Abandoning the monolithic victim: Changes in representations of the memory of Ravensbrück concentration camp

ANTROPOWEBZIN 1–2/2018: ESEJE 37 Abandoning he monoli hic ic im: Changes in ep esen a ions o he memo y o Ra ensb ück concen a ion camp Šá ka Kadleco á Ka ed a an opologie, Fakul a ilozo ická, Západočeská uni e zi a Plzni sa kak@ksa.ff.zcu This a icle deals wi h ep esen a ions o collec i e memo y o he women’s concen- a ion camp Ra ensb ück. Memo ials es ab- lished a he si es o o me Nazi concen a ion camps a e e e ed o as Eu opean symbolic ealms o memo y. Cul u al memo y is ma- e ialized in exhibi s and ansmi ed h ough exposi ions. Howe e , since collec i e mem- o y is closely connec ed wi h he cons i u - ing and cons i u ed g oup and e lec s i s e- qui emen s, he hemes and meanings selec ed o he audience a y in diffe en poli ical and empo al condi ions. Employing he me h- ods o discou se analysis o wo exhibi ions in he Ra ensb ück Memo ial, pa icipan and non-pa icipan obse a ion, in e iewing, and con en analysis o official publica ions, he changes in app oaches o he ep esen a ion o collec i e memo y a e examined. The shi om depic ing a monoli hic na ional ic im o pe sonalisa ion and di e si y is discussed. In oduc ion Acco ding o Pie e No a’s (1996) ypology, Nazi concen a ion camp si es can be ca ego- ized as Eu opean symbolic ealms o memo y. A “memo y mania” has occu ed in Eu ope (Lenz and Welze 2009), especially since he s a o he millennium, d awing he ap a - en ion o schola s as well as he gene al public o he i age and memo ialisa ion. On a poli i- cal le el, he special signi icance o Holocaus ememb ance was ag eed on a he in e na- ional S ockholm con e ence held on Janua y 27, 2000. The “uni e sal meaning” o he Holo- caus as a consequence o i s “unp eceden ed cha ac e ” was ecognized. In he decla a- ion adop ed a he ga he ing, he membe s o wen y-six Eu opean coun ies, he USA, Is ael and A gen ina who pa icipa ed in he e en e e ed o “ he ho o s ha engul ed he Jewish people” and “ he e ible suffe ing o he many millions o o he ic ims o he Nazis” which “has le an indelible sca ac oss Eu ope”, as o Augus 8, 2017, he homepage o he In e na ional Holocaus Rememb ance Alliance s a ed. Howe e , he pe manen wound o Eu ope had no always been pe cei ed as auma ic, p esen and, abo e all, commonly sha ed. The official decla a ion ha he Holocaus and he damage done by he Nazis ep esen s uni- e sal e il is a esul o a i e-decade-long p ocess o “meaning s uggle” (Alexande in Eye man 2004), “ auma d ama” (Eye man 2004), nego ia ions, meaning making, and making a b idge be ween he ac ual e en and i s ep esen a ion. As Aleida Assmann (2011, 27) w i es, “I ook wen y yea s o he Holo- caus o esu ace om behind he co e o he Second Wo ld Wa and ano he wen y yea s un il he his o ic c ime o he Holocaus ook he shape o a ansna ional cul u e o com- memo a ion.” This is no a na u al de elop- men . Cons uc ing a social auma is a he 38 ANTROPOWEBZIN 1–2/2018: ESEJE “ he esul o an exe cise o human agency, o he success ul imposi ion o a new sys em o cul u al classi ica ion [...] deeply affec ed by powe s uc u es and by he con ingen skills o e lexi e social agen s” (Alexande 2012, 15). The auma un olds in a ious ins i u ional a enas, such as eligious, aes he ic, legal and scien i ic, o mass media and s a e bu eau- c acy. In he symbolic-cum-emo ional ep e- sen a ion o social suffe ing, collec i e iden- i y is he agen de ining collec i e suffe ing, usually d awing on indi idual expe iences o pain and suffe ing. In ellec uals, poli ical lead- e s and symbol c ea o s o all kinds c ea e na a i es h ough speeches, i uals, mee ings, mo ies and s o y elling which a e p ojec ed o he audience and hi d pa ies. Emo ional ex- pe ience is hus c i ical bu no p imo dial in his p ocess (Alexande 2012). Monumen s, museums and memo ials play a signi ican ole in cons uc ing social memo y and nego ia ing he meaning o auma. Jelin and Kau man (in Alexande 2012, 13) pe cei e hem as “a emp s o make s a emen s and a - i ma ions [ o c ea e] a ma e iali y wi h a po- li ical, collec i e, public meaning [and] a phys- ical eminde o a con lic i e poli ical pas ”. Acco ding o Ca ol Kid on (2015, 50), “The cons uc ion o na ional memo y and he pub- lic si es in which i is housed and pe o med play an essen ial ole in he main enance o col- lec i e cohesion and cul u al con inui y.” They “encapsula e he cul u al meanings a ibu ed o e en s e oking e-enac men o he pas and consensual emembe ing” (ibid.). Wa memo- ies play a undamen al ole in he cons uc- ion o mas e na a i es o ic o y and de ea in dis inguishing he oic ( ic o ) and ulne able ( ic im) ca ego ies. The ques ion is hen how ansna ional memo y is ab ica ed in ealms o memo y ecognised as such. This a icle discusses he con en o wo exhibi ions in Ra ensb ück Memo ial in o - de o iden i y he changes in ep esen a ions o he memo y o a Nazi women’s concen a- ion camp h ough ime. They a e ma ked by he al e a ion o poli ical egimes; one exhi- bi ion being compounded in he e a o Eas Ge many, he o he opened a e he u n o he cen u y unde democ a ic ule. I appea s ha poli ical ideological a iables in luence he app oaches o meaning ul hemes selec ed o ememb ance. Ra ensb ück Memo ial as a Subjec o In es iga ion The ealm o collec i e cul u al memo y exam- ined in his a icle is he memo ial loca ed di- ec ly on he si e o he o me Nazi concen a- ion camp Ra ensb ück. O iginally a labou camp in ended especially o women, F auen- skonze azionslage Ra ensb ück was opened in 1939 and libe a ed in Ap il 1945, ha ing changed in o an ex e mina ion camp. Acco d- ing o he in o ma ion published by he memo- ial, app oxima ely 132,000 women, 20,000 men and 1,000 adolescen o young women we e egis e ed he e. The si e is loca ed eigh y kilome es o he no h o Be lin, and du ing he pe iod o a di- ided Ge many i was si ua ed in he eas - e n pa o he coun y. A na ional memo ial was es ablished in 1959, i s as a museum dis- playing a e ac s dona ed by o me p isone s. I was one o h ee na ional memo ials es ab- lished a ha ime in he Ge man Democ a ic Republic. Simul aneous o i s ole as a memo- ial, he o me camp was pu o p ac ical use. I s acili ies we e used by he So ie a my be- ween 1945 and 1999. The official name in Ge - man, Mahn- und Gedanks ä e Ra ensb ück, clea ly illus a es he in ended unc ion o he ins i u ion. The e is he wo d mahn-, mean- ing eminde o wa ning, added o he Ge - man wo d o memo ial. Only memo ials in Eas Ge many we e so named. The name en- cou ages ac i i y in he audience. Visi o s a e eminded o e en u ged no o o ge , in o - de o ecognize ha he cu en imes un- de a diffe en poli ical egime a e be e , and beha e in compliance wi h he “nie wiede ”, “ne e again” slogan. Nowadays, he i le is pe cei ed as an example o he applica ion o he ideology o Eas Ge many – oo command- ing, ep esen ing a li ed index inge o he non-democ a ic socialis egime. The Memo- ial is cu en ly adminis e ed by he B anden- bu g Memo ial Founda ion unde he Ge man Minis y o Cul u e. Despi e i s unique ea u es, like i s s a- us as a labou camp exclusi ely o women, ŠÁRKA KADLECOVÁ: ABANDONING THE MONOLITHIC VICTIM 39 Ra ensb ück has no d awn much schola ly a - en ion. The cu en di ec o o he Memo- ial, Insa Eschebach, e e ed o he i s schola ly esea ch, conduc ed in he 1980s by s uden s om Be lin as pa o a diploma he- sis on Jewish women in Ra ensb ück. She claims ha he uniqueness o he si e lies in i s being a place o women: “No mally, concen a ion camps a e o men. One speaks o concen a ion camps. Ra ensb ück is called WCL – women’s concen a ion camp (FKL, F auenkonzen azionslage ). When people speak abou concen a ion camps, hey always see men. We mus emembe ha he e we e also many women. The pop- ula memo y sees a concen a ion camp p isone as a male. We mus co ec ha .” Addi ionally, Jane Jacobs (2010, 51), who chose he si e o he ieldwo k, no es ha “Ge man collec i e memo y is imp essi e and offe s insigh in o he complex na u e o pub- lic o ms o commemo a ion; a e iew o he esea ch e eals he ex en o which ques ions o gende ha e emained somewha obscu ed in his b oad ield o memo y s udies. Pe - haps he mos gla ing omission is he absence o an ex ensi e body o schola ship on Ra ens- b ück”. Theo e ical Backg ound The ex en o social in luence on memo y has been a ma e o in e es o a ious schol- a s in he social sciences. Mau ice Halbwachs (2009) in oduced he so-called social ame- wo ks o memo y ha a e cons uc ed in he p ocess o socializa ion. They shape indi id- uals’ memo ies based on a selec ion o wha is communica ed, pe cei ed as impo an and e lec ed upon. An indi idual hus a anges his o he indi idual memo ies acco dingly. In Halbwachs’ iew, his o y, memo y and iden- i y a e connec ed and unde he in luence o one ano he . Thus iden i y equi emen s ha e an impac on he selec ion o wha aspec s o he pas will be emembe ed and, ecip o- cally, common emembe ing cons i u es com- mon iden i y. This a icle is conce ned wi h he ype o social memo y iden i ied as cul u al memo y, which is designa ed as “memo y whose p i- ma y o m o ansmission is h ough cul u al media, such as ex s, ilm and ele ision, and museums and exhibi ions” (Macdonald 2013, 15). I is a no ion o memo y in oduced by Jan Assmann and is o en pu in opposi ion o he communica i e memo y cons uc ed in e e yday li ely pe sonal in e ac ions. Cul u al memo y is objec i ied, ab ica ed, and ce emo- nial. I is bound o ixed poin s in ime, o pas e en s. In o de o be in e p e ed, i equi es p e ious unde s anding and e en special edu- ca ion. I is connec ed wi h cons uc ing and ansmi ing collec i e iden i y (E ll 2005). Al hough cul u al memo y is clea ly linked o pa icula e en s in he pas whose ep e- sen a ion o explana ion i p o ides, he e ap- pea s o be a clea dis inc ion be ween memo y and his o y. Pa el Ba ša (2011) w i es ha collec i e memo y is bound o g oup iden i y. I e lec s he p ac ical demands o he p esen a he han he c i e ia o he u h abou he pas . I se es he sel -iden i ica ion o sel - asse ion o a pa icula g oup, whe eas his o y is in he se ice o uni e sal knowledge. Ac- co ding o Pie e No a (in Ba ša 2011), mem- o y is dynamic, ca ied by g oups ha a e ali e and he e o e in pe manen e olu ion. I c e- a es a p oblema ic, incomple e econs uc ion o some hing ha is no longe he e. Ra ensb ück Memo ial as an ins i u ion can be pe cei ed as a bea e and c ea o o cul- u al memo y. The ques ions ha may occu conce n he way meanings a e cons uc ed, as well as by whom, and how memo y is ans- mi ed o isi o s. Gabi Dolff-Bonekämpe (2011, 143) iden i ies he key elemen o mem- o y ansmission as he “memo able momen ” o one’s lea ning expe ience when in con ac wi h he con en o someone else’s s o y o opinion. I needs o be old, lis ened o and lea ned. Subsequen ly, i will be emembe ed, embedded in o he ecei e ’s lea ning expe- ience and colou ed by pe sonal ecollec ions and inne mos emo ions. The memo able mo- men ma ks he s a ing poin o ano he pe - son’s u u e memo y. Thus, people who ha e no expe ienced he e en can become he wi - nesses o hei own lea ning expe ience. Mem- o y is ansmi ed h ough ime and space. The subjec i e and objec i e empo ali ies as well as he coun y, own o oom o occu - ence will be a ached o he ecollec ions o 40 ANTROPOWEBZIN 1–2/2018: ESEJE he new pe son. Howe e , “al hough memo- able momen s may be planned and p epa ed, no one can be su e o he ou come” (ibid.). Me hodology In o de o answe he esea ch ques ion abou how he official ep esen a ions o he mem- o y o Ra ensb ück ha e changed o e ime – in he e as o he di ided and uni ed e- publics o Ge many – a a ie y o me hods we e deployed. Field wo k a he memo ial si e and obse a ions o bo h exhibi ions we e conduc ed. While in he ield, he me hod ha Gillian Rose (2016) e ms discou se analysis II was employed. I is a ool o examine he ways in which a ious dominan ins i u ions ha e pu images o wo k. This me hod is conce ned wi h echnologies o display, ex ual and i- sual echnologies o in e p e a ion, echnolo- gies o layou , he a chi ec u al s uc u e o he museum i sel , and isi o ou ing, among o he hings. Mo eo e , pa icipan obse a- ion in an in e na ional g oup o su i o s and hei descendan s when iewing he museum was ca ied ou . Addi ionally, he con en o official ma e- ials on he exhibi ions was analysed. These we e published by he B andenbu g Memo ial Founda ion, he umb ella o ganisa ion ha also adminis e s Ra ensb ück Memo ial. One o he esou ces was a olume consis ing o es- says on he na ional memo ials in he so-called cell building, along wi h b ie desc ip ions and isual documen a ion o he indi idual ooms. The o he was he official ca alogue accompa- nying he newly opened main exhibi ion. I p o ides in o ma ion abou he in en ion o he cu a o and is ich in isual ep oduc ions o he pho og aphs, documen s and a e ac s dis- played in he exposi ion. Bo h olumes we e edi ed by he cu en di ec o o he Memo ial, who was also pe sonally in e iewed. The Shi om Na ionalism o Plu alism: The Monoli hic Vic im Becomes Di e si ied Na ional Memo ials in he Cell Building The i s exhibi ion in he Memo ial was opened in 1959 in he basemen o he o me camp p ison, he cell building. Indi idual cells we e la e used as spaces o na ional ins al- la ions. The e was no uni ying ounda ion o he exposi ions, and he na ional app oaches a ied conside ably. Ne e heless, hei layou was assigned. Thei o de in he cell build- ing illus a es he ch onological sp ead o as- cism ac oss Eu opean coun ies. D awing on his pe spec i e, he Spanish na ional exhibi- ion is si ua ed in he i s oom, he Aus ian in he second, and he Czechoslo ak in he hi d om he en ance. Eschebach (2008, 83) poin s ou he didac ic p inciple o he mu- seum, namely o guide isi o s “ h ough he ch onological aspec s o Na ional Socialism’s p ac ice o conques ”. She also sha es a e- ma kable obse a ion abou he i ony o such a decision, no ing “ ha he isi o ollowing he guided ou in olun a ily slips in o he ole o Ge man Weh mach by en e ing each na- ional space” (ibid.). Associa ions o o me p isone s we e p i- ma ily engaged in designing he con en o he cells. Some o hem commissioned p o essional a is s. In 1984, a “ unc ional diag am” was o mula ed o p o ide guidelines o design- ing he ooms. The main mo i s ins i u ion- ally selec ed o he memo ials we e na ional lags and plin hs a he ea wall; he main o- cus o he museum is women’s esis ance, as well as a is ic in e p e a ions o his s ug- gle (Eschebach 2008). Typically, he na ional memo ial ooms con ain au hen ic isual and ex ual ma e ials explaining he poli ical con- ex o he subsequen imp isonmen o hei ci izens, such as documen a ion o ep essi e measu es aken by he Nazis a e he assassi- na ion o Reinha d Heyd ich in he Czechoslo- ak memo ial oom, o pho og aphic illus a- ions o he Spanish Ci il Wa in he Spanish memo ial oom. O en an a e ac (a sculp- u e o pain ing) depic ing he suffe ing was ins alled, such as he sculp u e o a kneeling woman posi ioned in on o p ison ba s in he Romanian memo ial oom. Pe soni ica ion o he women inca ce a ed in Ra ensb ück is accomplished h ough pho og aphs o lis s o names on he walls o indi idual cell ooms, and also h ough he display o keepsakes – small pe sonal handic a objec s which o en se ed as gi s among p isone s. ŠÁRKA KADLECOVÁ: ABANDONING THE MONOLITHIC VICTIM 41 In he cu a ing app oach o he design o he cell-building memo ials, he na ional as- pec p e ails o e he indi idual o pe sonal. Consequen ly, he ic ims a e he whole na- ions hemsel es affec ed by e il ascism. The imp ession o a seamless na ional ic im is c e- a ed by ha ing he main ocus on he coun- y’s an i- ascis esis ance, leading o he ci - izens me ging “wi h he women depo ed o Ra ensb ück o o m he monoli hic igu e o a single ic im” (Eschebach 2008, 85). Suffe - ing seems o be he salien heme o all he na ional memo ial ooms. This imp ession is ein o ced by he a chi ec u al elemen s o con- c e e walls and me al s ai cases, a lack o day- ligh , and he knowledge ha he o iginal unc- ion o he space was o se e as a place o se e e punishmen in he concen a ion camp. The adminis e ing o ganiza ion, he B an- denbu g Memo ial Founda ion, decided in he ea ly 1990s ha he na ional memo ials should be conse ed as hey we e. The e o e, hey nowadays p o ide an oppo uni y o isi o s as well as schola s o examine he cons uc ion o he collec i e cul u al memo y o Ra ens- b ück. The New Exhibi ion In he p e ace o a olume published in 2008 on he memo ials es ablished in he cell build- ing in Ra ensb ück, he cu en di ec o o he Memo ial, Insa Eschebach (2008, 15), ex- p esses he need o a mo e con empo a y ap- p oach o he museum, as she w i es ha “a new place o commemo a ion should be c e- a ed ou side o he cell building which mee s he demands o a plu alis ically o ien ed cul- u e o commemo a ion”. In Ap il 2013 a new main exhibi ion was opened. I is loca ed in a sepa a e building in on o he walls o he ac ual camp, he o me commandan s’ head- qua e s. The exhibi ion ooms sp ead o e wo loo s and, unlike he na ional memo i- als in he cell building, hey e ince a link- ing cu a o s’ idea. Ob iously, his is a com- plex exhibi ion designed by he Memo ial, and i con ains ex ual and isual media, pho- og aphs, documen s, biog aphies and ma e- ial objec s employed o p o ide an insigh in o he opog aphy, his o y and unc ion o he concen a ion camp, li e inside o i , and p ac ices o commemo a ion. Acco ding o he official ca alogue o he exhibi ion, h ee me hodological app oaches we e deployed in he concep : con ex ualizing, his o icizing and mul ipe spec i i y (Beßmann and Eschebach 2013). By con ex ualizing, he au ho s mean aking he app oach “no o s a e a da e o a hing alone” (ibid., 16) and explaining why a women’s concen a ion camp was es ablished in 1938. His o icizing allows he unde s and- ing o he pas as a s o y. Conce ning he new exhibi ion, mul ipe spec i i y ela es o he diffe ences among he g oups o p isone s, hei expe iences and ememb ances. In his ega d, memo ies o Ra ensb ück a e no co- he en and he e o e will no be delibe a ely p esen ed as such. The exhibi ion begins on he i s loo o a spacious house eachable by a wooden s ai - case ha he Nazi commandan s once walked. I migh be he space i sel , wi h wide co i- do s and s ai cases, ample ooms wi h wooden loo s, enough dayligh and he nea layou o indi idual exposi ions, a e ac s placed in glass cases and labels in Ge man and English, which con ibu e o he educa ional ocus ex- pe ienced in he exhibi ion. In addi ion, he only a wo ks on display a e hose c ea ed by he p isone s hemsel es as illus a ions o e en s in he camp o pe sonal handic a ob- jec s. Unlike in he cell building, he e a e no exp essi e a wo ks commissioned om p o- essional a is s. The isi o is guided h ough hi een ooms in ch onological o de , om an ea ly his o y o he loca ion and i s ans o ma- ion in o a Nazi concen a ion camp, h ough Wo ld Wa II and in o he pos -wa e a. Gen- e al in o ma ion abou he Nazi genocidal sys- em, li e in he camp, o ced labou and he libe a ion o he camp a e ep esen ed. Addi- ional psychological opics a e also p esen ed, such as solida i y and sel -p ese a ion on he one hand and con lic s among p isone s on he o he . The occu ence o i al ous ela ion- ships in he camp is ep esen ed by a d awing by a Czech p isone called Nina Ji síko á. “The e a e wo women in he cen e o he pic u e sea ed a a long able. They a e d essed in s iped p isone shi s, depic ed du ing ea ing ime. The e 42 ANTROPOWEBZIN 1–2/2018: ESEJE is a pa o he body o ano he woman on he igh side indica ing a ow o ea e s. One o he women in he o eg ound is bending o e owa ds he o he one, s a ing in o he po . The ea e is co e ing he a ion wi h one hand and g asping i wi h he o he . The i le o he colou ed d awing insc ibed below is ‘You’ e go a po a o he e gi l’ ” The selec ion o he d awing o he main ex- hibi ion con adic s he his o ically mo e com- mon na a i e o me e solida i y and com ade- ship among inca ce a ed women. The sec ion o he exhibi ion en i led “P is- one s” deploys a na ional pe spec i e, as he p isone s a e g ouped acco ding o hei na- ionali ies. Howe e , he e is a clea shi o indi idualiza ion and pe sonalisa ion o he suffe ing. The ic im is no longe he whole na ion igh ing agains Nazism. I is a he a pa icula woman wi h he own li e s o y be- o e, du ing and a e he inca ce a ion. Mo e p ecisely, a ious women om diffe en coun- ies and wi h diffe en s o ies. “The e is a binde wi h pho og aphs and b ie in o ma- ion abou he li es o h ee p isone s om Czechoslo- akia on display. One o hem is a su i o om Lidice. The selec ion o pe sonal pho og aphs de- pic s he wi h he amily be o e he wa , a g oup o Czechoslo ak p isone s se ling in a o es du ing he so-called dea h ma ch a e he libe a ion o he camp, Czechoslo ak p isone s lined up in a g oup pho o in Neu B andenbu g whe e hey ga he ed a e he dea h ma ch and be o e he anspo a ion o hei home coun y, he wi h he sis e in P ague a e he wa , and inally he su ounded by young Japanese singe s du ing a commemo a ion ce emony in Lidice.” The se ies in ends o c ea e a complex image o he li e o an indi idual su i o , including he engagemen in public memo y ansmission a - e he wa . The con inua ion o memo y wo k and, in gene al, li e a e imp isonmen , is ep esen ed and encou aged he e by d awing a en ion o he amily membe s o he women-p isone s, he second and hi d gene a ions. “Two po ai s o Ge man p isone s accompanied by b ie in o ma ion abou hei li es hang on he wall o he exposi ion oom labelled ‘P isone s’. On op o he ames he e a e snapsho s o hei descendan s posing in on o hese po ai s while isi ing he exhibi ion. They a e small pho og aphs loosely placed abo e he exhibi s. Bo h women in he pic u es a e smiling. One o hem shows he ges u e o a humbs-up, exp essing he joy a euni ing.” These ex a elemen s became pa o he ins alla ion. This indica es ha he exhibi ion igge s pe sonalisa ion in isi o s as well. I p o ides an a enue o amily membe s o con- nec wi h hei ances o s. Alexande (2012) iden i ies pe sonalizing auma as one o he phases in he p ocess o meaning making, in he s uggle o i s ecogni ion as a socially sha ed phenomenon. Subsequen ly o pe son- alizing, e e yone can iden i y wi h he ic ims. In he case o Ra ensb ück Memo ial, he in- en ion o he designe s o he exhibi ion seems o be a shi in he cons uc ion o cul u al memo y om he na ional, uni ied and he e- o e limi ed, h ough he pe sonal and di e si- ied, o he uni e sal, and he e o e democ a ic and accessible o he wide public. Conclusion Changes in he ep esen a ions o cul u al memo y o he women’s concen a ion camp Ra ensb ück we e discussed in his a icle. Wi h a ocus on he con en s and p ope - ies o wo diffe en exhibi ions es ablished a he Memo ial, he a emp was o iden- i y diffe ences in ep esen a ions selec ed o display. Du ing ield wo k a he si e, a i- ous me hods we e employed, such as discou se analysis o spa ial, echnological and isi o - o ien ed aspec s o he exhibi ions, pa ici- pan and non-pa icipan obse a ion, and in- e iewing, wi h addi ional con en analysis o published ma e ials accompanying he exposi- ions. Al hough he i s exhibi ions we e com- pounded by diffe en Eu opean s a es, wi h as- socia ions o o me p isone s in ol ed in he p ocess, hey showed simila isual ep esen a- ions anging om exp essi e a wo ks, pe - sonal pho og aphs and lis s o names o na- ional lags. The na ional ocus was p e alen un il he ea ly 1990s, causing a ce ain in isi- bili y o he ic ims, who me ged in o a mass o ep esen a i es o a na ion. Mo eo e , so- cial memo y was cons uc ed wi h ega d o poli ics, esponding o he needs o a ce ain g oup. Innocen ic ims o a na ion exp essing ŠÁRKA KADLECOVÁ: ABANDONING THE MONOLITHIC VICTIM 43 solida i y and com adeship wi h one ano he and collec i ely opposing Nazism we e he o- cal poin . A he beginning o he millennium, a new exposi ion was opened in on o he wall o he o me camp. Appa en ly, he democ a ic socie y o he wen y- i s cen u y eques ed diffe en mo i s in he ep esen a ion o he collec i e memo y o Ra ensb ück. The e is an obse able shi o pe soni ica ion and psy- chologisa ion, as well as an ideological en- dency owa d mul iple pe spec i es o sha ed expe ience. Os ensibly, he new exhibi ion cons uc s a social memo y o he concen a- ion camp Ra ensb ück in acco dance wi h he no ion o memo y as collec ed (Young 1993) a he han collec i e (Halbwachs 2009). I is app oached as a se o a ious p ocesses o emembe ing indi iduals and g oups, wi h a ocus on he plu alis ic cha ac e is ic o memo y. Finally, memo y wo k seems o be ealized he e om an e hical pe spec i e, as opposed o a poli ical one (Ba ša 2011), as a en ion is di ec ed o he sha ed iden i y o human beings, highligh ing he aspec s o he expe ience o Ra ensb ück which may be pe - cei ed as uni e sal. Howe e , such pu sui o uni e salism and appeal o humani y may be signi ican o he imminen shi in he ole o Holocaus memo ials, om places o memo y o places o his o y. Použi é zd oje Alexande , Jeff ey. 2012. T auma: A Social Theo y. London: Poli y P ess. Assmann, Aleida. 2013. “Eu ope’s di ided memo y.” In Memo y and Theo y in Eas e n Eu ope, eds. Uilleam Blacke , Alexande E kind and Julie Fedo , 25–41. London: Pelg a e Macmillan. Ba ša, Pa el. 2011. Paměť a genocida: Ú ahy o poli ice holocaus u. P ague: A go. Beßmann, Alyn, and Insa Eschebach, eds. 2013. Das F auen-Konzen a ionslage Ra ensb ück: Geschich e und E inne ung. Be lin: Me opol. Dolff-Bonekämpe , Gabi. 2011. “Memo able momen s – chosen cul u al affilia ions.” In Clashes in Eu opean memo y: The case o communis ep ession and he holocaus , eds. Mu iel Blai e, Ch is ian Lindenbe ge and Thomas Ge bel, 143–153. Innsb uck: S udien- Ve lag. E ll, As id. 2005. Kollek i es Gedäch nis und E - inne ungskul u en: Eine Ein üh ung. S u ga : Ve lag J. B. Me zle . Eschebach, Insa, ed. 2008. Ra ensb ück. De Zellen- bau: Geschich e und Gedenken. Be lin: Me opol. Eye man, Ron. 2004. “The pas in he p esen : Cul u e and he ansmission o memo y.” Ac a Sociologica 47: 159–169. Halbwachs, Mau ice. 2009. Kolek i ní paměť. P ague: Slon. Jacobs, Jane . 2010. 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