he wished o om con- ac s, his elling in o ma ion is eco ded in he Biog aphical Ske ches, “Speaking o him a his pe iod, a iend says: ‘So jealous was he o his in eg i y ha Iha e known ins ances whe e he could ha e made housands o dolla s legi ima ely, and ye e used o do i on he g ound ha he was apublic o ice and mean o be like Caesa ’s wi e,’ abo e suspicion.’”11 Such s ong con ic ion mus ha e been e esh- ing o a ede al go e nmen , and aNew Yo k poli ician in pa icula , whe e scan- dal and payo s had become commonplace. No wonde he Pendle on Ci il Se ice Ac was o such impo ance o A hu . Les i is sugges ed ha A hu was en i ely innocen , i is wo h no ing ha al hough A hu himsel did no inancially p o i om poli ical inside dealings, he did ewa d poli ical help wi h go e nmen posi- ions ha unneled in o mo e inancial suppo o he Republican pa y, while he was cus oms collec o o he Po o New Yo k, unde Ulysses S.G an ’s p esidency in he 1870s. Ru he o d Hayes ejec ed A hu om he job in 1878, in an e o o s op he sys em.12 As apublic se an , he zealously p o ec ed he holdings o he Uni ed S a es’ ci i- zens, allowing hem o bloom in o p o i able en u es. Al eady awidowe , as o 1880, P esiden A hu was an olde , mo e con empla i e ype o p esiden . Tha is in no way o sugges ha he was no p og essi e, hough, and he same mo ally up igh lawye , ch onicled in he Biog aphical Ske ches, and he same success ul gene al, was also acommanding p esence a he helm o he inancial en e p ise o he Uni ed S a es. Some we e disappoin ed ha he did no add ess he deb accumula ed du ing he Ci il Wa , bu i is ue ha he was wholehea edly commi ed o he p o ec ion o capi al h ough anspo a ion. Much o he inancial s a us, championed by he Republican pa y, was ied o he ailways and in he build-up o he 1880 campaign i is eco ded ha , “Unde i s ad- minis a ion ailways ha e inc eased om 31,000 miles in 1860 o mo e han 82,000 miles in 1879. Ou o eign ade has inc eased om $700,000,000 o $1,150,000,000 in he same ime, and ou expo s, which we e $20,000,000 less han ou impo s in 1860, we e $264,000,000 mo e han ou impo s in 1879.”13 I is he e o e jus i i- ably a gued hen ha A hu was no aking a adical s ep in in i ing he na ions o assemble. Ra he , he was p o ec ing he in e es s o his coun y and by belie and ex ension, hose o he be e men o he wo ld. As an imp omp u p esiden , he was ca ying on he business o his pa y, ecognizing he challenges o he ime, and seeking o ad ance he cause o he me idian. Mu din s a ed ha , “In he Uni ed S a es in 1883, he e we e 49 sepa a e ailway ope a ing ime sys ems. Addi ionally, subma ine eleg aph cables made coo dina ion necessa y ac oss oceans.”14 I was no longe accep able o con enien o di e en sys ems o be used. S anda diza ion was coupled wi h mechaniza ion in his epoch. 11 Biog aphical Ske ches. 12 Ches e A.A hu , His o y.com a ailable a h ps://www.his o y.com/ opics/us-p esi- den s/ches e -a-a hu . 13 Biog aphical Ske ches. 14 P.MURDIN, Full Me idian o Glo y Pe ilous Ad en u es in he Compe i ion o Measu e he Ea h, New Yo k 2009, p.135. OPEN ACCESS M EGAN EASLEY�WALSH 42 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2022 In mid-Oc obe 1884, while he delega es we e in Washing on o he Con e ence, hey me wi h P esiden A hu a a ecep ion and hese we e his ema ks o hose ga he ed, Iam pleased o mee he e so many delega es, coming om so many and such im- po an coun ies. The almos unanimous esponse o he na ions o Eu ope, Asia and Ame ica o he in i a ion ex ended o hem by his Go e nmen , and he high cha ac e o he delega es, shows ha he p esen con e ence is a ecogni ion o awidely el need and an a emp o each a solu ion accep able o all. You ha e al eady made such g ea p og ess owa d his desi ed end by adop ing acommon me idian ze o om which all peoples may eckon longi ude eas wa d and wes - wa d, and by ag eeing ha auni e sal day should be chosen o he con enience o he wo ld… The oppo uni y which his con e ence has a o ded o b ing o- ge he o one iendly pu pose ep esen a i es o widely sepa a ed peoples can- no bu inc ease he spi i o good-will and coope a ion which should exis be- ween hem. 15 Clea ly, he in e na ional cha ac e o he Me idian Con e ence and he emphasis ha i was o he be e men o he wo ld we e o emos in P esiden A hu ’s mind. Ce ainly, ha he was aRepublican p esiden in he a e ma h o he Ame ican Ci il Wa , when econcilia ion wi h he e u ned sou he n sepa a is s o he Con ede acy, colo ed his poli ical e o s a coope a ion. I may e en illus a e why A hu ’s c i - ics we e disappoin ed in him no going u he o ede alize ci il igh s issues in he Uni ed S a es. Despi e ha , he cha ac e o he man, de o ed o he wellbeing o o h- e s, e en when hey we e mino i ies, o dispa a e na ions was an impo an unde - pinning o his p esidency. This do e ailed wi h his expe ience in ade and inance, om qua e mas e in he Union A my du ing he Ci il Wa o he s a e o New Yo k o Republican poli ician, and he eby indus ialized business champion. Con e ences ha highligh ed ade we e hus o in e es o him. Seeing he humani y in his opposi ion was also no alien concep o A hu . His wi e, Ellen He ndon, whom he ma ied in 1859, was om Vi ginia, as a e ha be- came pa o he Con ede acy. Also, some o me Con ede a es had ough because o hei geog aphic loca ion a he han ideas abou people. Emo y Spee had been a o mal Con ede a e soldie and was appoin ed i s as an a o ney in Geo gia in 1883 by P esiden A hu and hen in 1885, P esiden A hu appoin ed him as a ede al judge in Geo gia whe e he se ed un il 1918. In bo h posi ions, Spee ough o ci il igh s, upholding o ing igh s, and igh ing agains opp essi e labo policies. Spee ’s ulings did no always p o e popula wi h whi e o e s, bu Spee ’s appoin men s we e ano he co ne s one in Ches e A hu ’s pligh in he ci il igh s a ena.16 15 Oc obe 17, 1884 The New Yo k Times, a ailable a h ps:// imesmachine.ny imes.com/ b owse . 16 T.HUEBNER, “Emo y Spee ,” New Geo gia Encyclopedia, July 15, 2021, h ps://nge-s ag- ing-wp.galileo.usg.edu/a icles/go e nmen -poli ics/emo y-spee -1848-1918/. OPEN ACCESS 43 THE LEGACY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MERIDIAN CONFERENCE Amon h a e he Con e ence ended, i was clea ha hose d i ing ideas o p og ess ha had wa an ed i we e s ill e y much on he p esiden ’s mind. In his speech on Decembe 16, 1884, a The Wo ld’s Indus ial and Co on Cen ennial Exposi ion, A - hu said, “Rail oads, eleg aph lines, and subma ine cables ha e d awn much nea e he na ions o he ea h, and an assembly like his o he ep esen a i es o di e en na ions is p omo i e o good-will and peace, while i ad ances he ma e ial wel a e o all. The Uni ed S a es ex end, o hose om o eign coun ies who isi us on his occasion, aco dial welcome.”17 The Uni ed S a es go e nmen , al hough sepa a e om he Me idian Con e - ence, was a all imes in ol ed in he p oceedings. Tha is o say, i was by Cong es- sional au ho i y ha P esiden A hu in i ed he na ions o assemble. The in i a- ion was au ho ized by he Sec e a y o S a e, he same o ice ha asks o he sa e passage o Ame ican ci izens in hei passpo s oday. Tha is, in a ime when he e we e many immig an s, bu ew Ame ican a ele s ab oad, Ame ican diplomacy was asked o ha e sa e passage in o he na ions o he wo ld, pa icula ly Eu ope. Mo eo e , he Uni ed S a es in i ed he na ions o come on o he Ame ican sho e. A he end o he Con e ence, he Cong ess and Sena e we e kep ab eas o he esul s. The Me idian Con e ence’s success was hus no me ely hei own, bu also he iumph o he Ame ican go e nmen . Fo mul iple yea s, P esiden A hu spoke o he idea o he Con e ence and hen he au ho iza ion o he Con e ence in his S a e o he Union add ess. I was an achie emen o P esiden A hu in o eign policy, ha he Uni ed S a es b ough oge he he na ions in peace ul means and diploma ic success. I also an icipa ed, in his o ical o eshadowing, he Uni ed Na- ions headqua e s in New Yo k Ci y, when he Uni ed Na ions began in 1945. The land in New Yo k Ci y whe e he headqua e s a e is, howe e , in e na ional land a he han Ame ican. I is in e es ing o no e ha he Uni ed S a es did no join he League o Na ions a e Wo ld Wa One in 1920, which had signi ican ly less success. This is no o imply ha Ame ican leade ship is equi ed o in e na ional success, bu i is wo h no ing ha he Washing on Con e ence o 1884 and he Uni ed Na ions bo h elied on democ a ic p inciples, delega es assembled om many na ions, and hey each ook place in he Uni ed S a es. In his S a e o he Union add ess, add essing he House o Rep esen a i es and he Sena e, on Decembe 1, 1884, P esiden A hu ga e asuccinc summa y o he e en s o he p eceding mon hs o he Con e ence: “The In e na ional Me idian Con- e ence la ely con ened in Washing on upon he in i a ion o he Go e nmen o he Uni ed S a es… concluded i s labo s on he 1s o No embe , ha ing wi h subs an- ial unanimi y ag eed upon he me idian o G eenwich as he s a ing poin whence longi ude is o be compu ed h ough 180 deg ees eas wa d and wes wa d, and upon he adop ion, o all pu poses o which i may be ound con enien , o auni e sal 17 Decembe 16, 1884 a The Wo ld’s Indus ial and Co on Cen ennial Exposi ion, ACompi- la ion o he Messages and Pape s o he P esiden s: Ches e A.A hu Sep embe 19, 1881 o Ma ch 4, 1885, P o ided by P ojec Gu enbe g. OPEN ACCESS M EGAN EASLEY�WALSH 44 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2022 day which shall begin a midnigh on he ini ial me idian and whose hou s shall be coun ed om ze o up o wen y- ou .”18 The las ing legacy o he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence was he o mal es- ablishmen o he ze o me idian h ough G eenwich as he P ime Me idian, as well as uni e sal ime. I would ake he na ions o he wo ld un il 1914 in o de o ully adop G eenwich as he me idian. In addi ion o hese esolu ions, he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence o e ed ea ly success in peace ul diploma ic con e ence pa ing he way o In e na ional Rela ions, i ele a ed he in e na ional and o mal impo - ance o ca og aphy and i s powe s, and i signaled he g owing Anglo-Ame ican powe in he wo ld. The uni ica ion o ca og aphy ele a ed maps o as a us o in e na ional impo - ance and he eby s eng hened he powe o hose who used hem, pa icula ly in poli ical expansion. Geopoli ics was e olu ionized by he uni y o ca og aphy. Wha ollowed om he Me idian Con e ence was no only B i ish powe bu an assumed supe io i y o all na ions ha had s aked owne ship on global domina ion h ough hei delega ions a he Con e ence. Finding acommon in e na ional language in maps, allying oge he , pa adoxically pa ed he way o A ica o be di ided and Eu- ope i sel , when A ican ambi ions we e a odds among colonial ule s. Tha is, mo e han G eenwich was endo sed in 1884. B i ish impe ialism was as well. Ca og aphy is no esponsible o he decisions o his o ical and poli ical ac o s, bu nei he does i exe cise neu ali y. Concep ions abou space and ela ing o o h- e s we e codi ied in o he ca og aphic sys em and con inue o shape he wo ld. The In e na ional Me idian Con e ence o 1884 codi ied he ideal o global e i o y as ne- cessi a ing an in e na ional consensus, exempli ied by he P ime Me idian h ough G eenwich. The e o e, e i o ial concep ions we e ele a ed o in e na ional s a us because o he Con e ence. Th ough he ele a ion o geog aphy and he ensh ining o space and ime in G eenwich, an Anglo unde s anding o how he wo ld was o de ed, how i ope a ed, and how i ough o be go e ned, in hei eyes, became he ope a ing sys em o he en i e wo ld. THE UNITED STATES, ANGLO-SAXON IDEALS, AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY IMPERIALISM The Uni ed S a es was in i ed o he Be lin Con e ence o 1884–1885. Eu ope clea ly now iewed i s s anding o “in e na ional impo ance”. Sou h A ican His o y’s a - icle on The Be lin Con e ence s a es: “Howe e , he Uni ed S a es did no ac ually pa icipa e in he con e ence bo h because i had an inabili y o ake pa in e i o- ial expedi ions as well as asense o no gi ing he con e ence u he legi imacy.”19 This is elling. The Uni ed S a es no only pa icipa ed in he Me idian Con e ence bu hos ed i , because i s aims we e o egula e na iga ion h ough asingle me id- 18 Fou h Annual Message (S a e o he Union Add ess) by P esiden A hu , 1Decembe 1884, P o ided by Mille Cen e o Uni e si y o Vi ginia. 19 Sou h A ican His o y Online: The Be lin Con e ence. Accessed Ap il 2021. h ps://www.sahis- o y.o g.za/a icle/be lin-con e ence. OPEN ACCESS 51 ing eexamined is The Ne he lands who ha e e amed alking abou hei “Golden Age”, ecognizing ha o hose wi hin hei colonies du ing his e a in he se en- een h cen u y, he imes we e a om golden.33 Al hough Ches e A hu had a epu a ion as an aboli ionis , la e he was c i i- cized because he did no enac ede al law o ensh ine ci il igh s. This was pa ic- ula ly impo an as he Sou he n Democ a s and ex-Con ede a es ook o e powe om Republicans.34 Despi e hese c i icisms, he did a emp o o e his in luence o e he Ci il Righ s Cases, decided by he Uni ed S a es Sup eme Cou in 1883, which uled ha acial disc imina ion by p i a e indi iduals was no unde he ju isdic ion o he Thi een h o Fou een h amendmen s which ou lawed sla e y and ga e equal p o ec ion unde he law and o ing igh s. P esiden A hu , hus, did a emp o bols e he powe o ede al law, bu he was con ined o he pa ame e s o his o ice, and he balance o powe s enac ed by he Uni ed S a es Cons i u ion mean ha he was limi ed by he Legisla i e b anch, as was he case wi h his e o being o e u ned, o by he Judicial b anch, as was he case wi h he Sup eme Cou legisla ion uling agains ci il igh s issues. P esiden A hu s ood in leade ship du ing monumen al occasions o he Uni ed S a es and he wide wo ld, and he s ood up o ci il igh s issues. Why hen has he la gely been o go en by his o y? In his book, Ches e Alan A hu : The Ame ican P esiden s Se ies: The 21s P esiden , 1881–1885, Zacha y Ka abell o e ed an explana ion ha he i ans o indus y, such as Ca negie, Rocke elle , and Vande bil cap u ed he a en ion and imagina ions o he public a he end o nine een h cen u y, whe e p e iously he go e nmen had, pa icula ly in he 1860s du ing he Ci il Wa .35 Ad- di ionally, Ches e A hu ailed o ecei e he suppo o his pa y o eelec ion. In 1885, G o e Cle eland became p esiden and was he i s Democ a p esiden a e he Ame ican Ci il Wa , which had ended wen y yea s ea lie . One yea la e , in 1886, P esiden A hu passed away. CONCLUSION As P esiden o he Uni ed S a es, when i was anewly ising s a and du ing bo h he In e na ional Me idian Con e ence and he Be lin Con e ence, Ches e A hu ’s in- luence on his o y con inues o e e be a e. The o go en man’s shadow looms la ge and a imes his ac ions we e a om he consequences ha he in ended. T agically, his was he case in ecognizing he lag o Belgium’s in e es s in he Congo. How- e e , P esiden A hu was asuccess ul hos o he na ions o he wo ld a he In e - 33 End o Golden Age: Du ch Museum Bans Te m om Exhibi s, The Gua dian (Gua dian News and Media, Sep embe 13, 2019), h ps://www. hegua dian.com/wo ld/2019/sep/13/end- o -golden-age-ams e dam-museum-bans- e m- om-exhibi s. 34 K.PERROTTA— C.BOHAN, Nine een h Cen u y Rosa Pa ks? Assessing Elizabe h Jennings’ Legacy as aTeache and Ci il Righ s Pionee in An ebellum Ame ica, Geo gia S a e Uni e si y, 2013. 35 Z.KARABELL, Ches e Alan A hu : The Ame ican P esiden s Se ies: The 21s P esiden , 1881–1885, Macmillan 2004, p.4. OPEN ACCESS M EGAN EASLEY�WALSH 52 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2022 na ional P ime Me idian Con e ence, whe e democ acy, coope a ion, and abe e wo ld o all, ideals ha A hu was de o ed o, we e es eemed. The Uni ed S a es, as an emblem o eedom and ee o impe ialis aims ha coun ies such as G ea B i - ain had, was ideally sui ed o he hos ing o he 1884 Me idian Con e ence. Fu he - mo e, he Uni ed S a es was aphilosophical ex ension o Eu ope ha had de eloped wi h i s own unique ambi ions, aims, and eedoms. The Uni ed S a es was iewed as anew ho izon, ipe wi h possibili y. Tu ning away om i s ea lie philosophy o isola ion in he Mon oe Doc ine and expounding upon i s ision o “Mani es Des- iny”, he Uni ed S a es s epped in o amo e global ole. P esiden A hu , himsel , was well-liked and capable o ge ing esul s om decades-old p oblems, as exem- pli ied in he Pendle on Ac ha e o med go e nmen co up ion. In e ac ion o he wo ld, h ough In e na ional Rela ions, and h ough spa ial ela ions was ele a ed o in e na ional impo ance a he Me idian Con e ence o 1884. Thei s is alegacy ha con inues o shape oday. The line he delega es d ew h ough G eenwich con inues o echo h ough his o y and he p esen , because o all he implica ions and unde - s anding behind i : his o ically, poli ically, economically, and in e ms o ep esen- a ion o eali y. O en o e looked, e en among Ame icans, P esiden A hu dese es asecond look. He con ex ualizes he Ame ican unde s anding o he nine een h cen u y wo ld, a imes in opposi ion o Eu opean impe ialism. Ye , despi e ha , he eali y o in e na ional consensus and he knowledge and powe de i ed om maps c ea ed an en i onmen ha eased coloniza ion. Fo ces a wo k in his o y a e o en no as black and whi e as hey may i s appea . P esiden A hu and he ole o he Uni ed S a es in A ica du ing he nine een h cen u y is ap ime example. A his junc u e in his o y, whe e he wo ld’s in e connec i i y, in ligh o aglobal pandemic, is mo e e iden han e e , and a a ime when ai ea men o mino i ies and he con inu- ing o wo k in he ci il igh s a ena is e e be a ing om cou ooms o he s ee s o ci ies a ound he wo ld, pe haps i is ime o look mo e closely a P esiden A hu . OPEN ACCESS