THE TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEM – CZECH AND NIPPON CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

142 2016, XIX, 2 Ekonomika a managemen DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2016-2-010 In oduc ion Japanese companies a e conside ed a benchma k om a ious pe spec i es in he ealm o business and managemen . Thei o eign di ec in es men s (FDI) ha e been conside able o e he las decades in Cen al Eu ope. Mul ina ional En e p ises (MNEs) a e by hei na u e p one o c oss-cul u al in e ac ion (Rozkwi alska, 2010). This is especially signi i can in he case o Japanese MNEs, which hea ily ely on he use o expa ia es o con ol o eign subsidia ies and implemen o eign manage ial sys ems (Ha zing, 1999). Ou side o Japan, hos coun y employees in many Japanese subsidia ies in e ac wi h Japanese expa ia es and managemen eloca ion ac i i ies on a daily basis. Such c oss-cul u al in e ac ion o en c ea es in e - pe sonal ic ion, con l ic s and o he p oblems. In he global con ex , hese con l ic s be ween local employees and expa ia es in subsidia ies a e ele an , as hey may impai he e i ciency o he en i e o ganisa ion (Pudelko & Tenze , 2011). Al hough s udies ocused on compa ison o Eu opean and Asian cul u es ha e al eady been published ecen ly, o ins ance Li e al. (2016) deals wi h he Uni ed Kingdom and China, o Linde (2015) in es iga es Ge man expa ia es in Philippines, ecen compa ison o a Cen al Eu opean coun y wi h Japan is missing in he li e a u e. One app oach o explain and analyse hese con l ic s and he success o manage ial sys ems is he applica ion o he cul u al di e ences concep (Ayoko, Hä el, & Callan, 2002; Vaa a, 2003). Ano he s eam o li e a u e deals wi h he p oblem om a Human Resou ces Managemen pe spec i e (Pudelko, 2000). To esol e expa ia ion-speci i c complica ions, bo h app oaches s ess he impo ance o c oss- cul u al awa eness aining p og ammes and o e all suppo and assis ance o expa ia es (Pudelko & Tenze , 2011). This awa eness and suppo is o en aguely de i ned and lacks analysis. E en hough bo h app oaches analyse he deg ee o accep ance o a ious ools, hey ocus only on he ools. Less a en ion is paid o a wide pe spec i e ha possibly se es as a de i ni i e amewo k o hese ools. This discussion analyses he e ec o Czech manage s’ cul u al alues on he accep ance o he Toyo a P oduc ion Sys em (TPS), a Japanese manu ac u ing and manage ial amewo k and philosophy (Like , 2004) sha ed by mos au omo i e Japanese subsidia ies in he Czech Republic and elsewhe e. I also examines he si ua ion ela i e o he sa is ac ion and deg ee o con l ic in Japanese MNEs in he Czech Republic om bo h Czech and Japanese iewpoin s. In doing so, i de e mines he ou come o Czech and Japanese employees’ knowledge and app ecia ion o he Toyo a P oduc ion Sys em on co po a e pe o mance. Equally, i analyses he amoun and se e i y o con l ic s be ween local and expa ia e manage s. Mo eo e , i add esses he insu i cien esea ch on pe o mance in Japanese MNEs in a speci i c en i onmen as he e exis s li le li e a u e ha e iews job-sa is ac ion, con l ic , and TPS aining in he Czech Republic as a cul u ally speci i c en i onmen (B une -Tho n on & Bu eš, 2012). 1. Theo e ical Backg ound This sec ion p esen s gene al amewo ks de eloped in he a ea o c oss-cul u al managemen and highligh s hose applied in his s udy. Consequen ly, he main ideas and p inciples o he TPS a e in oduced. 1.1 C oss-Cul u al F amewo ks Hall (1959) in oduced h ee basic componen s o comp ehend a ious aspec s o cul u es: THE TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEM – CZECH AND NIPPON CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES Richa d B une -Tho n on, Michal Koža, Vladimí Bu eš EM_2_2016.indd 142EM_2_2016.indd 142 3.6.2016 11:48:013.6.2016 11:48:01 143 2, XIX, 2016 Business Adminis a ion and Managemen monoch onic and polych onic ime o ien a ion, p oxemics and high con ex and low con ex cul u e. Monoch onic desc ibes a cul u e, which ends o do one hing a a ime sequen ially. They plan and schedule. In con as , polych onic cul u es do hings simul aneously, and a e ocused on an indi idual pe cep ion o ime. Rega ding space, Hall di ided his dimension in o ou dis ances: in ima e, pe sonal, social and public. Va ious cul u es pe cei e space di e en ly, and wha one cul u e pe cei es as in ima e may be iewed as social space in a di e en cul u e. The Hampden-Tu ne and T ompenna s (1998) model compa es cul u es h ough se en bipola dimensions: Uni e salism/Pa icula ism, Indi idualism/Collec i ism, Neu al/A ec i e, Di use/Speci i c, Achie emen /Asc ip ion, A i ude o Time, and A i ude o he En i onmen . The Ho s ede (1983) Cul u al Dimensions model, based on a se ies o su eys conduc ed on IBM employees o iginally iden i i ed ou dimensions o na ional cul u es: Powe Dis ance, Unce ain y A oidance, Indi idualism, and Masculini y-Feminini y. In la e esea ch, wo addi ional alues ha e been added o his g oup: Long-Te m s. Sho -Te m O ien a ion and Indulgence/Res ain . Al hough o en c i icised he Ho s ede model is equen ly ci ed (B une - Tho n on & Bu eš, 2012). Resea ch (Be giel, Be giel, & Upson, 2012; Kohun, Bu čik, & Sko i a, 2012) indica es ha he alues e ol e and he e o e do no ep esen cons an s o he accu a e calcula ion o he dimensions he eby, ende ing compa isons di i cul . Based on he Ho s ede model, Kogu and Singh (1988) de eloped he concep o cul u al dis ance o exp ess cul u al di e ences and cha ac e is ics on he choice o ma ke en y in o eign di ec in es men s. The concep o cul u al dis ance has been used in a ious o he s udies such as, he measu emen o he e i ciency o manage ial ne wo ks (Mane & S e enson, 2001), knowledge ans e (Hol b ügge & Be g, 2004), in e nalisa ion p ocesses o i ms (Cla k & Pugh, 2001), MNE pe o mance (Gómez-mejia & Palich, 1997), as well as o gauge he le el o con l ic be ween Japanese and wes e n companies (Pudelko & Tenze , 2011). The la ge he cul u al dis ance be ween wo coun ies sugges s he possibili y o con l ic s be ween wo na ions wi hin one en i y, as in he case o a Japanese subsidia y in he Czech Republic. Al hough he e cu en ly exis a numbe o me hodologies (Yeganeh, 2011; Ge schewski, 2013). This s udy u ilises he Ya neh’s (2011) o mula. I accoun s o cul u al asymme y, bo h nega i e and posi i e alues; dimensions’ alignmen , does no agg ega e opposing cul u al dimensions, and weigh , cul u al dimensions ha e unequal impo ance, hus ela i e weigh s a e ac o ed. Yeganeh’s cul u al dis ance o mula o he Ho s ede dimensions (1) whe e CDab ep esen s he cul u al dis ance be ween coun ies a and b, a iables PDa, PDb … UAa, UAb ep esen he Ho s ede cul u al dimensions o each espec i e coun y. The cul u al dis ance be ween he Czech Republic and Japan based on Yegahen’s (2011) o mula and using a da ase acqui ed om Ha zing (2014) is -67.37. Kogu and Singh’s dis ance index is 0.9. Figu e 1 compa es hese esul s wi h o he coun ies. Kogu and Singh’s dis ance index, X dis ance, indica es ha he dis ance be ween he Czech Republic and Japan esembles he cul u al dis ances be ween he Czech Republic and Hunga y, Russia, USA, and Aus ia. The Yeganeh’s index, Y dis ance, demons a es ha o he coun ies wi h a simila dis ance o he Czech Republic as Japan a e Poland, Russia and Spain. Howe e , I aly, Ge man, and F ance a e coun ies wi h a ela i ely small cul u al dis ance. The co ela ion be ween he Kogu and Singh’s o mula and absolu e alues o Yeganeh’s o mulae is 83.8%. The lines in he g aph illus a e a heo e ical 100% co ela ion be ween Yeganeh’s and Kogu and Singh’s o mulae. 1.2 Toyo a P oduc ion Sys em The TPS was o iginally c ea ed by a g oup o enginee s in he 1950s as a se o manu ac u ing p inciples and ools o he Toyo a Mo o Company. I was de eloped as a sys em based on employee implici know-how and common EM_2_2016.indd 143EM_2_2016.indd 143 3.6.2016 11:48:013.6.2016 11:48:01 144 2016, XIX, 2 Ekonomika a managemen knowledge. The ules a e based on he p emise o sha e aci alues wi hin he g oup. Thus, o unde s and he TPS, acknowledgemen o he cul u al con ex wi hin he o ganisa ion, and especially he wo king g oup is c ucial. F om he manu ac u ing posi ion, he sys em uses a ious common wi hin p oduc ion en i onmen s, such as To al Quali y Managemen (Like , F uin, & Adle , 1999), Kanban-based pull p oduc ion, 5S, Jus -in- ime p oduc ion, and o he s. Ul ima ely, i s main pu pose is “ o elimina e h ough imp o emen ac i i ies a ious kinds o was e lying concealed wi hin a company” (Monden, 2013). By hemsel es he ools do no c ea e he TPS backbone bu a e jus one pa o he whole sys em. A e s udying mo e han 40 Toyo a ac o ies in he USA, Eu ope and Japan, Spea and Bowen (1999, p. 98) de i ne hese ou ules: 1. How People Wo k – All wo k should be speci i ed as o con en , sequence, iming and ou come. 2. How People Connec – E e y cus ome - supplie connec ion mus be di ec , and he e mus be an unambiguous me hod o ansmi eques s and ecei e esponses. 3. How he P oduc ion Line is Cons uc ed – The pa hway o e e y p oduc and se ice mus be simple and di ec . 4. How o Imp o e – Any imp o emen mus be made in acco dance wi h he scien i i c me hod, unde he guidance o a eache , a he lowes possible le el in he o ganisa ion. These ou ules p o ide a ounda ion o c ea e, o ganise, and iew wo k. When compa ed wi h o he ools, hese ules highligh ha ue implemen a ion o hese ideas is impossible wi hou a ho ough p ocess aimed a bo h he ho izon al and e ical s uc u es o he en e p ise. O iginally a se o echniques and ools, TPS g adually de eloped in o a deepe philosophy known as The Toyo a Way (Like , Fig. 1: Plo ed cul u al dis ances Sou ce: own EM_2_2016.indd 144EM_2_2016.indd 144 3.6.2016 11:48:013.6.2016 11:48:01 145 2, XIX, 2016 Business Adminis a ion and Managemen 2004). Today, i is a sys em o manu ac u ing as well as managemen p inciples used in a ious indus ies ha include manu ac u ing o medicine. Like (2004) iews he philosophy as a concep ha consis s o ou main componen s: Philosophy (Long-Te m Thinking), P ocess (Elimina e Was e), People and Pa ne s (Respec , Challenge and G ow Them), and P oblem Sol ing (Con inuous Imp o emen and Lea ning). The Toyo a Way (TW) is shaped by wo basic pilla s: Con inuous imp o emen and Respec o people. In u n, hese wo alue g oups encompass i e key p inciples: Challenge, Kaizen (imp o emen ), Genchi Genbu su (go and see), Respec and Teamwo k (Toyo a, 2003). S udies e eal ha when empi ically measu ed, hese i e p inciples a e no s a is ically di e en om each o he , as hey a e highly in e -co ela ed a o he measu emen sys em used by Toyo a o measu e he TW (Jayamaha, Wagne , G igg, Campbell-Allen, & Ha ie, 2014, p. 2). Like (2004) p esen s 14 p inciples ha cons i u e he TW. His pe cep ion is based on he 4-pilla model. The p inciples summa ised a e as ollows: 1. Base you managemen decisions on a long- e m philosophy, e en a he expense o sho - e m i nancial goals. 2. C ea e a con inuous p ocess l ow o b ing p oblems o he su ace. 3. Use ‘pull’ sys ems o a oid o e p oduc ion. 4. Le el ou he wo kload (wo k like he o oise, no he ha e). 5. Build a cul u e o s opping o i x p oblems, o ob ain quali y he i s ime. 6. S anda dised asks and p ocesses a e he ounda ion o con inuous imp o emen and employee empowe men . 7. Use isual con ols so no p oblems a e hidden. 8. Use only eliable, ho oughly es ed echnology ha se es you people and p ocess. 9. G ow leade s who ho oughly unde s and he wo k, li e he philosophy, and each i o o he s. 10. De elop excep ional people and eams who ollow you company’s philosophy. 11. Respec you ex ended ne wo k o pa ne s and supplie s by challenging hem and helping hem imp o e. 12. Go and see o you sel o ho oughly unde s and he si ua ion. 13. Make decisions slowly by consensus, ho oughly conside ing all op ions; implemen decisions apidly. 14. Become a lea ning o ganisa ion h ough elen less e l ec ion and con inuous imp o emen . 2. P oblem Fo mula ion The inc eased numbe o Japanese subsidia ies in he Czech Republic indica es he impo ance o hese companies o he Czech economy. Thei pe o mance is based no only on a mac o-en i onmen and in e na ional s a egy o he o ganisa ion, bu on he e i ciency o local ope a ions. Thus, i is c ucial o analyse me hods o mi iga e possible ic ion and o imp o e managemen e i cacy. The au ho s ocus on wo main p oblem a eas. The i s conside a ion is he cul u al i o alues wi hin he Toyo a P oduc ion Sys em and he cul u al alues o Czech manage s esponsible o he implemen a ion o hese managemen and manu ac u ing echniques oge he wi h he Japanese expa ia es. The TPS is o en used as a synonym o “lean p oduc ion” (Fujimo o, 1999) and many companies unde s and i as a p ocess o imp o e pe o mance. The e exis Toyo a Ins i u es in he USA and Thailand, whe ein he ules and alues o he TW a e augh in explici ashion. Such enues do exis in he Czech en i onmen . The e o e, he i s se o ques ions his s udy add esses is: P io o implemen a ion, wi hou well- de i ned TPS aining, does a na u al i o alues inhe en o Czech manage s and alues exis ? Wi hou su i cien aining, is TPS applicable wi hin a Czech wo k en i onmen ? The second a ea o esea ch is he ques ion o usabili y o he TPS knowledge in e ms o pe o mance imp o emen . Resea ch iden i i es basic app oaches o imp o e he o e all pe o mance o c oss-cul u al managemen : cul u al awa eness, in e cul u al e ec i eness, expe imen al o cogni i e c oss-cul u al aining and language-managemen . The c oss-cul u al aining does no au oma ically p o ide success ul ou comes. I is o en concluded wi hin an insu i cien ime- ame, o in an inadequa e manne . The equi emen o a success ul language-managemen s a egy EM_2_2016.indd 145EM_2_2016.indd 145 3.6.2016 11:48:023.6.2016 11:48:02 146 2016, XIX, 2 Ekonomika a managemen is a long- e m o ien ed e o . In he case o Japanese companies wi h a la ge a io o Japanese-only speake s, his e o is igno ed, and in mos cases, he o i cial wo king language is Japanese (Ha zing & Pudelko, 2013). TPS could po en ially combine hese wo app oaches, and se e as a “common language” o bo h sides wi hin a c oss-cul u al con l ic . In doing so, hus os e c oss-cul u al awa eness, smoo hen daily ope a ions and es ablish a basic pla o m o communica ion, p oblem sol ing and he se ing o p io i ies. On one side o he c oss-cul u al con l ic is he local manage s’ posi ion. The local manage becomes us a ed due o he cen alised decision-making and lack o unde s anding. The o he side o he con l ic consis s o he Japanese expa ia es, who s uggle o exp ess he easons o he beha iou o en ci ing cul u al o language di e ences. Thus, he second esea ch ques ion: Do he ules and p inciples o TPS p o ide a basic pla o m o comp ehension be ween wo cul u es, and he e o e imp o e he sa is ac ion o employees and lowe he amoun o con l ic s? Subsequen ly, h ee wo king hypo heses a e es ed: H1. Values inhe en o Japanese mana gemen a e close o he alues p oposed by he TPS han he alues inhe en o Czech managemen . H2. I a company has Czech managemen ained in he a ea o TPS, he company enjoys a lesse deg ee o con l ic be ween Czech and Japanese managemen . H3. I a company has Czech managemen ained in he a ea o TPS, he company ealises a highe le el o Czech employee job sa is ac ion. 3. Me hodology The p esen ed s udy is in ended o be in conco dance wi h o he c oss-cul u al s udies. The e o e, ins ead o plain analy ical s a is ical da a p ocessing ha would no gua an ee con o mi y in he gi en i eld o s udy, well- es ablished c oss-cul u al me ics and app oaches a e applied. Thus, he p esen ed s udy ep esen s a mixed esea ch app oach ha akes ad an age o bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e aspec s o a esea ch design. The hypo heses a e es ed using su ey da a. The main ques ions a e cons uc ed o desc ibe he esponden s’ alues ela i e o he TPS pilla s and p inciples. A copy is ound in he Appendix. TW pilla s and Like ’s 14 p inciples a e hen compa ed and analysed. Ou o Like ’s 14 p inciples, six a e iden i i ed as echnical: 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 12. They ha e no been aken in o accoun du ing he c ea ion o he su ey. Two p inciples a e ca ego ised as co po a e s a egy: 11 and 14. The emaining six p inciples a e me ged oge he wi h obse a ions om Spea and Bowen (1999). As a esul , i e di e en alues a e iden i i ed as Long- e m o ien a ion in hinking; Inno a ion pe cep ion; Human Resou ces de elopmen ; Respec o ules; and Respec o supe iso s. The sel -assis ed ques ionnai e (SAQ) consis s o 19 sho ques ions ela ed o cul u al alues and nine speci i c o he esponden . To quan i y he esponden ’s alues, seman ic di e en ial scales, 5-scale Like scales and single nume ic alue i elds a e used. Recen esea ch demons a es ha a ious ypes o scales p oduce di e en esul s (F ibo g, Ma inussen, & Rosen inge, 2006). Excep o he name o he company, posi ion and commen s, op ional i elds used only o s a is ical pu poses, none o he quali a i e da a is collec ed. All ques ions used in he SAQs a e buil in h ee languages, English, Czech, and Japanese. Acciden al sampling and snowball sampling me hods a e he p ima y echniques. P io o dis ibu ion, which ook place in he mid o 2014, a pilo - un was conduc ed. One company wi h i e Czech and i e Japanese manage s was con ac ed wi h he SAQ dis ibu ed h ough he Human Resou ces depa men . Following he ial, no majo changes we e equi ed o he ques ionnai e. The su ey was dis ibu ed using h ee sepa a e channels scanned i les sen and collec ed h ough email; online su ey h ough a specialised pla o m; and physical dis ibu ion o p in ed su eys. Email ecipien s we e in o med on he su ey pu pose and p o ided wi h wo URL links, one o he Czech and one o he Japanese e sions. Al hough dis ibu ion ep esen ed se en y- nine en e p ise con ac s, mo e han one hi d o esponden s, 35%, n = 45, did no e eal hei co po a e name. A dis ibu ion lis is included in he appendix. The su ey a ge ed bo h Czech and Japanese manage s, which includes, plan , quali y, p oduc ion p ocess, main enance and EM_2_2016.indd 146EM_2_2016.indd 146 3.6.2016 11:48:023.6.2016 11:48:02 147 2, XIX, 2016 Business Adminis a ion and Managemen imp o emen manage s. Ou o one hund ed wen y-nine esponses, 108 we e ele an , a eply a e o 82.9%. Al oge he , 45 esponses we e ecei ed om Czech manage s and 63 esponses om hei Japanese coun e pa s. Senio i y wi hin he en e p ise p esen s 7.2 yea s o Czech esponden s and 5.8 yea s o he Japanese. 4. Resul s 4.1 Value-Rela ed Ques ions Da a collec ed associa ed wi h he en ele an ques ions we e summa ised wi h a e ages o each espec i e alue calcula ed. Figu e 2 indica es he di e ence o each na ionali y be ween i s a e age alue and he middle alue used in he 5-poin Like scales and he 5-poin seman ic di e en ial scales. The x-axis displays he numbe o ques ions ha measu e he esponden s’ alues: sec ion 1 wi h ques ions 1–6 and sec ion wo wi h ques ions 7–10. The le y-axis indica es he a e age alues o espec i e ques ion and na ion wi h da k g ey o Czech and ligh g ey o Japanese. This illus a ion displays he di e ence be ween he wo g oups. Ques ions 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, and 9 de ia e mos om he medium alue. Ques ions 3, 4, 6, and 10 a e he closes o he medium. The la ges di e ences a e wi h ques ions 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10. Ques ions one h ough six a e seman ic di e en ial scales, ques ions se en h ough en a e 5-poin Like scales. 4.2 Sa is ac ion-Rela ed Resul s Bo h g oups a e sa is i ed wi h he numbe o wo k-hou s. The o e all di e ence is d = 0.29. Al hough Czech companies ha e a s anda d 8-hou long wo k day, many Japanese wo ke s emain a wo k longe . O i cial s a is ics s a e ha he a e age annual wo k- ime in Japan is 1,785 hou s, which is lowe han he Czech (OECD, 2014). This indica o howe e , conside s pa - ime wo ke s ha includes 24.5% in 2006, mo e han se en imes ha o he Czech Republic. I is he e o e, di i cul o use his absolu e numbe o compa ison. Acco ding o Fukuda (2012), 28% o Japanese employees wo k mo e han i y hou s pe week. This ende s Japan in second place p eceded by Sou h Ko ea (45%). The eason o his beha iou is mo e complica ed han conscien iousness. Ma sden (1999, p. 165–166) p oposes ha his beha iou e l ec s he s ess on quali y, job o a ion and skill de elopmen . Bo h cul u al g oups exp ess sa is ac ion wi h he mone a y ewa d (d = 0.42). Compa ed wi h he numbe o wo k-hou s, Czech manage s appea mo e sa is i ed wi h hei sala ies. Japanese manage s indica e he Fig. 2: Di e ences be ween a e age and middle alues Sou ce: own EM_2_2016.indd 147EM_2_2016.indd 147 3.6.2016 11:48:023.6.2016 11:48:02 148 2016, XIX, 2 Ekonomika a managemen same le el o sa is ac ion as in he p e ious ques ion. Al hough compensa ion s a egies di e by company, Japanese expa s ecei e on a e age a emune a ion package ha consis s o a ious bonuses equal o 2.8 imes he sala y o hos coun y employees a he same g ade and posi ion (Wong & Hend y, 1999). The e is dissa is ac ion wi h aining and educa ion. The esul is mos no able wi h Japanese manage s, wi h a mean alue o 3.02, 0.55 highe han hei Czech coun e pa s. The ole o Japanese expa s in o eign coun ies is o en wo- old (Delios & Bjo kman, 2000). The p ima y ole is o con ol he ac i i ies o he subsidia y o align wi h he goals o head o i ce. The second is o unc ion as a knowledge base o local employees. Se ing as a knowledge sou ce lowe s he numbe o oppo uni ies o u he o mal expa educa ion. As a esul , hey i nd hemsel es unp epa ed o new challenges when ab oad. O e all, he le el o sa is ac ion o Czech manage s is highe . This does no necessa ily signi y ha Japanese wo ke s a e less sa is i ed in o eign assignmen s han a home. Though i is mos likely possible ha he wo kload, in e pe sonal ela ionships and o e all wo king condi ions in o eign coun ies a e mo e demanding, he su ey did no explo e he possible di e ences be ween Czech and Japanese en i onmen s. Ne e heless, wha may be concluded is ha he pe cep ion o wo king condi ions be ween he wo g oups is di e en . 4.3 Con l ic s-Rela ed Resul s Ques ions we e cons uc ed wi h a 5-poin Like scale wi hin a ange o 1 o “absolu ely ue” and 5 o “absolu ely no ue”. The i s ques ion measu es he numbe o con l ic s be ween he esponden and he managemen o he o he cul u e. The di e ence be ween he wo g oups is la ge (d = 1.34). The second ques ion measu es he same issues as he p e ious bu wi h one di e ence. I enqui es as o he gene al s a e o ela ions be ween Japanese and Czech managemen . The i ndings indica e ha Czech manage s es ima e he ensions be ween he wo g oups o be la ge han in-g oup con l ic s (d = 1.06). The hi d ques ion measu es he di e ence in con l ic pe cep ion. Japanese manage s pe cei e he deg ee o con l ic s be ween hem and he Czech ope a o s o be g ea e han he Czech pe cep ion (d = 1.24). One o he many de i ni ions o cul u e desc ibes i as “ he me hod o sol ing p oblems” (Schein, 1985). Acco ding o he esul s o he ou h ques ion, Japanese manage s iew p oblem esolu ion wi h he o he cul u e as mo e e ec i e, han hei Czech colleagues (d = 0.68). 4.4 Tes ing o Hypo heses H1: Values inhe en o Japanese managemen a e close o he alues p oposed by he TPS han he alues inhe en o Czech managemen . Ou o he en ques ions ha measu e alues iden i i ed as ela i e o TPS, ou we e iden i i ed in con adic ion o expec a ions. This sugges s ha Czech manage s exhibi ed cha ac e is ics close o alues expec ed o Japanese manage s. Fou ques ions me expec a ions, and wo ques ions p oduced unanimous esul s. Table 1 summa ises he di e ences o each measu ed a iable, and esul s o ques ions connec ed wi h hese a iables. Thus, he hypo hesis H1 is e u ed. A posi i e in ege indica es ha he di e ence is in acco dance wi h expec a ions. A nega i e, ha he di e ence con adic s expec a ions. Ze o indica es ha he di e ence Fi s ques ion Second ques ion Sum Long e m -0.38 0.29 -0.09 Inno a ion pe cep ion 0.30 -0.33 -0.03 Supe iso espec -0.42 0.22 -0.20 HR de elopmen -0.24 0.00 -0.24 Rules espec 0.11 0.00 0.11 Sou ce: own Tab. 1: O e iew o measu ed alues and a iables EM_2_2016.indd 148EM_2_2016.indd 148 3.6.2016 11:48:023.6.2016 11:48:02 149 2, XIX, 2016 Business Adminis a ion and Managemen is insigni i can . The sum o ou ou o he i e a iables is nega i e as well as he o al sum o all a iables (-0.45). This does no necessa ily sugges ha he hypo hesis is unambiguously denied. To do so, he a iables would need espec i e weigh ing based on mul iple obse a ions in mul iple en i onmen s. The ac ual ele ance o hese a iables o TPS is unknown as no o he quan i ying esea ch has been conduc ed. Hence i is impossible o clea ly answe his issue. None heless, o each measu ed a iable, he e exis con adic ions. H2: I he company suppo s TPS aining o Czech managemen , he company enjoys a lesse deg ee o con l ic be ween Czech and Japanese managemen . To assess he second hypo hesis, TPS- ela ed aining o each employee is di ided in o h ee g oups. G oup “0” consis s o employees ha did no ecei e any o mal o in o mal aining. Employees in g oup “1” ha e no ed ha hey ecei ed some aining. To measu e he deg ee o con l ic , esul s o he i s con l ic - ela ed ques ion we e used: he e exis many con l ic s be ween you and managemen o o he han you own na ion. Findings a e ound in able 2. As he able indica es, he e exis s minimal di e ence in he amoun o con l ic be ween Czech manage s wi h o wi hou o mal TPS aining (0.11). The di e ence be ween Czech manage s wi h o wi hou in o mal aining is la ge (0.27). In he case o Japanese manage s, he di e ences a e 0.29 o o mal aining and 0.44 o in o mal aining. Thus, he hypo hesis H2 is e u ed. I appea s ha wi h inc eased aining, he deg ee o con l ic ises, he lowe he numbe , he highe he pe cep ion o con l ic . O i cial TPS aining Non-o i cial TPS aining Le el o aining Czech (n) Japanese (n) Czech (n) Japanese (n) 04.03 32 2.76 46 4.18 17 2.86 37 13.92 13 2.47 17 3.89 28 2.42 26 Sou ce: own Fo mal TPS aining In o mal TPS aining Wo k hou s Czech Japanese Czech Japanese 02.22 2.78 2.06 2.59 12.69 2.29 2.54 2.73 T aining Czech Japanese Czech Japanese 02.22 2.76 2.41 2.68 12.23 2.35 2.11 2.62 Sala y Czech Japanese Czech Japanese 02.66 3.11 2.71 2.95 12.00 2.76 2.32 3.12 O e all Czech Japanese Czech Japanese 02.13 2.50 2.24 2.35 12.08 2.29 2.04 2.58 Sou ce: own Tab. 2: A e age con l ic s di ided by le el o TPS aining Tab. 3: A e age job sa is ac ion by le el o TPS aining EM_2_2016.indd 149EM_2_2016.indd 149 3.6.2016 11:48:023.6.2016 11:48:02 150 2016, XIX, 2 Ekonomika a managemen H3: I a company p omo es Czech managemen aining on he TPS, he company ealises a highe le el o Czech managemen job sa is ac ion. Hypo hesis H3 was assessed in a simila manne as hypo hesis H2. Fi s , wo g oups o he TPS- ela ed aining we e iden i i ed wi h “0” o no aining and “1” o a leas some aining. Based on hese g oups, sa is ac ion o all ou sub-ques ions was a e aged sepa a ely: Wo k hou s, Sala y, T aining and O e all Sa is ac ion. A lowe numbe signi i es highe sa is ac ion and ice e sa. Resul s a e summa ised in able 3. Czech manage s wi h o mal o in o mal TPS aining display lowe sa is ac ion wi h he leng h o wo k hou s. Fo mal TPS aining does no appea o ha e any impac on he le el o sa is ac ion ela ed o aining. Howe e , Czech manage s who expe ienced in o mal TPS a e highe sa is ac ion le els. Manage s wi h bo h o mal and in o mal aining indica e a highe sa is ac ion wi h sala y. O e all sa is ac ion le els o Czech manage s speci y a weak posi i e co ela ion in ha manage s wi h any ype o aining a e mo e sa is i ed han manage s wi hou . Ne e heless, he hypo hesis H3 is e u ed. Al hough Japanese manage s exhibi simila ends wi hin he sa is ac ion subg oups, he esul s a e di e en . Fo example, Japanese employees wi h o mal aining indica e highe sa is ac ion wi h wo k hou s. Japanese employees wi h in o mal aining demons a e an opposi e end. Fo mal aining associa es wi h highe sa is ac ion le els wi h aining, sala y, and inclusi e app o al. On he o he hand, employees wi h in o mal aining exhibi an indi e ence o aining sa is ac ion, as well as a lowe sa is ac ion in bo h sala y and o e all con en men . 5. Discussion 5.1 Values Resul s o ques ion 1 e eal a di e ence be ween he wo g oups (d = 0.33). In addi ion, he alues con adic he expec a ions se by he li e a u e e iew. Acco ding o Ho s ede (2010), Japan’s highe unce ain y index, 92 compa ed wi h 74 o he Czech Republic, implies ha Japanese manage s ha e a endency o a oid isk and p e e o u ilise well-es ablished me hods and echnologies. I is easible ha Japanese manage s see he impo ance o new echnology as some hing mo e c ucial in he con ex o o eign subsidia ies as a means o imp o e s uc u e and ules wi hin an o ganisa ion (Ca don & Ma shall, 2008). The esul s o he second ques ion a e consis en wi h he li e a u e e iew (Like , 2004). The Czech manage s’ a e age is 1.87; Japanese manage s’ a e age is 2.17, hus highe by 0.31, and he e o e mo e inclined owa ds he second s a emen . In he ins ance ha a p ocess does no p oduce he expec ed esul s, Czech esponden s end o inno a e o modi y he p ocess and adjus he pa ame e s. Al e na i ely, hei Japanese coun e pa s deploy known solu ions unde he p emise ha changes equi e ime o ake e ec . Czech manage s sco e highe alues han he Japanese esponden s (d = 0.23), ha in u n signi i es ha he esponsibili y o possible misunde s andings esides wi h he supe iso . This esul con i ms p e ious esea ch ha he Japanese o m a socie y wi h s ong e ical connec ions. In he wo k en i onmen , supe io s a e iewed as men o s (senpai), who pa e nalis ically ca e o he younge inexpe ienced employee (Lincoln, Ke bo, & Wi enhagen, 1995, p. 428). Responses associa ed wi h he ou h ques ion accoun o a di e ence less han 0.03 poin s. Howe e , he a iance o his ques ion was he highes among all alue- ela ed ques ions wi h 1.35 compa ed o an a e age a iance o 0.93. Goal-se ing depends on he employee’s posi ion and subsequen ly di e s o a manual wo ke and a manage . The e o e, expec a ions a e ela ed o he ole and le el o esponsibili ies necessi a ed by he ac ual job. Wi h espec o he i h ques ion, Czech manage s sco e highe han hei Japanese coun e pa s, 3.80 o 3.56 espec i ely. I indica es ha i is mo e impo an o hi e and de elop manage s om in e nal esou ces han ex e nal. This i nding con adic s expec a ions. Con a y o he Czech Republic, Japan is a coo dina ed ma ke economy wi h pa icipa i e labou ela ions, skill o ma ion based on in ensi e aining and a s ong in e nal labou ma ke (Olco , 2009, p. 19). Mo eo e , Japan is epudia ed o i s “implici code o es ain on he pa o la ge i ms in he hi ing o employees, pa icula ly skilled ones, om o he i ms” (Olco , 2009, p. 97). In he six h ques ion, Czech manage s allied highe han hei Japanese coun e pa s wi h 3.30 e sus 2.87, a di e ence o 0.43. EM_2_2016.indd 150EM_2_2016.indd 150 3.6.2016 11:48:023.6.2016 11:48:02