An integrated model of the geomorphological and topographic landscape of the necropolis at Dra Abu el‑Naga –
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PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023, 42–72 An integrated model of the geomorphological and topographic landscape of the necropolis at Dra Abu el ‑Naga Ángeles Jiménez ‑Higueras– David García ‑González– Hannah Pethen Liz Jones– Teresa Bardají– Antonio Martínez– Sergio Sánchez ‑Moral1 ABSTRACT This paper describes the archaeological, topographical and geomorphological survey and modelling of the topography of Dra Abu el ‑Naga from prior to the building of the New Kingdom tombs until today. The ancient topography of Dra Abu el ‑Naga has been reconstructed, offering amore accurate and complete image of this part of the necropolis for the study of its organisation, and the distribution and placement of the tombs. This work opens up new lines of investigation into the landscape of the necropolis and this approach could be productively applied to other ancient Egyptian tombs, necropolises and funerary landscapes in general. KEYWORDS archaeological survey– Differential ‑GPS– Dra Abu el ‑Naga– landscape modelling– Geographic Information Systems اجنلا وبأ عارذ ةنابجل ىفارغوبطلاو ىجولوفرومويجلا دهشملل لماكتم جذومن ويجريس – زينيترام وينوطنأ – ايدراب ازيريت – زنوج زيل – نثيب اناه – سيلازنوغ-ايسراغ ديفيد – ساريغيه-زينيميخ سيليجنأ لاروم-زيشناس صخلملا لبق ام ةرتفلا ذنم اجنلا وبأ عارذ ةقطنم سيراضت ةجذمنو يجولوفرومويجلاو يفارغوبطلاو ىرثلأا حسملا ةقرولا هذه فصت رفوي ىذلا رملأا وهو ،اجنلا وبأ عارذل ةميدقلا سيراضتلا ءانب ةداعإ مت .اذه انموي ىتحو ةثيدحلا ةلودلا رباقم دييشت رصع .اهب رباقملا عضوو عيزوتو اهميظنت ةساردل ةميدقلا رصقلأا ةنابج نم ءزجلا اذهل ً لاامتكاو ةقد رثكأ ةروص ةيرصملا رباقملا ىلع لاعف لكشب جهنلا اذه قيبطت نكميو ةنابجلل ةميدقلا سيراضتلا ىف ثحبلل ةديدج اًطوطخ لمعلا اذه حتفي .ماع لكشب ةيزئانجلا عقاوملاو تانابجلاو ىرخلأا ةميدقلا ةلادلا تاملكلا تامولعملا مظن – ةيعيبطلا رظانملا ةجذمن – اجنلا وبأ عارد – ىلضافتGPS – ىرثلأا حسملا 1 Members of the team: Ángeles Jiménez ‑Higueras (Project Director, archaeologist and Egyptologist), David García ‑González (archaeologist, specialist in cartography), Hannah Pethen (archaeologist, Egyptologist and surveyor), Liz Jones (archaeologist and surveyor), Teresa Bardají (geomorphologist), Antonio Martínez (geomorphologist) and Sergio Sánchez ‑Moral (geologist).
43A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … Dra Abu el ‑Naga, at the northern end of the Theban necropolis, has seen human activity since prehistoric times. By the Middle Kingdom it formed part of the necropolis for the local elite (Betrò– Del Vesco– Miniaci 2009: 14–33) and was the burial place for the local Theban rulers during the Second Intermediate Period (Polzetal. 2003: 317–388; Polz 2003: 12–15). Archaeological investigations have taken place at Dra Abu el ‑Naga since the 19th century and important archaeological research continues in this area (Jiménez ‑Higueras 2020: 10–14). Like many other sites (Bitelli– Girelli –Tini– Vittuari 2006: 15–21; Capriotti Vittozzi– An‑ gelini– Iacoviello 2018: 221–232; Chiesi– Davoli– Occhi– Raimondi 2012: 23–29; Fenwick 2004: 880–885; Fenwick 2005: 20–21; Giorgi and Buzi 2011: 175–180; Goosens, De Dapper and De Paepe 1997: 13–20; Hinojosa Baliño 2019: 44, 50; Jeffreys 2003: 1–18; Jeffreys 2020: 197–213; Jeffreys– Tavares 1994: 143–173; Jones– Pethen 2012: 45–54; Kemp– Garfi 1993; Lauffrey– Sauneron– Anus 1981: 491; Mathieson– Dittmer 2007: 79–93; Mills 1988: 6–7; Papi– Bigi– Camporeale– Car‑ pentiero– D’Aco– Kenawi– Mariotti,– Passalacqua 2010: 239–250; Schiestal 2016: 172; Spencer 1974: 1–11; Strutt 2016: 75–77; Tavares 2011: 203–216; Tavares 2020: 252–265; Trampier 2014: 81; Weeks 1989: 286–287), there has been along history of archaeological and cartographic survey in the Theban necropolis, but the many different cartographic resources produced since then are all insufficient, for one reason or another, for the requirements of the modern missions working at Dra Abu el ‑Naga or any further landscape ‑archaeological analysis. “Landscape” is recognised as ahighly complex concept, that includes space and topography as well as the embodied human experience of that space and topography and its incorpora‑ tion into human life and relationships (Anschuetzetal. 2001; David– Thomas 2008; Ingold 1993; Knapp– Ashmore 1999; Pethen 2012; Pethen 2023; Thomas 2001: 165–168; Wilson– David 2002: 5–8). Nevertheless, before it is possible to consider landscape as an embodied or expe‑ rienced space, it is necessary to determine the physical topography that forms its underlying foundation. Any future landscape ‑archaeological analysis of Dra Abu el ‑Naga would there‑ fore require areliably and consistently surveyed topographic and cartographic record of Dra Abu el ‑Naga and its archaeological structures. This research is intended to provide that consistently surveyed topographic and cartographic model of the extant and, as far as can be reconstructed, ancient topography and geomorphology, precisely locating each tomb and its elements (pylons, courtyard, entrance, superstructure) and situating the whole in amodel of the entire Theban area. In 2013, aformal application was presented to the then Egyptian Ministry of Supreme Antiquities (MSA) to request official permission to carry out asurveying campaign, consisting of amicro ‑topographical survey and ageomorphological ‑geological study at the southern end of Dra Abu el ‑Naga. This survey was approved and the fieldwork was carried out from 24th February to 4th April 2013 by agroup of cartographers, archaeologists, surveyors, geologists and geomorphologists. The data were interpolated to create the digital elevation model (DEM) necessary for future research analyses. This DEM included acomplete reconstruction of the area in the New Kingdom and amodel of the changes to that topography, from prior to con‑ struction of the New Kingdom tombs to the present day. To contextualise this research, enable integration with other missions and undertake future research into the inter ‑visibility and movement around the necropolis, the survey data from Dra Abu el ‑Naga were subsequently integrated into adigital elevation model of the entire Theban area.
44 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 METHODS AND MATERIALS This interdisciplinary project combined archaeological research and survey, archival car‑ tographic research, micro ‑topographical, geomorphological and geological survey to con‑ struct aDEM of Dra Abu el ‑Naga (south) and model the evolving Dra Abu el ‑Naga topography from the original ground surface to the present day. Following initial archival research into existing cartographic resources, archaeological, micro ‑topographic, geomorphological, and topographic survey took place during fieldwork in 2013. Subsequently, the topographic sur‑ vey data was used to create adigital elevation model (DEM) of the survey area in geographic information system (GIS) software. CARTOGRAPHIC RESOURCES Detailed cartographic records of Dra Abu el ‑Naga are lacking and each mission currently working there makes their own plans and maps, using different criteria and coordinate systems, usually without communication or data ‑sharing. Many areas of Dra Abu el ‑Naga are not currently being investigated and have not been cartographically recorded since the demolition of the village on the site. In the absence of good, recent cartographic data and aconsistent grid system for the Theban necropolis, it is difficult for the different missions to pool knowledge, share data, or relate their results to those of other excavators, past and present. It is also impossible to undertake detailed landscape ‑archaeological investigations without detailed, reliable data on the underlying physical topography. High quality plans of the area as it is now, precise tomb coordinates, and detailed topographic data on aconsistent coordinate system, are urgently needed for all the missions working in the area.2 Asmall number of existing historical maps, drawings, plans, satellite images and topograph‑ ical data from missions working in this area supplemented the data from the fieldwork. These sources are described below, together with how they have been incorporated into this research. The earliest maps of the Theban necropolis, including the Description de l’Égypte (French Commission des sciences et arts d’Égypte 1809–1822) and Wilkinson’smap (1830)3 provided little useful information. Baraize (1904)4 did not even include Dra Abu el ‑Naga. The Survey of Egypt 1:1000 scale maps of the complete Theban necropolis (Survey of Egypt 1924–1926) were the earliest useful cartographic record of Dra Abu el ‑Naga (folios C6–D6).5 These maps show the topography with 2 m contour lines, the buildings and infrastructure; the tombs, funerary 2 Ideally the results and records produced by this research project would be used by each of the missions working in the area, with the intention of creating aunified system and consistent data across all the missions. 3 This map was checked at the Bodleian Library in Oxford during aresearch visit at Oxford University. We are very grateful to the Library for allowing us to use the Special Collection section. 4 This set consisting of 61 maps with a1:500 scale was checked at the Bodleian Library in Oxford during aresearch visit at Oxford University. We are very grateful to the Library for allowing us to use the Special Collection section. Other maps checked in Oxford which included the research area were: Western Thebes, scale 1:10000 and Luxor and Thebes, scale 1: 1000000. 5 This set of maps was first checked at the Egypt Exploration Society Archive in London, for which we are very grateful to the then EES director, Chris Naunton. Ahigh ‑quality digital copy of this map was purchased from ‘The National Archives’, to be used by this project, by the Sydney Jones
45A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … temples, and the excavation areas labelled by institution. They provided important topo‑ graphic information in areas where archaeological and topographic survey was impractical and supplemented the survey data. Two further Survey of Egypt folios named Qurna (Survey of Egypt 1922) and Luxor and Karnak (Survey of Egypt 1922) were created in 1922 at a1:10000 scale, and published as tourist editions. These were used to complete the areas (specifically the mountain, El Qurn, and the East bank of the river Nile where Luxor and Karnak temples are located) omitted from the 1:1000 scale Survey of Egypt maps. Despite their detail and accuracy these maps present several problems. They were created in the 1920s and, consequently, showed the topography of the area at that time. This included the changes to the topography of the New Kingdom necropolis resulting from the numerous historic and more recent excavations in the area. Excavations continued after the maps were completed, so the topography shown in them has no exact correlation with modern areas and the tombs that have been discovered since the completion of the maps are not recorded upon them. The Survey of Egypt maps also include the houses and other structures of the modern village covering parts of the ancient topography. The village and its inhabitants were moved by the Egyptian government in 2006–2007, and the buildings demolished, although the resulting debris was not removed (Bednarski– Tully 2020: 508–522; Simpson 2003: 244–249; Tully– Hanna 2013: 362–397; Van der Spek 2016: 567–581).6 This demolition led to the discovery and subsequent study of previously obscured funerary structures (Abou Zaid– El ‑Asfar– Ezzetal. 2015: 71–77), even as the accumulated debris altered the topography further. Nevertheless, the Survey of Egypt 1:1000 scale map was used for planning the fieldwork and to contribute to the DEM. The Survey of Egypt data was essential since the collection of topographic survey data across such avast area as the Theban Necropolis, was very complicated. Kampp provides amap of the tombs at Dra Abu el ‑Naga discovered up to 1996 with their location and aplan of their layout (Kampp 1996: plans VI–VII). However, this map can only be used as areference for tomb locations and numbering as it is not topographically accurate, and the tombs are not drawn to scale. Kampp’splans were, therefore, used to locate the tombs and provide digital plans of the tomb interiors, as access to the interior of the tombs fell outside the scope of the fieldwork. Numerous aerial photos and satellite images, obtained as free Google Earth imagery, offer valuable information on the archaeological sites over the last 50 years. The purchase of be‑ spoke high resolution satellite imagery was beyond the budget of this research, but two sets of Quickbird satellite images were kindly offered to our survey project by the American Research Center in Egypt,7 and the Spanish Mission TT11–TT12.8 These are particularly valuable to the Library in Liverpool thanks to aUniversity fund. We are very grateful to the Sydney Jones Library and especially to Martin Wolf through whom this acquisition was made possible. 6 In 2015, after the completion of our fieldwork, the debris was removed and the area cleaned by the American Research Center in Egypt. 7 These Quickbird satellite images were purchased from Space Imaging Middle East and consist of panchromatic standard imagery of 50 cm resolution, dated 2 nd November 2011, and anatural colour standard image of 50 cm of resolution, dated 6 th August 2010 and 26 th July 2010. Both images included an area of 25 km2. The Dra Abu el ‑Naga south survey team are grateful to the then associate ‑director of ARCE at Luxor, John Shearman, and to his then assistant Andrew Bednarski. 8 Two Quickbird images from 2004 (kindly offered by the ‘Spanish Mission TT11–TT12’). One of them is ageneral view that includes the area from the Ramesseum to Carter House; and the
46 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 project since they are of higher resolution and better quality than many of the other satellite images and they are also projected on astable coordinate system, which is compatible with the rest of the data held in the GIS. The project also made use of high resolution black and white photographic imagery from the CORONA KH‑4b satellite (September 1967 to May 1972), whose best resolution is 2 m and typical ground coverage is 12.1 km.9 The satellite images were used to locate the tombs and document changes to the necropolis over the last 50 years. Five additional maps of the research area were obtained from CAMEL, consisting of amap series produced by the Survey of Egypt at varying scales from 1:5000 to 1:100000. TOPOGRAPHICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DGPS SURVEY The archaeological, topographic, geomorphological and geological survey was undertaken at the southern end of Dra Abu el ‑Naga from 24th February to 4th April 2013. The aims of the Dra Abu el ‑Naga survey included recording precise geographic coordinates for the tombs of Dra Abu el ‑Naga south, from el ‑Birabi up to el ‑Ateyat and generation of topographic survey data for aDEM of the area. The survey used differential Geographic Positioning System (GPS) and Total Station survey equipment to locate tombs, features and topographical survey points with precise geographical coordinates. Fig. 1 shows how the survey contributed to and improved understanding of the archaeological remains across Dra Abu el ‑Naga south, and aDEM of the study area. The data were processed in Leica GeoOffice and exported and analysed in ArcGIS. DIFFERENTIAL GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM SURVEY Data were recorded with aDifferential Geographic Positioning System (DGPS), using Real‑ ‑Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS kit. This equipment uses Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) receivers capable of processing L1 and L2 GPS bands and other satellite navigation systems.10 The RTK method used two receivers: areference receiver set up at acontrol (base) station with known coordinates, and aroving receiver (rover), which moved around collecting data. The reference receiver provided the rover with aset of corrections for navigation errors, based on acomparison between the known coordinates for the reference receiver and those based on the satellite data. 11 The reference receiver comprised aLeica GNSS 1200 receiver with an AX1202 GG antenna for collecting information from satellites. Each rover comprised an ATX1230 GG smart antenna and an RX1250 controller. The reference receiver and rover communicated using Satelline 3AS radios. second is adetailed image of Dra Abu el ‑Naga. We are very grateful to José Galán for all his help and support. 9 These georeferenced images were kindly supplied by the Center for Ancient Middle Eastern Landscapes (CAMEL) of the Oriental Institute of Chicago. We are very grateful to EliseV. MacArthur from CAMEL for all her help and support. 10 Currently the main alternative GNSS system to the United States GPS system, is the Russian Aerospace Agency’sGlobal Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). The European Space Agency’sGalileo system, and China’sCompass systems are under development according to Uren and Price (2010: 254–255). 11 For amore detailed discussion of this method, see Uren and Price (2010: 256–282).
47A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … The RTK kit used the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) geographic coordinate sys‑ tem and the GRS80 ellipsoid (Uren and Price 2010: 314; U.S. National Geospatial Intelligence Agency 2023). The WGS84 coordinates were projected in the Geographic Information System (GIS) software using the Universal Transverse Mercator zone 36 north (UTM36N) coordinate system, which converts geographic coordinates onto aflat plane using aTransverse Merca‑ tor projection (Morton n.d.; Conolly and Lake 2006: 20–21; NGA 2002; NGA 2014). The UTM projection is ideal for this project because it is conformal, results in minimal distortion of scale and distance, and has ametric coordinate system, allowing data to be easily analysed, compared and presented using GIS software.12 Heights above mean sea level were obtained from the WGS84 ellipsoidal heights using the EGM2008 geoid (Uren– Price 2010: 311–312). CONTROL STATIONS To establish control coordinates for the reference receiver, six control stations (fig. 2 and fig.3) were located to ensure full coverage of the survey area: five across Dra Abu el ‑Naga south (see fig. 3), and one at the Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Project control point on top of the Marsam hotel (fig. 2). 12 Conformal map projections preserve the 90° angle between lines of latitude and longitude and therefore the angles between other features on the ground (Conolly– Lake 2006: 20). Fig. 1 Workflow of the Dra Abu el ‑Naga survey
48 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 Fig. 2 Control stations of the Dra Abu el ‑Naga survey project and two other points occupied during the static survey Fig. 3 Location of the control stations at Dra Abu el ‑Naga south, shown with reference to the Survey of Egypt 1:1000 scale map of the Theban Necropolis, 1921–1926
49A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … The first control station was named ‘Djehuty Base’ because it was in front of the tomb of Djehuty (TT11), on acontrol point used by the Spanish ‑Egyptian mission at TT11–TT12. When the Dra Abu el ‑Naga south survey was initiated, it was not possible to obtain precise geo‑ graphic or projected coordinates for any suitable base station. There are only alimited number of datum points with known coordinates in the Theban necropolis and where datum points were present in asuitable location, coordinates were either unavailable, or were insufficiently defined for an RTK survey. The geographic coordinates of the Djehuty Base control point were initially fixed using the navigation solution on the morning of 2nd March 2013, to permit data to be reviewed during the survey. The final coordinates would ultimately be determined using Precise Point Positioning (PPP) during post ‑processing after the completion of the survey.13 Until the completion of the PPP process, the precision of the coordinates for this control point was anticipated to be within 10 m of the horizontal and 20 m of the vertical (Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors 2010). Whilst RTK methods can establish fairly high precision between the reference station and rover points, the accuracy of the latter will be dependent on the accuracy of the coordinates of the reference station, with errors in that point propagating through all subsequent measurements to the rovers (fig. 3). RTK AND TOTAL STATION SURVEY RTK was used wherever possible because it provided an appropriate balance of accuracy and speed for recording multiple archaeological and topographic features, but it could not record archaeological features that were too dangerous to access physically or where the equipment lacked satellite signal. These features were typically deeply located tombs or high façades and were recorded with acombination of RTK and total station. The coordinates of two secondary control points were established with RTK and used as setup and reference (backsight) objects for the total station survey (fig. 4). Data was captured using apole mounted prism wherever possible, but inaccessible points were recorded by the total station in reflectorless mode. The survey used aTopcon GPT700si total station. 13 For adescription of the PPP techniques, see the subsequent section on post ‑processing the positions of the control stations. Fig. 4 Method of surveying inaccessible or dangerous tombs using acombination of DGPS and atotal station
50 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 Fig. 5 Location of the Dra Abu el ‑Naga survey control stations, control points taken in the mortuary temples and those of other missions working in the Theban area Fig. 6 DEM of the study area, Dra Abu el ‑Naga south, with the location of New Kingdom tombs
57A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … Fig. 9 Sequence of the study area surface models. A: Palaeorelief prior to the construction of the tombs; B: New Kingdom palaeorelief (after the construction of the tombs); C: DEM of the study area based on the Theban necropolis map surveyed in 1921; D: DEM of the current terrain, including tombs and anthropic mounds
58 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 The geomorphological study (Bardají– Martínez ‑Graña– Sánchez Moraletal. 2017) demon‑ strated that New Kingdom tombs were cut into the palaeosurface (the reddish soil) itself. The oldest tombs carved into this reddish soil date to the Middle Kingdom, but precise dating of the palaeosurface is currently impossible due to the difficulty of properly sampling and analysing the weathering formations (Bardají– Martínez ‑Graña– Sánchez Moraletal. 2017: 242–247). Thus, while there is local evidence that the palaeosurface is earlier than the Middle Kingdom in some places, the construction of the New Kingdom tombs represents aterminus ante quem for the palaeosurface in general. THE FINAL MODEL OF NEW KINGDOM DRA ABU EL ‑NAGA AND SUBSEQUENT TOPOGRAPHICAL CHANGES DEM are mathematical surfaces generated by GIS algorithms using data extracted from aphys‑ ical topographic surface. They are imperfect recreations, of the actual physical topography, experienced and understood as a‘landscape’ by the humans within it (Brück 2005: 52–54; Chadwick 2004: 1–31; Chapman– Geary 2000: 316–319; Cummings 2008: 285–290; Cummings– Whittle 2004: 21–22; Gidlow 2000: 23–30; Thomas 2004: 171, 198–201; Tilley 2004: 185–203). Various methods have been proposed to improve the accuracy of DEM as renderings of ancient landscapes and remove errors (Conolly– Lake 2006: 228; Hageman– Bennett 2000: 113–127; Maschner 1996: 1–24; Wheatley– Gillings 2002: 107–126; Wheatley– Gillings 2000: 1–27). In this case, the model of New Kingdom Dra Abu el ‑Naga has necessarily been modified to ensure that subsequent analyses are as applicable to ancient Dra Abu el ‑Naga as is possible, given the evidence available. However, the model has only been altered where there was evidence that the DEM was unreliable, due to alimited number of reference points, or where it was clear from records made on the site that the DEM did not reflect the original ground surface (see the ‘Sketch showing the procedures carried out to generate the final model’, fig.10). The procedures carried out to generate the final model are described in the following paragraphs (fig. 10). Dra Abu el ‑Naga suffered an important orographical transformation during the last few hundred years. The village construction, use and demolition created an artificial hilly topogra‑ phy thanks to the accumulated debris (these anthropogenic debris are marked in the sketch in fig. 10 by the brown circle and ellipses at the bottom). Likewise, the excavations in the cluster of Ramesside tombs in Dra Abu el ‑Naga south, carried out by the University Museum of Philadelphia 1921–1923, left debris in the area in front of this group of tombs (marked in the sketch by the brown circle in fig. 10). These mounds currently obstruct the visibility from the Ramesside tombs, but they did not exist in the New Kingdom and, therefore, have been eliminated in the final model. The reliability of the geological ‑geomorphological surface (fig. 11) used in the final New Kingdom model also varies. It is most reliable closest to the survey points marking the reddish soil (represented with triangles in the sketch in fig. 10). Moving away from these points the accuracy of the geological ‑geomorphological model decreases because the higher the number of surveyed points the more accurate the interpolated surface. The final New Kingdom model only follows the geological ‑geomorphological model where the number of points is highest. The geological ‑geomorphological model (fig. 11) made it possible to identify areas where recent human activities were very intense, due to house construction or excavations. In fig. 10, the pink polygon shows areas where deposits generated by post ‑New Kingdom human activ‑
59A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … Fig. 10 Sketch showing the procedures carried out to generate the final model Fig. 11 Geological ‑geomorphological surface model
60 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 ity were identified and removed based on the geological ‑geomorphological. This was mainly between the cluster of Ramesside tombs at Dra Abu el ‑Naga and the modern road. During the New Kingdom this area had asoft undulation just interrupted by the tombs’ courtyards, as is shown in the Model B in fig. 9. Today, the relief is rough because of the terracing necessary for the modern houses. The area covered by the modern house debris is delimited in the sketch (see fig. 10) by the red discontinuous line. Inconsistencies were found in model B at the margins of the research area and in the central area, where two wadis cross Dra Abu el ‑Naga from north to south. These areas are marked with adiscontinuous green line in the sketch in fig. 10. In the highest areas where no houses had been built throughout the history of the necropolis, the topography remained unaltered due to low rates of erosion. As the reddish soil could only be identified in areas subject to the erosive effects of intense human activity (Bardají– Martínez ‑Graña– Sánchez Moraletal. 2017), it was not visible where the topography remained largely unaltered. Therefore, levels extracted from the maps cre‑ ated during the 1920s were used to model the ancient ground surface in these areas (represented in pale green in the sketch in fig. 10), as this allowed amore reliable model to be generated than one interpolated from the limited number of geological points in or around those areas. In the area of the wadi Khawi el ‑Baradsah, in the centre of Dra Abu el ‑Naga south, the relative absence of human activity limited the visibility of the reddish soil, resulting in very few geological points being recorded in this area. As aresult, the wadi was represented by improbably smooth relief in the geological ‑geomorphological model (see fig. 11) due to the limited number of points available for interpolation. Although we do not know the precise nature of the wadi during the New Kingdom, it must have been steeper than the version created by the interpolation. Levels extracted from the maps created during the 1920s (areas represented in pale green in the sketch in fig. 10) were thus used to model the wadi. They do not differ greatly from the current levels but are likely to be more accurate than the version in the geological ‑geomorphological model (see fig. 11). In the southernmost part of Dra Abu el ‑Naga (north) and around the tomb of Djehuty (TT11), the absence of geological data and the impossibility of identifying the reddish soil, prevented the generation of areliable final model. The inconsistencies in this area are exemplified by the case of the tomb of Djehuty (TT11) where there is adifference of 17 m between the level of the entrance to the tomb and the top area of its façade in the model. In reality, the distance should be approximately 3–5 m since the preserved façade of the tomb is 3 m and there are archaeological remains to prove that it was increased to at least 5.20 m by amasonry wall (Galán 2007: 95). Because of that error, it was decided to use levels from the maps created during the 1920s (areas represented in pale green in the sketch in fig. 10) to model the New Kingdom topography around the tomb of Djehuty in the final model. When tomb construction commenced and the necropolis developed, the topography of the study area changed. The tombs were carved out of the rock and the palaeorelief was cut away. Likewise, the superstructures and mudbrick pyramid ‑chapels were built, producing architec‑ tural additions to the landscape. The Differential GPS’ survey of the tombs’ superstructures (areas represented in orange in the sketch in fig. 10) have been incorporated into the final model to produce the most accurate representation of the necropolis during the New Kingdom. The tombs in the research area include atype with acourtyard hewn in the rock giving ac‑ cess to the entrance to the funerary monument, which leads into the mountain. This courtyard
61A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … produced an opening with aconstrained view of the landscape for anyone present within it. The precise choice of location, together with the size and dimensions of the courtyard pro‑ duced a‘window’ on aspecific area of landscape, which may have had aspecific significance for the tomb owner. In these cases, there should not be any topographical points in front of any tomb entrance that are higher than the entrance in the final New Kingdom surface. The only exceptions are the tombs that are known to have courtyards cut down into the ground. This is the case, for example, for TT161 and TT164, whose courtyards were completely hewn below the surface and were accessed through aramp. Where the final model included points in front of tomb entrances and within courtyards at ahigher level than the tomb entrance, the documentation from the fieldwork and photo‑ graphs of each tomb were analysed separately to determine if the model accurately reflected the real topography or not. Where the fieldwork and photographic record indicated there were inaccuracies, these points were eliminated to better reflect the real topography. This was only done in the areas where the final surface was otherwise very reliable, such around tombs ‑128‑, TT17, TT286, TT288, TT289. The cases of the tombs ‑378‑, TT141, TT161, TT162, TT284 and TT302 should be highlighted. Examination of the documentation and photographs from the fieldwork demonstrated that the levels generated in the final model were higher than the levels of the actual terrain, so the tombs were erroneously located below ground level in the model but not in reality.22 The case of TT161 is remarkable. Although this tomb was located completely below ground level in reality, the final model suggested that the ancient ground surface was 10 m higher than its current position, meaning the ancient Egyptians would have had to cut the surrounding surface 10 m before building the tomb, which is highly improbable. It is therefore likely that the ancient ground level in the final model requires some refinement in the area of TT161 as there may have been an undulation in the ancient ground surface, which was not visible to the survey team during fieldwork. Refinement may also be required around ‑378‑, TT141, TT162, TT284 and TT302 where the difference between actual ground level and the final model was not so substantial (the inconsistencies are recorded within the green discontinuous line in the sketch in fig. 10). These procedures ensured that the final model of the New Kingdom topography (fig. 9) was as accurate as possible without obvious errors resulting from the interpolation of the DEM and modern alterations to the landscape. MODELLING THE WIDER THEBAN LANDSCAPE Once the final New Kingdom model of Dra Abu el ‑Naga south had been completed, it was incorporated into adigital model of the Theban area, together with data on all the New King‑ dom structures and funerary monuments. This digital elevation model of the entire Theban area represents afirst attempt at contextualising the entire Theban landscape and facilitating 22 It is unfortunate that the model proved locally inaccurate in the immediate vicinity of these tombs, but some inaccuracies are inevitable since the DEM is ultimately only amodel of the landscape created by interpolation from the available data points. Further fieldwork to improve the number of points in the area of these tombs would reduce these inaccuracies, but it was not possible to undertake this within the timeframe of this project.
62 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 integration with other missions. It could also contribute to future landscape ‑archaeological re‑ search, such as astudy of the visibility of the Dra Abu el ‑Naga tombs (Jiménez ‑Higueras 2020). The digital elevation model of the entire Theban necropolis used adifferent methodology to the high ‑resolution micro ‑topography that produced the final New Kingdom model of Dra Abu el ‑Naga south. Ideally, it would have been desirable to survey the entire Theban necropolis at the same resolution as the Dra Abu el ‑Naga south research area but due to its size this was not possible. Therefore, the rest of the Theban necropolis (approximately 5x5km) was modelled based on the georeferenced Survey of Egypt map. This model was not aprimary goal of the pro‑ ject and was undertaken using the available resources as afirst step towards amore accurate model of the Theban necropolis. It will inevitably incorporate intrinsic errors derived from the different methodologies used in the creation of the maps, and errors and anachronisms in the Survey of Egypt mapping. In particular, the Nile and its branches are represented in their 20 th ‑century position, and the plans of various temples (specifically the Mansion of Million of Years of Amenhotep III and the temple of Karnak) are somewhat speculative in the Survey of Egypt map.23 Research (Toonenetal. 2017; Toonenetal. 2019) undertaken since the completion of the project in 2013 could also be used to improve the model and correct the anachronisms derived from the Survey of Egypt map. However, we are convinced that this model is worth‑ 23 The authors are grateful to their reviewer for pointing out these specific issues with the Survey of Egypt map. Fig. 12 Area of the research study including cult and funerary temples at the East and West Bank of Thebes
63A. JIMÉNEZ ‑HIGUERAS– D. GARCÍA ‑GONZÁLEZ– H. PETHEN– L. JONES– T. BARDAJÍ– … while and necessary as afirst attempt at modelling the Theban area that can be refined and improved as methods and technologies develop and missions share data and research. Before the model of the Theban area could be generated, the Survey of Egypt maps first re‑ quired georeferencing. Ground control points for the georeferencing were recorded at several locations within the Theban necropolis, where precise features on the ground could be easily identified in the Survey of Egypt maps, including Mansions of Million of Years, some of the tombs, and old reference points. Once the Survey of Egypt’smap was georeferenced, data within it was digitised for the entire Theban necropolis; including the contour lines, placement of the Mansions of Million of Years and cult temples, the course of the river, and the modern paths and roads. The final New Kingdom model showing the micro ‑topography of Dra Abu el ‑Naga south was trimmed and inserted into the model of the Theban necropolis. To accurately model the New Kingdom landscape, it was necessary to incorporate the Mansions of Million of Years and cult temples into the landscape model. All the bibliograph‑ ical references and plans associated with each temple were checked and some of the mission directors currently working on the temples provided plans and data to be included in the model of the Theban necropolis (fig. 12). CONCLUSION The 2013 fieldwork and subsequent processing produced afirst model of Dra Abu el ‑Naga from prior to the construction of the New Kingdom landscape up to the present day. Although some areas of the model of New Kingdom Dra Abu el ‑Naga are more reliable than others, it provides anew and useful resource for the investigation of Dra Abu el ‑Naga and the Theban necropolis. It also enabled the survey team to provide several other expeditions with coordi‑ nates for their survey points and initiated discussions about the accuracy and consistency of the coordinates obtained by each project. The interdisciplinary nature of the research was crucial. The geological ‑geomorphological study provided crucial evidence of the reddish soil for the reconstruction of the palaeorelief. It also provided further evidence on the formation of the hills of Dra Abu el ‑Naga and the Theban necropolis, the development of the study area throughout history, and how it has been mainly anthropogenic activities that have altered the landscape from the New Kingdom to the present day. The robust PPP strategy improved the accuracy and precision of the DGPS survey and ensures consistency between any projects which make use of Dra Abu el ‑Naga Survey data, without the need for aregional control network. Only stations or hard features that can be accessed and used for error checks are required. For an appropriate level of consistency between projects, all that would be required is for projects to agree on ashared coordinate transformation (i.e. with identical transformation parameters) so that all survey data could be projected into the same coordinate system. This is particularly useful for the Theban necropolis because of the difficulty of obtaining precise geographic or projected coordinates for control points and problems with accessibility, which result in most expeditions in the region using local site grids to record their results. There were several limitations to the research. Dra Abu el ‑Naga has not been completely excavated. Many excavations continue and some areas await investigation. Once the field‑ work project was completed, the total number of tombs had increased beyond those shown on
64 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 Kampp’smap and emendations to the orientation of the tombs were made to the tomb plans in the GIS data. The overall context of Dra Abu el ‑Naga within the extensive area of the Theban necropolis places limitations upon this research, since it is but one part of amuch larger area which cannot be surveyed in detail to such ahigh resolution by any single research project. Nevertheless, the ancient landscape of Dra Abu el ‑Naga has been reconstructed to asatisfac‑ tory level, offering amore accurate and complete image of this part of the necropolis for the study of its organisation, and the distribution and placement of the tombs. The work undertaken at Dra Abu el ‑Naga opens up new lines of investigation into the landscape of the necropolis and this approach could be productively applied to other ancient Egyptian tombs, necropolises and funerary landscapes in general. Ideally the detailed survey of Dra Abu el ‑Naga south would be extended across the Theban necropolis, providing acon‑ sistent micro ‑topographical model of the entire landscape. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Dr.Violaine Chauvet and Dr.Ian Shaw, as well as the School of Archae‑ ology, Classics and Egyptology of the University of Liverpool for all their help and support. The authors are grateful to the Permanent Committee of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities for permission to carry out this fieldwork. We would also like to express our deepest gratitude to the then Ministry of Antiquities (MoA) in Cairo and especially to the then Minister of State for Antiquities, Dr.Mohamed Ibrahim and Dr.Mohamed Ismail, Director of the Permanent Committee and Foreign Missions Affairs. We also want to thank the then Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) in Luxor, in particular Dr.Mansour Boraik, General Director of Antiquities in Upper Egypt and Dr.Mohamed Abd el ‑Aziz, Director of the Antiquities Department in the West Bank. Ablaa Abd el Hakk has been working with us as MSA Inspector. Rais Mohamed Farouk el ‑Quiftauy and Ahmed Shared have helped us considerably in the success of our work. The Dra Abu el ‑Naga survey team are also grateful to Juan Vicent, Antonio Uriarte, Juan Luis Pecharromán, and the Spanish National Research Centre (CSIC) for the loan of the GPS equipment, and to the Spanish ‑Egyptian mission at TT11–TT12, and especially to JoséM. Galán and Juan Ivars, for the loan of the Total Station, access to their project data and permission to record control points in their concession. We also wish to thank JoséM. Galán, Suzanne Ostine, Diana Craig Patch, Peter Lacovara, Hourig Sourouzian, Myriam Seco, Joel Paulson, An‑ gus Graham and Laurent Bavay for permission to record control stations in their concessions. Thanks are also due to Stuart A. Bazett Leakey of the Port of London Authority Hydrographic Surveying Department for advising on the processing strategy and error handling for the RTK survey and PPP. We are also grateful to the American Research Center in Egypt, and the Spanish Mission TT11–TT12 for Quickbird satellite imagery, and the Oriental Institute of Chicago CAMEL for CORONA satellite photography. We want to express our thanks to the ‘Djehuty Association’ led by Dr.JoséM. Galán, for sponsoring this project.
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The linguistic metaphors of deafness in Egyptian literary, biographical and medical texts Amgad Joseph ABSTRACT This article examines and explores the attested occurrences of the linguistic metaphors of deafness in the Egyptian literary, biographical and medical texts, with aspecial examination of their significances and con‑ notations. It examines how the Egyptian culture expresses its values through various metaphors of deafness. The article also considers the virtues and vices of deafness in literary and biographical contexts. It examines the cognitive approaches to different lexical semantics of the Egyptian words for deafness. Comparative liter‑ ary, biographical and medical sources, inscriptions in private tombs, statues, papyri and stelae are examined. The article also examines deafness to Maat and its consequences. The Egyptian lexemes and expressions designating deafness will be examined in lexicographical, phraseological and thematic textual analyses. KEYWORDS Linguistic metaphors– deafness– deafness to Maat– virtues– vices ةيبطلاو ةيتاذلا ريسلا صوصن و ،ةيرصملا ةيبدلأا صوصنلا يف ممصلل ةيوغللا تاراعتسلاا فيزوج دجما صخلملا ةيتاذلا ريسلا ىف اضيأو ،ةيرصملا ةيبدلأا صوصنلا ىف ممصلل ةيوغللا تاراعتسلاا دوجو ىف قيقحتلاو ثحبلاب لاقملا اذه موقي اهميق نع ةيرصملا ةفاقثلا تربع فيك ثحبلا لوانتي .اهنيماضمو اهتلالاد لوح ةصاخ ةسارد اًمدقم ،ةيبطلا صوصنلا وأ ريسلاو ةيبدلأا تاقايسلا ىف ممصلا لئاذرو لئاضف صحف ىلإ لاقملا قرطتي امك .عمسلا نادقفل ةعونتم تاراعتسا للاخ نم ةيبدلأا رداصملا ةسارد ثحبلا لمشيو .ةلصلا تاذ ةيرصملا تاملكلل ةيمجعملا تلالادلل ةيفرعملا جهانملا فاشكتساب ،ةيتاذلا لاقملا لوانتي .تاحوللاو تايدربلاو ليثامتلاو دارفلأا رباقم ىف شوقنلا صحف ىلإ ةفاضلإاب ،ةنراقملا ةيبطلاو ةيتاذلا ريسلاو ةيمجعم ةيصن تلايلحت ىف ةلصلا تاذ ةيرصملا تارابعلاو مجاعملا صحف متيس .هبقاوعو تعامل تاصنلإا مدع راثآ اًضيأ .ةيعوضومو ةيظفلو ةلادلا تاملكلا لئاذرلا – لئاضفلا – تعامل تاصنلإا مدع – ممصلا – ةيوغللا تاراعتسلاا Deafness is alittle ‑discussed phenomenon in ancient Egypt. However, Nili Shupak briefly discussed the concept of “deafness as ametaphor” in aconcise study of three expressions of deafness, namely sxy (sXy), idi and msDrt dng. She examined these expressions in Egyptian wisdom literature in comparison to Biblical wisdom literature (Shupak 1993: 91–92). She PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023, 73–94