DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN PATTERNS OF AGEING SOCIETY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Abstract
Population ageing is a demographic issue that emphasises the need to be interested in the lives of the most vulnerable population group: the elderly population. The paper investigates the ageing process and their relations among the European Union member countries from 2009 to 2019. These countries are assessed and dispersed to the appropriate clusters according to several indicators related to the areas that affect the lives of the elderly population: namely, the health status, the labour market conditions, and financial security. The focus is on the age group 55 years and over as it is a disadvantaged age group in the job application process regarding ageing society. It is a significant aspect of public finance system. The European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions, the Labour Force Survey, and the European System of Integrated Social Protection Statistics data are involved. The quantitative approaches are applied in the cluster analysis and followed by the panel data linear regression analysis. The dendrograms visualise the three clusters representing the mutual relations and the ageing patterns among the explored countries. The heat maps are created to prove the potential relations among the observed countries. The panel regression model demonstrates that the three variables – part-time employment, the income inequality, and the material and social deprivation – are statistically significant in all the regression models for the whole area and the three clusters. The analytical outcome could be applied as a valuable resource to government and national representatives. It can help identify the objectionable determinants for a custom policy and implement appropriate measures to improve the situation of the elderly population.
Full text
45
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES
IN PATTERNS OF AGEING SOCIETY
IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Denisa Kočano á1, Viliam Ko áč2, Vi aliy Se zhano 3,
Ján Buleca4
1 Technical Uni e si y o Košice, Facul y o Economics, Depa men o Finance, Slo akia, ORCID: 000-0001-6109-6657,
[email p o ec ed];
2 Technical Uni e si y o Košice, Facul y o Mining, Ecology, P ocess Con ol and Geo echnologies, Slo akia,
ORCID: 0000-0002-5265-9005, [email p o ec ed];
3 Uzhho od Na ional Uni e si y, Facul y o Economics, Depa men o Finance and Banking, Uk aine,
ORCID: 0000-0002-0577-4422, i aliy[email p o ec ed];
4 Technical Uni e si y o Košice, Facul y o Economics, Depa men o Finance, Slo akia, ORCID: 0000-0002-6613-2167,
[email p o ec ed].
Abs ac : Popula ion ageing is a demog aphic issue ha emphasises he need o be in e es ed in
he li es o he mos ulne able popula ion g oup: he elde ly popula ion. The pape in es iga es
he ageing p ocess and hei ela ions among he Eu opean Union membe coun ies om 2009
o 2019. These coun ies a e assessed and dispe sed o he app op ia e clus e s acco ding o
se e al indica o s ela ed o he a eas ha a ec he li es o he elde ly popula ion: namely, he
heal h s a us, he labou ma ke condi ions, and inancial secu i y. The ocus is on he age g oup
55 yea s and o e as i is a disad an aged age g oup in he job applica ion p ocess ega ding
ageing socie y. I is a signi ican aspec o public inance sys em. The Eu opean Union S a is ics on
Income and Li ing Condi ions, he Labou Fo ce Su ey, and he Eu opean Sys em o In eg a ed
Social P o ec ion S a is ics da a a e in ol ed. The quan i a i e app oaches a e applied in he clus e
analysis and ollowed by he panel da a linea eg ession analysis. The dend og ams isualise
he h ee clus e s ep esen ing he mu ual ela ions and he ageing pa e ns among he explo ed
coun ies. The hea maps a e c ea ed o p o e he po en ial ela ions among he obse ed coun ies.
The panel eg ession model demons a es ha he h ee a iables – pa - ime employmen , he
income inequali y, and he ma e ial and social dep i a ion – a e s a is ically signi ican in all he
eg ession models o he whole a ea and he h ee clus e s. The analy ical ou come could be
applied as a aluable esou ce o go e nmen and na ional ep esen a i es. I can help iden i y he
objec ionable de e minan s o a cus om policy and implemen app op ia e measu es o imp o e
he si ua ion o he elde ly popula ion.
Keywo ds: Ageing, li e expec ancy, clus e analysis, eg ession analysis, Eu opean Union.
JEL Classi ica ion: C33, I14, J14.
APA S yle Ci a ion: Kočano á, D., Ko áč, V., Se zhano , V., & Buleca, J. (2023). Di e ences
and Simila i ies in Pa e ns o Ageing Socie y in he Eu opean Union. E&M Economics and
Managemen , 26(1), 45–64. h ps://doi.o g/10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
In oduc ion
Popula ion ageing cu en ly ep esen s a phe-
nomenon ha is occu ing a ound he wo ld.
I can also be de ined as a consequence o
he e ili y a e decline and he inc easing
li e ex pec ancy, esul ing in an inc easing
numbe and a p opo ion o he popula ion in
he pos -p oduc i e age. Fo he i s ime, he
E+M_01_2023.indb 45 28.2.2023 10:02:35
46 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
elde ly popula ion will be p edominan o e he
younge people (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion,
2020). The on going demog aphic changes a e
going o cha ac e ise he upcoming decades.
This p ocess will a ec he di e en a eas
om he popula ion’s heal h s a us h ough he
heal h sys ems, he condi ions in he labou
ma ke , he changing consump ion pa e ns,
and he need o p o ide he sys em e o ms
ela ed o highe demand o public esou ces
and inance. Ageing c ea es deep p essu e on
iscal sus ainabili y. I will pu unp eceden ed
s ess on public inance o und he pension
sys em, he heal h sys em and he long- e m
ca e expendi u es (O ganisa ion o Economic
Co-ope a ion and De elopmen , 2019). The
bu den on public inance lies p ecisely in
need o inc ease go e nmen spending on he
pension sys em, which plays a c ucial ole in
ensu ing he li ing s anda d equi emen s o
he elde ly popula ion. Un o una ely, one in
se en pensione s is a isk o po e y in he
Eu opean Union membe coun ies nowadays
(Eu os a , 2021a). Ageing is mainly associa ed
wi h a g owing numbe o he popula ion in he
pos -p oduc i e age. The e o e, i is essen ial
o know he elemen a y cha ac e is ics and he
socioeconomic indica o s o his age g oup. An
o e iew o he ecen s udies shows ha he
heal h s a us, labou condi ions and inancial
secu i y appea o be he mos c i ical a eas o
he elde ly popula ion.
This pape con ibu es o he cu en scien-
i ic li e a u e by e alua ing he ageing p ocess
and he demog aphic changes in he Eu opean
Union e i o y. I classi ies i s membe coun-
ies wi h simila ageing cha ac e is ics in o
di e en clus e s. I also ou lines he inancial,
heal h, and social indica o s wi h he highes
impo ance o he li es o he elde ly popula-
ion. All hese h ee aspec s a e impo an as
he public esou ces spen in he ields which
hese aspec s a e ela ed o, ha is, mainly
public and go e nmen spending. The main
objec i e o his pape is o de ec a po en ial
mu ual ela ion be ween he Eu opean Union
membe coun ies as Eu ope is cha ac e ised
by almos he oldes popula ion in he wo ld.
I his we e p o ed, he pu pose would be o
e iew which o he explo ed coun ies beha e
simila ly and hence; he analogous policy
could be applied o hem. Abo e and beyond
his, he de elopmen o he las en yea s is
examined oo. The e o e, a pa ial goal is o
analyse he selec ed a iables ela ed o he
ageing popula ion and clus e he obse ed
coun ies acco ding o his. Such a p ocess can
e eal he possible common succession o he
s eps in o de o p epa e he social condi ions
o all he age g oups o he popula ion in he
gi en coun ies. The main esea ch ques ion is
o e eal he ela ions ela ed o he explo ed
dimensions. Fundamen ally, he hypo heses
a e s a ed in a way ha he in ol ed a iables
beha e s a is ically signi ican o he explana-
o y a iable ep esen ing old-age dependency.
This ep esen s an aspec o he public inance
sys em ha plays a key ole in he inancing
p ocesses. I c ea es a pa o he whole issue
o ageing socie y as his phenomenon co e s
many ields o li e. Mo eo e , his should c e-
a e a basemen o a po en ial mu ual public
policy o he ins i u ions o he Eu opean Union.
Hence, he ules accep ed by he Eu opean
Union a e no only unded by highe amoun
o inancial esou ces, bu also a e backed by
s onge legisla i e. In he submi ed pape , an
in es iga ion o he impac o gi en a iables is
ca ied ou wi h i s signi icance in he pa icula
coun ies. The pape is s uc u ed as ollows:
he second sec ion o e s he li e a u e e iew,
he hi d sec ion desc ibes he da a, and he
ou h sec ion he me hodology applied. The
analy ical ou come o he discussion is demon-
s a ed in he i h sec ion. Finally, he six h sec-
ion ep esen s he conclusion wi h a summa y
o he ob ained indings.
1. Theo e ical Backg ound
The demog aphic changes a e e y apid glob-
ally, and he shee numbe o pensione s is
inc easing as e han i is o en hough (O ice
e al., 2020). The de eloped wo ld is subjec o
wo simul aneous p ocesses.
Popula ion g ow h is slowing, and he popu-
la ion’s age s uc u e is changing in many coun-
ies (B onia owska, 2019). By 2030, a qua e
o he de eloped wo ld’s popula ion will be o
age o e 65 yea s (Uni ed Na ions, 2019b).
Mo eo e , he Eu opean con inen possesses
one o he oldes popula ions, as many Eu o-
pean coun ies ha e he lowes e ili y a es
and he highes li e expec ancy a es globally
(Ma ois e al., 2020).
Nume ous p e ious esea ch was cen ed
on he demog aphy changes and p ocess o
popula ion ageing in he coun ies o he Eu o-
pean Union (C is ea e al., 2020; Ebbinghaus,
E+M_01_2023.indb 46 28.2.2023 10:02:35
47
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
2021; Es e ens, 2018; Gómez-Cos illa e al.,
2021; Jako lje ic e al., 2018; Kluge e al.,
2019; Lu z e al., 2019; Pascual-Sae e al.,
2020; Sande son & Sche bo , 2016; Skibiński,
2017). Mos s udies con i m ha demog aphic
changes a e a challenge o many policy a eas:
labou ma ke , heal h and long- e m ca e, li e-
long lea ning, amily policy, social p o ec ion,
and pension sys ems.
A popula ion decline can be examined
h ough se e al aspec s o explo e i s po en ial
consequences (Coleman & Row ho n, 2011;
Fukuda & Okumu a, 2020; Janus e al., 2022;
Kikuchi e al., 2022). The e ili y a e le el i sel
canno illus a e he whole si ua ion because
se e al o he dimensions should be conside ed
(S iessnig & Lu z, 2013). This ield needs
new app oaches o quan i y he c ucial igu es
o de e mine he u u e policy (Sande son
& Sche bo , 2015). The scien i ic li e a u e also
emphasises he impo ance o s udying he li e
o he elde ly and ocuses on heal hy and ac i e
ageing.
On he con a y, a en ion is also paid o he
p oblems o social secu i y and inc eased de-
mand o pension paymen s. These a e he e-
sul o he s a e con i med by he O ganisa ion
o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen
(2019) ha old-age dependency a ios will
ise in all he 27 Eu opean Union membe
coun ies in he ollowing decades, pu ing
he inancing o adequa e pensions, heal h,
and long- e m ca e unde high p essu e. The
inc eased bu den on he social secu i y sys-
em ep esen s he expec ed consequence o
an ageing popula ion om he poin o iew o
economics (Skibiński, 2017).
The c i ical challenges o ageing ega d-
ing he way i shapes socie y a e he inancial
secu i y in e i emen , he disease bu den in
old age, and he sh inking labou o ce in he
p oduc i e age (Aguila -Palacio e al., 2018;
K a & Ki nos, 2020; Pa k e al., 2022). These
challenges a e domains included in he Ac i e
Ageing Index (O ega, 2020; Uni ed Na ions,
2019a). Lyons e al. (2018) ocused on he
impac o popula ion ageing on he inancial
secu i y o households ha a e mos like o be
ulne able.
Financial inclusion and echnological usage
a e conside ed essen ial ools o ensu e he
inancial secu i y o he elde ly. Also, inancial
secu i y ends o be linked o he popula ion
ageing c isis (Khan, 2019; Mu a e al., 2019;
Pascual-Saez e al., 2020; Rupeika-Apoga
& Thalassinos, 2019). In he con ex o he
labou ma ke si ua ion, he e a e ques ions o
who, how many and wi h wha skills will wo k in
Eu ope in he upcoming decades (Lu z e al.,
2019).
The ageing p ocess and e i emen signi i-
can ly ans o m he si ua ion in he labou ma -
ke . To encou age he elde ly o wo k longe ,
pos pone e i emen and p o ide hem wi h he
oppo uni y o be employed pa - ime seems o
be he appa en policy solu ion (Moen, 2020;
Sewdas e al., 2017). Howe e , in e nal policy
solu ions such as inc eased e i emen age
o longe wo king hou s we e unsuccess ul in
many coun ies. Compa ing di e ences o he
ole o e i emen by he mo i e o he o m o
e i emen claimed ha he ully e i ed popu-
la ion showed a signi ican ly lowe sense o
pu pose han hose who a e s ill wo king o a e
jus pa ially e i ed (Bes & Hill, 2020).
In ecen yea s, se e al s udies ha e been
ocused on he ac o s in luencing he qual-
i y o li e and li e sa is ac ion o he elde lies
(Leeuwen e al., 2019). Fo e alua ing he li e
sa is ac ion o elde lies, i is c ucial o ecognise
he ac o s ha in luence hei quali y o li e,
emphasising ha olde people end o p e e
he quali y o li e o e a long pe iod.
Se e al s udies ound a nega i e as-
socia ion o age and heal h o elde lies, bu a
posi i e associa ion wi h he di icul ies and he
limi a ions in daily ac i i ies. Al hough, his is
dispu able because o he selec ion bias occu -
ence. Some ha e also p o ed a di ec impac
o social suppo on sel -pe cei ed heal h, es-
pecially among he elde ly (Giang e al., 2020;
Le e al., 2020; Loichinge & Po hisi i, 2018).
Also, he dep essi e symp oms a e ma kedly
connec ed o he quali y o li e (Bo ne e al.,
2017). Li e sa is ac ion o he elde ly popula-
ion is nega i ely a ec ed e en in he case o
low inancial o ma e ial suppo , when hey
su e om emo ional s ess o when hey lose
suppo p o ided by child en (Liu e al., 2019).
Hence, i is ecommended o gi e special a -
en ion o s udying he social di e ences in li e
expec ancy a he age o 50 o 65 yea s and
disabili y- ee li e expec ancy.
The aim is o es ima e he con ibu ions
om he disabili y and mo ali y e ec s h ough
he di e ences be ween he income g oups.
The g adien o income inequali y is sha pe
o heal hy li e yea s han li e expec ancy. As
E+M_01_2023.indb 47 28.2.2023 10:02:35
48 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
income inequali y is inc easing, disabili y- ee
li e expec ancy by income appea s o be an
impo an indica o ha can moni o social
inequali y in he acc e i e sha e o elde lies
(B ønnum-Hansen e al., 2021). Ageing also
esul s in inc eased expendi u es on heal hca e
se ices and wel a e (Li e al., 2020). The e o e,
i is aluable o ocus on he li es o he elde ly
popula ion, iden i y he mos likely in luen ial
ac o s, and ind ou he pu pose o e i ing as
i is connec ed o many physical and men al
heal h implica ions (Bes & Hill, 2020).
2. Me hodology
Se e al quan i a i e me hods a e applied, o-
cusing on he clus e analysis and he sensi i -
i y analysis in he o m o panel da a eg ession
analysis as he p ima y app oaches.
Fi s ly, o p o ide ha da a a e mu ually
compa able, he no malisa ion o he da a is
necessa y. The maxima a e he model ou pu s,
while he minima a e de ined as he lowes
pe o mance benchma ks, and hus, hey a e
de e mined as he wo s possible scena io.
The indica o s a e s anda dised in o a con-
sis en scale om ze o o one acco ding o Wil-
liamson and Pia oe a (2018) and G annis e al.
(2019) and p oximi y- o- a ge me hodology:
(1)
whe e: Ixi – he s anda dised alue o he gi en
indica o ; xi – i- h alue o he a iable o be
s anda dised.
I he indica o g ow h ep esen s an unde-
si able end, he ollowing modi ica ion is eady
o be applied:
(2)
whe e: he comp ised a iables possess he
same meaning as he p e ious equa ion.
Secondly, he simila i y o he e i o ies is
compu ed h ough he Euclidean dis ance:
(3)
whe e: c1 – he i s coun y; c2 – he sec-
ond coun y; D(c1, c2) – he mu ual Euclidean
dis ance o he c1 coun y and he c2 coun-
y; c1x – he x coo dina e o he c1 coun y;
c2x – he x coo dina e o he c2 coun y; c1y – he
y coo dina e o he c1 coun y; c2y – he y coo di-
na e o he c2 coun y.
Thi dly, he clus e s a e de e mined acco d-
ing o he ollowing me hods:
The Ball-Hall index (Ball & Hall, 1965);
The McClain-Rao index (McClain & Rao,
1975);
The poin -bise ial co ela ion coe icien
(Milligan, 1981).
The Ball-Hall index is compu ed in his way:
(4)
whe e: BHI – he Ball-Hall index; n – a num-
be o he coun ies; i – he pa icula coun y;
i – a ec o o he i- h coun y in he pa icu-
la clus e ; ci – a cen oid o he i- h clus e ;
– a modi ica ion pa ame e .
The McClain-Rao index is calcula ed as
ollows:
(5)
whe e: MRI – he McClain-Rao index;
Dw – a sum o he wi hin clus e dis ances;
Pw – a numbe o he coun y pai s o he
obse a ions belonging o he wi hin clus e ;
Db – a sum o he be ween clus e dis ances;
Pb – a numbe o he coun y pai s o he obse -
a ions belonging o he be ween clus e .
The poin -bise ial co ela ion coe icien is
compu ed like his:
(6)
whe e: PBCC – he poin -bise ial co ela ion
coe icien ; Dw – a sum o he wi hin clus e
dis ances; Db – a sum o he be ween clus e
dis ances; Pw – a numbe o he coun y pai s
o he obse a ions belonging o he wi hin clus-
e ; Pb – a numbe o he coun y pai s o he
obse a ions belonging o he be ween clus e ;
SDD – a s anda d de ia ion o all he dis ances.
The cons uc ion o he clus e s is based on
Wa d’s minimum a iance me hod. The dend o-
g ams and hea maps ep esen he g aphical
ou come o he clus e analysis.
E+M_01_2023.indb 48 28.2.2023 10:02:35
49
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
The second me hodological app oach
applied is sensi i i y analysis. Wi hin i , he
eg ession model o a linea o m o he panel
da a is cons uc ed. The inpu da a se o he
modelling p ocess possesses a o m o panel
da a, including he wo dimensions: a e i o ial
one and a ime one. The i s di e ence me hod
is applied in he linea eg ession. The eg es-
sion analysis is ca ied ou wi h a p esence o
a cons an alue. The sequen ial elimina ion
me hod is he p ima y modelling echnique,
so he a iable wi h he lowes s a is ical sig-
ni icance is excluded om he o he modelling
p ocess. The elimina ion ac o is ep esen ed
by he p- alue o he pa icula independen
a iable. The sequen ial elimina ion is ela ed o
he elemen a y al oge he model o he whole
se o he explo ed coun ies. I implies ha he
clus e eg ession models aimed a he clus e s
a e adap ed o he elemen a y model. The e-
o e, i in ol es he a iables in he inal model
o he modelling ow ha was no compulso y o
mee he s a is ical signi icance equi ed o he
pa icula eg ession model.
Ve i ica ion o s a is ical signi icance o he
ob ained esul s is con i med by he ou sepa-
a e es s a is ics calcula ed o decide abou
he app op ia eness o he c ea ed eg ession
models – he Shapi o-Wilk es , he Du bin-
Wa son s a is ic, he Whi e es , and he a i-
ance in la ion ac o (Du bin & Wa son, 1951;
Shapi o & Wilk, 1965; Whi e, 1980). The es s
men ioned abo e also con ibu e o he o he
analy ical s udies o e i y he s a is ical sig-
ni icance o he s udy ou come (Ma sillas e al.,
2017; Michne ic, 2016; Milanez, 2020; Okely
e al., 2018; Ray e al., 2018; Sala, 2020).
The whole analysis is execu ed in he R s a-
is ical en i onmen h ough he p og amming
language R (R Co e Team, 2022) wi h he ad-
di ional help o he NbClus package (Cha ad
e al., 2014), he plm package (C oissan
& Millo, 2008; C oissan e al., 2017), and he
RColo B ewe package (Neuwi h, 2015).
3. Da a Desc ip ion
The da a comes om he h ee ollowing da-
abases – he Eu opean Union S a is ics on
Income and Li ing Condi ions, he Eu opean
Union Labou Fo ce Su ey, and he Eu o-
pean Sys em o In eg a ed Social P o ec ion
S a is ics. The i s one collec s he imely and
compa able c oss-sec ional and longi udinal
mul idimensional mic oda a on income, po -
e y, social exclusion and li ing condi ions. The
second one is he ex ensi e household sample
su ey ha p o ides he da a on labou pa ici-
pa ion o he popula ion aged 15 and o e and
on he inac i e indi iduals in he labou ma ke .
The hi d one enables he compa ison o he
na ional adminis a i e da a on social p o ec ion
a he in e na ional le el. I p o ides a cohe en
compa ison be ween he Eu opean coun ies
o he social bene i s o households and hei
inancing.
The analysis co e s wo dimensions: a e -
i o ial angle o a iew in ol ing he 27 coun ies
o he Eu opean Union wi h an omission o he
Uni ed Kingdom, and he ime pe spec i e ep-
esen ed by he pe iod om 2009 o 2019. The
da a a e composed annually. An obse ed se o
he a ea in ol ed in he analysis consis s o he
ollowing coun ies: Aus ia (AT), Belgium (BE),
Bulga ia (BG), C oa ia (HR), Cyp us (CY), Czech
Republic (CZ), Denma k (DK), Es onia (EE), Fin-
land (FI), F ance (FR), Ge many (DE), G eece
(GR), Hunga y (HU), I eland (IE), I aly (IT), La ia
(LV), Li huania (LT), Luxembou g (LU), Mal a
(MT), he Ne he lands (NL), Poland (PL), Po u-
gal (PT), Romania (RO), Slo akia (SK), Slo enia
(SI), Spain (ES), and Sweden (SE) (In e na ional
O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion, 2013). The
Uni ed Kingdom is omi ed because he u u e
agenda and he policies supplied by he Eu o-
pean Union do no co e his o me membe .
The ollowing indica o s de e mining he
ageing socie y, which a e ela ed o people
aged 55 yea s and o e , a e obse ed in he
analysis: old-age dependency a io (OADR),
elde ly employmen (EE), pa - ime employ-
men (PTE), weekly wo k hou s (WWH), li e
expec ancy (LE), disabili y- ee li e expec ancy
(DFLE), pe sonal heal h (PH), heal h p oblem
limi a ion (HPL), ne income (NI), social p o ec-
ion expendi u e (SPE), income inequali y (II),
a - isk-o -po e y popula ion (PP), and ma e ial
and social dep i a ion (MASD).
The ollowing a iables ep esen he in-
ol ed indica o s:
Old-age dependency a io ( ps00198): he
a io o he popula ion aged 65+ and he
popula ion aged 15 o 64 yea s exp essed
pe 100 people o he wo king age om
15 o 64 yea s (Eu os a , 2021n);
Elde ly employmen is designa ed as he
employmen a e o olde wo ke s ( e-
sem050): a pe cen age o employees aged
E+M_01_2023.indb 49 28.2.2023 10:02:35
50 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
55–64 yea s in he o al popula ion o he
same age g oup (Eu os a , 2021b);
Elde ly pa - ime employmen designa ed
as pe sons employed pa - ime ( ps00159):
a pe cen age o pa - ime employees aged
55–64 yea s in he o al employmen o he
same age g oup (Eu os a , 2021c);
Weekly wo k hou s designa ed as he a e -
age numbe o usual weekly hou s o wo k
in he main job (l s _ _l e2ehou ): a e age
weekly wo k hou s pe employee (Eu os a ,
2021d);
Li e expec ancy designa ed as li e expec an-
cy a age 65 ( ps00026): he a e age numbe
o yea s emaining o be li ed by a pe son
who is aged 65 yea s (Eu os a , 2021e);
Disabili y- ee li e expec ancy designa ed
as disabili y- ee li e expec ancy a 65
( eps _sp320): he numbe o yea s ha a
pe son aged 65 is s ill expec ed o li e in a
heal hy condi ion (Eu os a , 2021 );
Pe sonal heal h is designa ed as sel -
pe cei ed heal h (hl h_silc_10): he sub-
jec i ely pe cei ed heal h by he popula ion
aged 55+ yea s who epo he le el o hei
heal h s a us as good o e y good (Eu o-
s a , 2021g);
Heal h p oblem limi a ion designa ed as
sel -pe cei ed long-s anding limi a ions
in usual ac i i ies due o heal h p oblem
(hl h_silc_12): he subjec i e pe cep ion
o limi a ions due o heal h p oblems by
people aged 55+ yea s who epo he le el
o ac i i y limi a ion as some o se e e (Eu-
os a , 2021h);
Ne income designa ed as mean equalised
ne income (ilc_di3): he a e age ne in-
come ega ding social ans e s and includ-
ing pensions in pu chasing powe s anda d
(Eu os a , 2021i);
Social p o ec ion expendi u e designa ed
as expendi u e on social p o ec ion pe in-
habi an ( ps00100): he expendi u es on
social bene i s, adminis a ion cos s and
o he expendi u es measu es in pu chasing
powe s anda d pe inhabi an (Eu os a ,
2021j);
Income inequali y is designa ed as income
inequali y o olde people ( espn080):
he a io o o al equalised disposable
income ecei ed by he 20% o he popu-
la ion aged 65+ yea s wi h he highes
income and he 20% o he popula ion aged
65+ yea s wi h he lowes income meaning
compa ing he op and he lowes quin ile
(Eu os a , 2021k);
A - isk-o -po e y popula ion o social ex-
clusion (ilc_peps01): he a - isk-o -po e y
popula ion aged 55+ yea s o se e ely ma-
e ially dep i ed whose equalised dispos-
able income is below 60% o he na ional
median a e social ans e s (Eu os a ,
2021l);
Ma e ial and social dep i a ion a e (ilc_
mdsd07): he a e o people aged 55+ yea s
who eel ma e ially o socially dep i ed and
hey expe ience a leas 4 ou o 9 ollow-
ing dep i a ions i ems, which canno a o d
o pay en o u ili y bills, keep home ad-
equa ely wa m, ace unexpec ed expenses,
ea mea , ish o a p o ein equi alen e e y
second day, a week holiday away om
home, a ca , a washing machine, a colou
ele ision o a elephone belong among
(Eu os a , 2021m).
The indica o s applied in he analysis a e
also in ol ed in many o he s udies ega d-
ing he ageing socie y. The mos common a e
hose ela ed o he pa icipa ion o he olde
employees in he labou ma ke as u ning he
elde ly in o an ac i e wo k o ce seems like an
oppo uni y o ace he challenges o an ageing
popula ion (Been & Vlie , 2017; Laun, 2017;
Soong, 2020). Then, he indica o s ha assess
he inancial secu i y o he elde ly a e p o en o
be signi ican bo h in he analysis and he o he
esea ches (An onelli & Bonis, 2019; Guido
e al., 2020; Heu el & Ola oiu, 2017). Thei
mu ual ela ions and co espondence ep esen
a suppo i e elemen o he analy ical ou come.
Because ageing is a mul idimensional p ocess,
he main ocus is on he so-called echnical
aspec o he ageing socie y as he e a e many
o he iews on his issue.
4. Resea ch Resul s, Discussion,
and Limi a ions
The analy ical p ocess consis s o he wo main
phases – he clus e analysis ha dis inguishes
he explo ed coun ies in o he clus e s and e-
g ession analysis o cons uc he panel eg es-
sion models assigned o he pa icula clus e s.
4.1 Clus e Analysis
Se e al clus e s a e quali ied applying he
selec ed app oaches – he Ball-Hall index,
he McClain-Rao index, and he poin -bise ial
co ela ion coe icien . The numbe o clus e s
E+M_01_2023.indb 50 28.2.2023 10:02:35
51
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
ep esen ing he ageing socie y indica o s
among he obse ed coun ies is se up o h ee
(Tab. 1).
The lis o mos simila and he mos dis-
simila pai s o coun ies acco ding o he
Euclidean dis ance alues o all he possible
pai s o he Eu opean Union membe coun ies
is summa ised in Tab. 2. The six coun ies c e-
a e he mos simila pai s (Spain, I aly, La ia,
Li huania, Denma k, and Finland). The mos
ex eme pai s a e ep esen ed by Spain and
I aly. The mos simila pai mu ually, he nea -
es one o he explo ed spans, a e c ea ed by
La ia and Li huania in 2012. The i e coun ies
ep esen he mos di e en coun ies – Ne he -
lands, Bulga ia, Sweden, La ia, and Li huania.
The mos conside able disp opo ion du ing
he whole obse ed pe iod is ound be ween
he Ne he lands and Bulga ia in 2010. La ia
and Li huania appea on bo h sides as hey
c ea ed he nea es pai and he ou e mos pai
se e al imes. The simila i y o I aly and Spain
in he case o he ageing popula ion is obse ed
since 2009 in he analysis. By 2019, hese wo
coun ies a e cha ac e ised by he mos sig-
ni ican simila i y among all he Eu opean Union
membe coun ies eigh imes. In ecen yea s,
se e al au ho s ha e es ed he di e ences and
he simila i ies be ween hese wo coun ies.
Tomassini and Lamu a (2009) con i m ha I aly
and Spain a e he coun ies whe e he p opo -
ion o he olde popula ion, he median age o
he popula ion, and he ageing index achie e
he highes alues. The o he s udies poin o
he ela i ely simila in o mal ca e om ou side
he household, while hei long- e m ca e public
bene i s sys ems a e di e en . Also, hese wo
coun ies ha e equal a ios o long- e m ca e
Me hod Tes s a is ic Tes s a is ic alue Clus e s
Ball-Hall index Ba ycen e mean dispe sion 268.8438 3
McClain-Rao index Denomina o 0.6965 3
Poin -bise ial coe icien Co ela ion 0.6613 3
Sou ce: own
Yea Nea es pai o coun ies Ou e mos pai o he coun y
Dis ance Coun y 1 Coun y 2 Dis ance Coun y 1 Coun y 2
2009 1.49230 ES IT 9.02643 NL BG
2010 1.62560 LV LT 9.34777 NL BG
2011 1.85518 ES IT 9.05030 NL BG
2012 1.18115 LV LT 9.14514 SE BG
2013 1.32540 ES IT 9.20414 NL BG
2014 1.22483 ES IT 8.67009 LV SE
2015 1.20303 ES IT 8.85431 NL BG
2016 1.42708 ES IT 8.55801 NL BG
2017 1.58530 DK FI 8.55027 LV SE
2018 1.34759 ES IT 8.52485 LV SE
2019 1.21543 ES IT 8.58197 LT SE
Sou ce: own
Tab. 1: The numbe s o clus e s o he obse ed coun ies acco ding o an ageing
socie y
Tab. 2: The mos simila and he mos dissimila coun ies acco ding o an ageing
socie y
E+M_01_2023.indb 51 28.2.2023 10:02:36
52 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
public spending as a pe cen age o he g oss
domes ic p oduc (Cou bage e al., 2020).
Mo eo e , he di e si y o he Ne he lands and
Bulga ia is also con i med. When clus e ing he
Eu opean Union membe coun ies acco ding
o he indica o s based on he ac i e ageing in-
dex, he Ne he lands a e in ol ed in he clus e
wi h he highes pe o mance, while Bulga ia is
assigned o he hi d clus e wi h he coun ies
ha achie e he lowe pe o mance (Thalassi-
nos e al., 2019).
The condi ions a he beginning o he
analysed pe iod a e shown in Fig. 1. The i s
clus e consis s o coun ies wi h simila his o i-
cal backg ounds, namely he Bal ic coun ies,
he Viseg ad G oup coun ies, and he Sou h-
Eas e n Eu opean coun ies. A simila si ua ion
appea s in he second clus e , c ea ed by he
Medi e anean coun ies. The hi d clus e
con ains mainly he Benelux coun ies and he
Scandina ian coun ies.
When compa ing o he end o he analysed
pe iod in 2019, changes in he dis ibu ion o
clus e s a e isible in Fig. 2. Homogenei y o he
c ea ed clus e s has disappea ed h oughou
he obse ed pe iod. Only he Viseg ad G oup
coun ies ha e emained in he i s clus e . I
is p obably ela ed o hese coun ies joining
he Eu opean Union conside ably la e han
he emaining coun ies in 2004. Assignmen o
he o he coun ies has dispe sed all o e he
Eu opean Union a ea. The c i ical dissimila i y
is ound a he end o he examined pe iod, and
hence, he in luence o he o iginal g ouping o
he Eu opean Union membe coun ies plays a
mo e impo an ole he e.
The summa ising scena io is c ea ed
acco ding o he mean Euclidean dis ances
be ween he indi idual coun ies du ing he
obse ed pe iod, as shown in Fig. 3. I cla i ies
he classi ica ion o he coun ies, which a e
simila in an a ea o ageing socie y du ing he
whole obse ed pe iod. The esul s o he sum-
ma ising iew unde line he impo ance o he
o iginal geog aphical g ouping o he Eu opean
coun ies and hei neighbou hood. Also, he e
is a g oup o he ansi i e economies isibly
ela ed mu ually in he i s clus e . I does no
signi ican ly di e om hose a he ini ial o
e mina ed poin o he explo ed ime.
The ollowing hea maps illus a e he
simila i y be ween each possible pai o en-
compassed coun ies. Each cell is assigned
he shade o g ey – he da ke colou , he mo e
dis an pai o he coun ies. I means such
coun ies we e mo e simila in ageing socie y
indica o s. The i s hea map isualised a si u-
a ion a he beginning o he explo ed pe iod in
Fig. 1: The dend og am o ageing socie y simila i y acco ding o he explo ed
coun ies o he yea 2009
Sou ce: own
E+M_01_2023.indb 52 28.2.2023 10:02:36
53
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
2009. As i can be seen om he hea map in
Fig. 4, he e we e coun ies which a e in con-
as wi h he o he coun ies – Bulga ia wi h
he a e age mu ual dis ance o all he o he
coun ies (dis ance 5.40579), Romania (dis-
ance 5.01617), and he Ne he lands (dis ance
4.48775).
Fig. 2: The dend og am o ageing socie y simila i y acco ding o he explo ed
coun ies o he yea 2019
Sou ce: own
Fig. 3: The dend og am o ageing socie y simila i y acco ding o he explo ed
coun ies o he whole obse ed pe iod
Sou ce: own
E+M_01_2023.indb 53 28.2.2023 10:02:37
60 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
Conclusions
Popula ion ageing is a common expe ience o
all he Eu opean Union membe coun ies, and
he e a e se e al di e ences among hem om
a pe spec i e o he in ol ed indica o s. These
a e no iceable whe he hey a e he heal h in-
dica o s, he labou condi ions o he elde ly
popula ion, o he inancial secu i y o pension
in each coun y. This pape in es iga es he
ageing p ocess in he Eu opean Union and he
di e ences and simila i ies be ween he selec -
ed coun ies. The simila i y o he coun ies is
assessed h ough se en s a is ically signi ican
indica o s belonging o he cha ac e is ics o he
socie y. The ocus is on he age g oup o 55+ as
i ep esen s he elde ly popula ion g oup ha
is disad an aged om a pe spec i e o age.
The quan i a i e me hods a e applied using
clus e analysis and sensi i i y analysis. I was
ound ha he mos simila pai s o he coun ies
du ing he obse ed pe iod we e La ia wi h
Li huania and I aly wi h Spain. On he con a y,
he mos conside able dispa i ies we e ound
in he case o Bulga ia and he Ne he lands.
The Viseg ad G oup membe coun ies and
he Bal ic coun ies keep hei posi ions in he
i s clus e du ing he whole explo ed pe iod.
Also, he Scandina ian coun ies we e local-
ised in he hi d clus e o he whole explo ed
pe iod. I sugges s ha simila ends wi hin he
popula ion ageing ha e long been p esen ed
in he gi en geog aphical a eas. The panel
eg ession model also demons a es ha no
all he a iables a e s a is ically signi ican in
he indi idual clus e o panel da a eg ession
models. The s a is ically signi ican ones a e
he pa - ime employmen , he li e expec ancy,
he income inequali y, he weekly wo k hou s,
he ne income, he ma e ial and social dep i a-
ion, and he a - isk-o -po e y popula ion. They
a e all assigned o he age g oup o 55 yea s
o age and o e . Only he h ee o hem, which
he pa - ime employmen , he income inequal-
i y, and he ma e ial and social dep i a ion
belong among, a e signi ican in all he eg es-
sion models o he whole a ea and he h ee
clus e s. The ob ained esul s could se e as
a esou ce o he esea ch and he na ional
policies ocused on he quali y o li e and he
li ing condi ions o he elde ly popula ion as
i can help hem o iden i y he objec ionable
de e minan s and o implemen he app op ia e
measu es in o de o imp o e he si ua ion and
posi ion o his popula ion g oup.
Acknowledgemen s: Suppo ed by he Scien-
i ic G an Agency o he Minis y o Educa ion,
Science, Resea ch, and Spo o he Slo ak
Republic and he Slo ak Academy o Sciences
wi hin he p ojec “VEGA 1/0646/23”.
Re e ences
Aguila -Palacio, I., Gil-Lac uz, A. I., Sán-
chez-Recio, R., & Rabanaque, M. J. (2018).
Sel - a ed heal h in Eu ope and i s de e mi-
nan s: Does gene a ion ma e ? In e na ional
Jou nal o Public Heal h, 63, 223–232. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/s00038-018-1079-5
An onelli, M. A., & Bonis, V. (2019). The
e iciency o social public expendi u e in Eu o-
pean coun ies: A wo-s age analysis. Applied
Economics, 51(1), 47–60. h ps://doi.o g/10.10
80/00036846.2018.1489522
Ball, G. H., & Hall, D. J. (1965). Isoda a:
A no el me hod o da a analysis and pa e n
classi ica ion. S an o d Resea ch Ins i u e.
Ba es, D., Chambe s., J., Dalgaa d, P.,
Gen leman, R., Ho nik, K., Ihaka, R., Kalibe-
a, T., Law ence, M., Leisch, F., Ligges, U.,
Lumley, T., Maechle , M., Meye , S., Mu ell, P.,
Plumme , M., Ripley, B., Sa ka , D., Lang, D. T.,
Tie ney, L., U banek, S., Schwa e, H., Masa-
o o, G., Iacus, S., Falcon, S., Mu doch, D.,
& Mo gan, M. (2022). R: Language and en i-
onmen o s a is ical compu ing. R Founda ion
o S a is ical Compu ing. Re ie ed June 22,
2022, om h ps://www.R-p ojec .o g
Been, J., & Vlie , O. (2017). Ea ly e i emen
ac oss Eu ope. Does non‐s anda d employ-
men inc ease pa icipa ion o olde wo ke s?
In e na ional Re iew o Social Sciences, 70(2),
163–188. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/kykl.12134
Bes , R., & Hill, P. (2020). Wha is he pu -
pose o e i ing? Inno a ion in Aging, 4(1), 442.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/ge oni/igaa057.1430
Bo ne , M., T uha d, E. R., Rocha , E., Pas-
quie , J., & Monod, S. (2017). Fac o s associ-
a ed wi h quali y o li e in elde ly hospi alized
pa ien s unde going pos -acu e ehabili a ion:
A c oss-sec ional analy ical s udy in Swi ze -
land. BMJ Open, 7, 1–8. h ps://doi.o g/10.1136/
bmjopen-2017-018600
B onia owska, P. (2019). Popula ion age-
ing and in la ion. Jou nal o Popula ion Age-
ing, 12, 179–193. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s12062-017-9209-z
B ønnum-Hansen, H., Fo e sko , E.,
& Ande sen, I. (2021). Income inequali y in
E+M_01_2023.indb 60 28.2.2023 10:02:40
61
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
li e expec ancy and disabili y- ee li e expec-
ancy in Denma k. Jou nal o Epidemiology and
Communi y Heal h, 75, 145–150. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1136/jech-2020-214108
Cha ad, M., Ghazzali, N., Boi eau, V.,
& Nikna s, A. (2014). NbClus : An R package o
de e mining he ele an numbe o clus e s in a
da a se . Jou nal o S a is ical So wa e, 61(6),
1–36. h ps://doi.o g/10.18637/jss. 061.i06
Coleman, D., & Row ho n, R. (2011). Who’s
a aid o popula ion decline? A c i ical ex-
amina ion o i s consequences. Popula ion and
De elopmen Re iew, 37(s1), 217–248. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2011.00385.x
Cou bage, C. H., Mon oliu-Mon es, G.,
& Wagne , J. (2020). The e ec o long- e m
ca e public bene i s and insu ance on in o mal
ca e om ou side he household: Empi ical
e idence om I aly and Spain. The Eu opean
Jou nal o Heal h Economics, 21, 1131–1147.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10198-020-01215-7
C is ea, M., Noja, G. G., S e ea, P.,
& Sala, A. L. (2020). The impac o popula ion
aging and public heal h suppo on EU labo
ma ke s. In e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al
Resea ch and Public Heal h, 17(4), 1439–1466.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph17041439
C oissan , Y., & Millo, G. (2008). Panel da a
econome ics in R: The plm package. Jou nal
o S a is ical So wa e, 27(2), 1–43. h ps://doi.
o g/10.18637/jss. 027.i02
C oissan , Y., Millo, G., Tappe, K., Toom-
e , O., Kleibe , C., Zeileis, A., Henningsen, A.,
And onic, L., & Schoen elde , N. (2017). Pack-
age plm. R Founda ion o S a is ical Compu -
ing. Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://
c an. -p ojec .o g/web/packages/plm/plm.pd
Du bin, J., & Wa son, G. S. (1951). Tes ing
o se ial co ela ion in he leas squa es eg es-
sion. II. Biome ika, 38(1–2), 159–178. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1093/biome /38.1-2.159
Ebbinghaus, B. (2021). Inequali ies
and po e y isks in old age ac oss Eu ope:
The double‐edged income e ec o pension
sys ems. Social Policy & Adminis a ion, 55(3),
440–455. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/spol.12683
Es e ens, J. (2018). Mig a ion c isis in
he EU: De eloping a amewo k o analysis
o na ional secu i y and de ence s a egies.
Compa a i e Mig a ion S udies, 6, 28. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1186/s40878-018-0093-3
Eu os a . (2021a). Closing he gende pay
gap? Eu opean Commission – Eu os a . Re-
ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://ec.eu opa.
eu/eu os a /en/web/p oduc s-eu os a -news/-/
DDN-20210203-1
Eu os a . (2021b). Employmen a e o olde
wo ke s, age g oup 55–64. Eu opean Commis-
sion – Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse /
iew/ esem050/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021c). Pe sons employed
pa - ime: To al. Eu opean Commission – Eu-
os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://
ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse / iew/
ps00159/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021d). A e age numbe o usual
weekly hou s o wo k in he main job by sex, age
and NUTS 2 egions (hou s). Eu opean Com-
mission – Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022,
om h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse /
iew/l s _ _l e2ehou /de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021e). Li e expec ancy a 65,
by sex. Eu opean Commission – Eu os a . Re-
ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://ec.eu opa.
eu/eu os a /da ab owse / iew/ ps00026/
de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021 ). Heal hy li e yea s a
age 65 by sex. Eu opean Commission – Eu-
os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://
ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse / iew/
eps _sp320/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021g). Sel -pe cei ed heal h by
sex, age and income quin ile. Eu opean Com-
mission – Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022,
om h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse /
iew/hl h_silc_10/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021h). Sel -pe cei ed long-
s anding limi a ions in usual ac i i ies due o
heal h p oblem by sex, age and income quin ile.
Eu opean Commission – Eu os a . Re ie ed
June 22, 2022, om h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu-
os a /da ab owse / iew/hl h_silc_12/de aul /
able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021i). Mean and median income
be o e social ans e s (pensions included in
social ans e s) by age and sex. Eu opean
Commission – Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22,
2022, om h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da a-
b owse / iew/ILC_DI13__cus om_545861/
de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021j). Expendi u e on social
p o ec ion pe inhabi an . Eu opean Commis-
sion – Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse /
iew/ ps00100/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021k). Income inequal-
i y o olde people. Eu opean Commission
E+M_01_2023.indb 61 28.2.2023 10:02:41
62 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
– Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse /
iew/ espn080/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021l). People a isk o po e y
o social exclusion by age and sex – EU 2020
s a egy. Eu opean Commission – Eu o-
s a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://
ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse / iew/
ilc_peps01$DV_565/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021m). Ma e ial and social dep i-
a ion a e by age and sex. Eu opean Commis-
sion – Eu os a . Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse /
iew/ilc_mdsd07/de aul / able?lang=en
Eu os a . (2021n). Old-age-dependency
a io. Eu opean Commission – Eu os a . Re-
ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://ec.eu opa.
eu/eu os a /da ab owse / iew/ ps00198/
de aul / able?lang=en
Fukuda, S., & Okumu a, K. (2020). Re-
gional con e gence unde declining popula-
ion: The case o Japan. Japan and he Wo ld
Economy, 55, 101023. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.
japwo .2020.101023
Giang, L. T., Nguyen, T. T., & Nguyen, N. T.
(2020). Social suppo and sel - a ed heal h
among olde men and women in Vie nam. Jou -
nal o Popula ion Ageing, 13, 427–442. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/s12062-020-09283-6
Gómez-Cos illa, P., Ga cía-P ie o, C.,
& Soma iba-A echa ala, N. (2021). Aging
and gende heal h gap: A mul ile el analysis
o 17 Eu opean coun ies. Social Indica-
o s Resea ch, (160), 1051–1069. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1007/s11205-020-02595-2
G annis, S. J., Xu, H., Ves , J. R., Kas -
hu i a hne, S., Bo, N., Mosco i ch, B., To kza-
deh, R., & Rising, J. (2019). E alua ing he
e ec o da a s anda diza ion and alida ion
on pa ien ma ching accu acy. Jou nal o he
Ame ican Medical In o ma ics Associa ion,
26(5), 447–456. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/jamia/
ocy191
Guido, G., Ama ulli, C., & Ses ino, A. (2020).
Elde ly consume s and inancial choices: A sys-
ema ic e iew. Jou nal o Financial Se ices
Ma ke ing, 25, 76–85. h ps://doi.o g/10.1057/
s41264-020-00077-7
Heu el, W., & Ola oiu, M. (2017). How
impo an a e heal h ca e expendi u es o li e
expec ancy? A compa a i e, Eu opean analy-
sis. Jou nal o he Ame ican Medical Di ec o s
Associa ion, 18(3), 276.e9-276.e12. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.jamda.2016.11.027
In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza-
ion. (2013). In e na ional s anda d o coun y
codes and codes o hei subdi isions. In e -
na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion 3166.
Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://www.iso.
o g/obp/ui/#iso:s d:iso:3166:-1:ed-3: 1:en,
Jako lje ic, M. M., Ne z, Y., Bu igieg, S. C.,
Adany, R., Laase , U., & Va jacic, M. (2018).
Popula ion ageing and mig a ion-his o y and
UN o ecas s in he EU-28 and i s eas and sou h
nea neighbou hood-one cen u y pe spec i e
1950–2050. Globaliza ion and Heal h, 14, 30.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s12992-018-0348-7
Janus, J., Bożek, P., Taszakowski, J.,
& Do oż, A. (2022). Decaying illages in he
cen e o Eu ope wi h no popula ion decline:
Long- e m analysis using his o ical ae ial im-
ages and emo e sensing da a. Habi a In e -
na ional, 121, 102520. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.
habi a in .2022.102520
Khan, H. (2019). Popula ion ageing in a glo-
balized wo ld: Risk and dilemmas? Jou nal o
E alua ion in Clinical P ac ice, 25(5), 754–760.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jep.13071
Kikuchi, H., Embe ge , G., Ishida, H., Fuku-
da, A., & Kobayakawa, S. (2022). Dynamic sim-
ula ions o compac ci y de elopmen o coun e
u u e popula ion decline. Ci ies, 127, 103753.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ci ies.2022.103753
Kluge, F. A., Golds ein, J. R., & Vog , T. C.
(2019). T ans e s in an ageing Eu opean Union.
The Jou nal o he Economics o Ageing, 13, 45–54.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jeoa.2018.07.004
K a , O., & Ki nos, I. (2020). C oss-na ional
analysis o he olde wo ke s’ employmen a e.
SHS Web o Con e ences, 73, 01014. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1051/shscon /20207301014
Laun, L. (2017). The e ec o age- a ge ed
ax c edi s on labou o ce pa icipa ion o
olde wo ke s. Jou nal o Public Econom-
ics, 152, 102–118. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.
jpubeco.2017.06.005
Le, D. D., Leon-Gonzalez, R., & Giang, T. L.
(2020). Decomposing gende inequali y in
unc ional disabili y among olde people in
Vie nam. A chi es o Ge on ology and Ge-
ia ics, 87, 56–68. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.
a chge .2019.103989
Leeuwen, K., Loon, M., Nes, F., Bos-
mans, J., Ve , H., Ke , J., Widde sho en, G.,
& Os elo, R. (2019). Wha does quali y o
li e mean o olde adul s? A hema ic syn-
hesis. PLoS ONE, 14(3), 1–39. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0213263
E+M_01_2023.indb 62 28.2.2023 10:02:41
63
2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
Li, L., Du, T., & Hu, Y. (2020). The e ec
o popula ion aging on heal hca e expendi u e
om a heal hca e demand pe spec i e among
di e en age g oups: E idence om Beijing
ci y in he People’s Republic o China. Risk
Managemen and Heal hca e Policy, 13, 1403–
1412. h ps://doi.o g/10.2147/RMHP.S271289
Liu, J., Wei, W., Peng, Q., & Xue, C. (2019).
Pe cei ed heal h and li e sa is ac ion o el-
de ly people: Tes ing he mode a ing e ec s
o social suppo , a i udes owa d aging, and
senio p i ilege. Jou nal o Ge ia ic Psychia y
and Neu ology, 33(3), 144–154. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1177/0891988719866926
Loichinge , E., & Po hisi i, W. (2018). Heal h
p ospec s o olde pe sons in Thailand: The ole
o educa ion. Asian Popula ion S udies, 14(3),
310-329. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/17441730.201
8.1532140
Lu z, W., Am an, G., Belange , A., Con e, A.,
Gailey, N., Ghio, D., G apsa, E., Jensen, K.,
Loichinge , E., Ma ois, G., Mu a ak, R., Po-
ancoko a, M., Sabou in, P., & S onawski, M.
(2019). Demog aphic scena ios o he EU: Mi-
g a ion, popula ion and educa ion. Publica ions
O ice o he Eu opean Union.
Lyons, A. C., G able, J. E., & Joo, S.-H.
(2018). A c oss-coun y analysis o popula ion
ageing and inancial secu i y. The Jou nal o
he Economics o Ageing, 12, 96–117. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1016/j.jeoa.2018.03.001
Ma ois, G., Bélange , A., & Lu z, W. (2020).
Popula ion aging, mig a ion, and p oduc i i y in
Eu ope. P oceedings o he Na ional Academy
o Sciences, 117(14), 7690–7695. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1073/pnas.1918988117
Ma sillas, S., De Donde , L., Ka dol, T.,
Regenmo el, S., Du y, S., B osens, D.,
Sme co en, A.-S., B ana, T., & Va ela, J.
(2017). Does ac i e ageing con ibu e o li e
sa is ac ion o olde people? Tes ing a new
model o ac i e ageing. Eu opean Jou nal o
Ageing, 14, 295–310. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s10433-017-0413-8
McClain, J. O., & Rao, V. R. (1975). Clus-
isz: A p og am o es o he quali y o clus-
e ing o a se o objec s. Jou nal o Ma ke ing
Resea ch, 12(4), 456–460. h ps://www.js o .
o g/s able/3151097
Michne ic, K. (2016). The e ec s o ageing
on household consump ion in Cen al and Eas -
e n Eu ope. Economy & Business, 10, 273–287.
Milanez, A. (2020). Wo k o ce ageing and
labou p oduc i i y dynamics. Ou Economy,
66(3), 1–13. h ps://doi.o g/10.2478/ngoe-2020-
0013
Milligan, G. W. (1981). A Mon e Ca lo s udy
o hi y in e nal c i e ion measu es o clus e
analysis. Psychome ika, 46, 187–199. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/BF02293899
Moen, P. (2020). Is wo king longe he solu-
ion o an ageing socie y? Inno a ion in Aging,
4(S1), 809–810. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/ge oni/
igaa057.2937
Mu a, L., Gon ko ico a, B., Dulo a Spisa-
ko a, E., & Hajduo a, Z. (2019). Posi ion o
employee bene i s in emune a ion s uc u e.
T ans o ma ions in Business & Economics,
18(2), 156–173.
Neuwi h, E. (2015). Package “RColo -
B ewe ”. Re ie ed June 22, 2022, om h ps://
c an. -p ojec .o g/web/packages/RColo B ew-
e /RColo B ewe .pd
O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion
and De elopmen . (2019). Fiscal challenges
and inclusi e g ow h in ageing socie ies. O -
ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and
De elopmen Economic Policy Pape s, 27,
1–70. h ps://doi.o g/10.1787/c553d8d2-en
O ice , A., Thiyaga ajan, J. A., Schnei-
de s, M. L., Nash, P., & Fuen e-Núñez, V.
(2020). Ageism, heal hy li e expec ancy and
popula ion ageing: How a e hey ela ed? In-
e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h, 17(9), 3159–3170. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph17093159
Okely, J., Weiss, A., & Gale, C. (2018). The
in e ac ion be ween indi idualism and wellbeing
in p edic ing mo ali y: Su ey o heal h ageing
and e i emen in Eu ope. Jou nal o Beha io al
Medicine, 41, 1–11. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s10865-017-9871-x
O ega, J. (2020). Is ac i e ageing coping
wi h popula ion ageing? Jou nal o Popula ion
Ageing, 14, 37–52. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s12062-020-09265-8
Pa k, C.-Y., Shin, K., & Kikkawa, A. (2022).
Demog aphic change, echnological ad ance,
and g ow h: A c oss-coun y analysis. Eco-
nomic Modelling, 108, 105742. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.105742
Pascual-Saez, M., Can a e o-P ie o, D.,
& Pi es Manso, J. R. (2020). Does popula ion
ageing a ec sa ings in Eu ope? Jou nal o
Policy Modelling, 42(2), 291–306. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2019.07.009
Qua ociocchi, L., Tibaldi, M., Ma sili, M.,
Fenga, L., & Capu i, M. (2020). Ac i e ageing
E+M_01_2023.indb 63 28.2.2023 10:02:41
64 2023, olume 26, issue 1, pp. 45–64, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-1-003
Economics
and li ing condi ion o olde pe sons ac oss
I alian egions. Jou nal o Popula ion Age-
ing, 14, 91–136. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s12062-020-09309-z
Ray, J., Popli, G., & Fell, G. (2018). As-
socia ion o cogni ion and age- ela ed hea ing
impai men in he English longi udinal s udy o
ageing. JAMA O ola yngol Head & Neck Su -
ge y, 144(10), 876–882. h ps://doi.o g/10.1001/
jamao o.2018.1656
R Co e Team. (2022). R: A language and
en i onmen o s a is ical compu ing. R Foun-
da ion o S a is ical Compu ing. h ps://www.R-
p ojec .o g/
Rupeika-Apoga, R., & Thalassinos, Y. E.
(2019). The impac o popula ion ageing and
social s a i ica ion: The case o La ia. In e na-
ional Jou nal o Economics & Business Admin-
is a ion, 7(1), 49–63. h ps://doi.o g/10.35808/
ijeba/195
Sala, L. A. (2020). The ela ionship be ween
popula ion ageing and medical expendi u es in
Romania. Fac a Uni e si a is, 17(2), 157–172.
h ps://doi.o g/10.22190/FUEO191223012S
Sande son, W. C., & Sche bo , S.
(2015). A e we o e ly dependen on con en-
ional dependency a ios? Popula ion and
De elopmen Re iew, 41(4), 687–708. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2015.00091.x
Sande son, W. C., & Sche bo , S. (2016).
A new pe spec i e on pa e ns o aging in
Eu ope by educa ion and gende . Jou nal o
Popula ion Ageing, 9, 207–225. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1007/s12062-015-9125-z
Sewdas, R., Wind, A., Zwaan, L., Bo g, W.,
S eenbeek, R., Beek, A., & Boo , C. (2017). Why
olde wo ke s wo k beyond he e i emen age:
A quali a i e s udy. BMC Public Heal h, 17, 672.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s12889-017-4675-z
Shapi o, S. S., & Wilk, M. B. (1965). An
analysis o a iance es o no mali y (com-
ple e samples). Biome ika, 52(3–4), 591–611.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/biome /52.3-4.591
Skibiński, A. (2017). The changes o he
popula ion s uc u e and i s consequences in
selec ed EU coun ies: Some aspec s. Eu ope-
an Jou nal o Sus ainable De elopmen , 6(1),
357–368. h ps://doi.o g/10.14207/ejsd.2017.
6n1p357
Soong, J. J. (2020). Empowe ing he elde ly
o p omo e ac i e ageing in he labou ma ke :
A new s a egic scheme o imp o e ageing hu-
man esou ce and o sol e sho age o labou
o ce in Taiwan. Jeba : Malaysian Jou nal o
His o y, Poli ics & S a egic S udies, 47(1),
198–224.
S iessnig, E., & Lu z, W. (2013). Can
below- eplacemen e ili y be desi able? Em-
pi ica, 40, 409–425. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s10663-013-9213-3
Thalassinos, E. I., C is ea, M., & Noja, G. G.
(2019). Measu ing ac i e ageing wi hin he
Eu opean Union. Equilib ium, 14(4), 591–609.
h ps://doi.o g/10.24136/eq.2019.028
Tomassini, C., & Lamu a, G. (2009). Popula-
ion ageing in I aly and Sou he n Eu ope. In e na-
ional Handbook o Popula ion Aging, 1, 69–89.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-1-4020-8356-3_4
Uni ed Na ions. (2019a). Ac i e ageing in-
dex analy ical epo . Re ie ed June 22, 2022,
om h ps://unece.o g/popula ion/publica ions/
ac i e-ageing-index-analy ical- epo
Uni ed Na ions. (2019b). Wo ld popula ion
ageing 2019: Highligh s. Depa men o Econom-
ic and Social A ai s, Popula ion Di ision. h ps://
un.o g/en/de elopmen /desa/popula ion/
publica ions/pd /ageing/Wo ldPopula ionAge-
ing2019-Highligh s.pd
Whi e, H. (1980). A he e oskedas ici y-con-
sis en co a iance ma ix es ima o and a di ec
es o he e oskedas ici y. Econome ica, 48(4),
817–838. h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/1912934
Williamson, B., & Pia oe a, N. (2018).
Objec i i y as s anda diza ion in da a-scien i ic
educa ion policy, echnology and go e nance.
Lea ning, Media and Technology, 44(1), 64–76.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/17439884.2018.1556215
Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion. (2020). Decade
o heal hy ageing: Baseline epo . h ps://who.
in /publica ions-de ail- edi ec /9789240017900
E+M_01_2023.indb 64 28.2.2023 10:02:41