Some patterns of the ‘Murdered Sweetheart Ballads’ in oral tradition, early recordings, and popular culture.
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Some patterns of the ‘Murdered Sweetheart Ballads’ in oral tradition, early recordings, and popular culture. Delia Dattilo ABSTRACT Narrative songs with regards to the theme called ‘murdered sweetheart”, are part of awider repertoire of murder ballads that circulated in England, Scotland, Ireland, and North America. It is through these Murdered Sweetheart Ballads (cf. Wilgus 1979), that the balladeer informed the listeners about the tragic consequences of non-standard behavior in certain social contexts, such as: pregnancy out of wedlock in patriarchal communities. Murder ballads that contain specific references to facts which occurred in real life (such as the representative case of the assassination of Naomi Wise in Randolph County, back in 1808) passed mainly (through not only) in oral music contexts; despite the transient nature of the singing itself, the meanings behind certain verbal expressions were transmitted and finally preserved in sound recordings released from the early twentieth century onwards. These traditional patterns, that are related to the controversial imagery of women murdered by men and developed in both oral and written traditions, were gradually revised, transposed, and reinterpreted in popular culture by musicians who were engaged within the recording industry as well as filmmakers—each applying their own understanding with regards to this sensitive subject. KEYWORDS: narrative song, murder ballad, England, Scotland, Ireland, North America In his article Why Is the Murdered Girl so Popular? (1951) Arthur Field expressed his opinion on the persistence of the ‘murdered women’ subject in American traditional folk songs: Ilook into abody of folklore with an eye to gaining insights into the psychodynamics of aculture. One of the reasons Ihave chosen to discuss ‘murdered girl’ ballads is the striking nature of the content which, as we shall see, is well suited for the psycho-dynamic type of analysis. In short, Iam seeking the psychological meaning of the popularity of aparticular ballad theme; this question is but apart of the ever current argument about the role of folklore in society. (…) anumber of the songs have no such moral and seem to have more behind them than the simple warning. Analysis of the content, most of the ballads included, shows that almost all ‘murdered girl’ ballads are sung in the first person; it is always ‘Istobbed her with adagger,’ […] songs like ‘Pretty Polly’ and ‘The Waxford Girl’ fill an almost unconscious need to let out aggression through fantasy (Field, 2021, pp.113, 118–119). OPEN ACCESS
DELIA DATTILO 25 He concluded that the themes and performances linked to this topos were still able to found an audience, and aroused the interest of musicians as well because ‘the singers of these songs may have astrong emotional involvement with the murders they sing about (…)’ (Ibid, p.118.) The dissemination of this motif— i.e., the murder of ayoung woman at the hands of her partner (either astranger or someone known to the victim)— concerns aphenomenon which is associated to the radical changes surrounding the role of women in patriarchal Western societies, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century. Although narratives about women and their ordinary lives were totally underrepresented, if not obscured, we can find tales in Western historical accounts (because ‘as elsewhere, gender is aproblematic category’) (Anglin, 1995, p.187), such as the cases of Naomi Wise, Lula Viers, and other young women, which were disseminated throughout the long century and beyond, through literature and traditional music. These forms of expression (both written narratives and music), provided continuity to new patterns and imaginaries, which, however, involved the complex relationship between the two genres, especially in times of drastic subversions of the preceding social models and lifestyles (e.g., the absence of men in the family assets in times of war and the responsibility of women to manage family and commercial affairs by themselves). Narratives and tales about all kinds of atrocities committed to the detriment of women’s lives and freedom— whether sung, written, or told— demonstrate prejudices about womanhood in general, and the consequences of women’s self-determination (including their tragic deaths), when they left the ‘safe haven’ of their domestic environment or failed to conform to standardized social behaviours.1 Between 1820 and 1860, the cult of ‘True Womanhood’ spread in American society: ‘attributes of True Womanhood, by which awoman judged herself and was judged by her husband, her neighbors and society could be divided into four cardinal virtues— piety, purity, submissiveness and domesticity’ (Welter, 1966, p.152). These were the expectations around women— daughters, sisters, wives, mothers. The distancing from these four virtues, for whatever reason, corresponded to adeviation from aset of conventions that were strongly rooted in patriarchal communities. Examples such as the previously mentioned cases of Naomi Wise or Pearl Bryan and Lula Viers— women who were impregnated and drowned in rivers by the men they loved— but also some exceptions, such as the case of Frankie Silvers— ayoung woman from North Carolina executed in 1833 for apparently killing her husband Charles for domestic abuse— have been immortalized in songs and narratives throughout the past two centuries. In the late nineteenth century, John Stuart Mill pleaded for change for women which were constantly subject to the will of men (husbands, fathers, brothers). This is what the English economist and philosopher asserted back in 1869 in his avant-garde booklet titled The Subjection of Women: At present, in the more improved countries, the disabilities of women are the only case but one in which laws and institutions take persons at their birth and ordain that 1 Only by the end of the twentieth century examples of deconstruction of the male’s narrative were examined, leading to the introduction of new historical feminine perspectives (Babcock 1987). OPEN ACCESS
26 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 1/2023 they shall never in all their lives be allowed to compete for certain things. The one exception is that of royalty (Mill, 1869, p.34). Prejudice against women existed in both the upper and lower classes, in urban or marginalized, isolated or peripheral areas, depending also, but not only, on their role and function in the family and in society, with unpleasant consequences in the darkest scenarios. In Appalachia, still in recent years, Women (…) continue to face debilitating poverty, racism, classism, misogyny, and homophobia. They worry about feeding their children, being beaten by their husbands or boyfriends, losing family, friends, and church if they ‘come out,’ and losing the comfort that comes from the mountains they love (Massek, 2015, p.293). THE STORY OF NAOMI WISE As stated, the ballads and novels on the topic of the murdered sweetheart, which flourished in England and in North America, often depicted facts that occurred in real life (whether it was awoman killing aman or, more frequently, awoman being murdered by aman): In several American ballads including ‘Poor Omie’ and ‘On the Banks of the Ohio’ the lover takes the girl to alake or river and drowns her despite her pleas. These murders are usually unmotivated in the ballads, apparently because of tabus against the mention of pregnancy or illegitimacy. This is in sharp contrast to Child balladry, which is usually frank and explicit where sex is concerned (Laws, 1950, p.23). The first account of the life and death of Naomi Wise, which took place in Randolph County, North Carolina, in 1807 or 1808, at the hands of Jonathan (or John) Lewis, is found in the book written by Braxton Craven (1822–1882)— Life of Naomi Wise True story of aBeautiful Girl, Enacted in Randolph County, N.C. about the year1800.2 This book was reprinted in 1962 with the title The Story of Naomi Wise and the History of Randlesman.3At the beginning of his tale, Craven immediately gives adetailed description of the social environment of New Salem, of Naomi’s family, and of her tutor, Mr. William Adams: Over one hundred years ago there lived where New Salem now is, in the northern part of Randolph Co., N.C., avery open and warm-hearted gentleman by the name of William Adams. Afew families of nature’s noblest quality lived in the vicinity. They were not very rich, but were honest, hospitable and kind; they knew neither the luxuries nor vices of high life. Their farms supplied enough for their own tables, 2 Craven was aprofessor of rhetoric and philosophy at Duke University. Born in Randolph County, he has been along-standing friend of Mr and Mrs Hutton who, in turn, were relatives of amember of the jury that condemned John Lewis for the murder of Naomi, more specifically: Mrs Hutton’s grandfather was adirect witness of the legal proceedings (Dowd, 1896, p.25). 3 In 1874, Craven published the same story under the pseudonym Charles Vernon under the title The Story of Naomie Wise, or The Wrongs of aBeautiful Girl; Imanaged to find an edition of this volume (Caruthers, Craven, 1888). OPEN ACCESS
DELIA DATTILO 27 and sufficient for abrisk trade with Fayetteville, N.C. […] The people were somewhat rude: still however hospitable and kind. At William Adams’ lived Naomi Wise. She had early been thrown upon the cold charity of the world, and she has received the frozen crumbs of that charity (Craven, 18??, p.3) Subsequently, the author provides abrief account of Naomi’s history and her daily life amongst her family: Her size was medium, her figure beautifully formed, her face handsome and expressive, her eyes keen yet mild, her words soft and winning. She was left without father to protect, mother to counsel, brothers and sisters to love, or friends with whom to associate. Food, clothing and shelter must be earned by the labor of her own hands; not such labor, however, as females at this day perform. There was no place for her but the kitchen, with the prospects of occasionally going to the field. This the poor orphan accepted willingly; she was willing to labor, she was ashamed to beg. The thousand comforts that parents can find for their children are never enjoyed by the fatherless (…) (Ibid., p.4). Braxton Craven’s report of Randolph County depicts acommunity in which most households, who came from different states— particularly Pennsylvania and Virginia— and lived in close contact with one another, tended to be extremely conservative –if not offensive— to the detriment of other established families within the same area. The relatives of Jonathan Lewis are described as ‘lions of the country’, and drunkards with ‘pugnacious’ character (Idem). Randolph County itself is represented as aland which is mostly ruled by iniquitous families whose dynamics of mutual protection to crime interfere with the quiet existence of honest citizens. The first pages of Craven’s narrative are devoted entirely to the reconstruction of Lewis’s family, particularly Richard and Stephen Lewis— Jonathan’s father and uncle, respectively— both of whom are portrayed as brutal individuals (‘heartless tyrants’). The author himself cannot explain how such cold-hearted, despicable men could attract and marry women: ‘how can apure and good woman love such awicked man?’ (Ibid., p.6). After laying out his own considerations regarding matters of love and what love should be, Craven returns to the murderer, Jonathan Lewis, and his family, and recounts anecdotes concerning the perpetrated mistreatments of his uncle Stephen to his wife: apreamble to Naomi’s tragedy. Jonathan is then portrayed as ‘alarge, well-built, dignified-looking man […] young, daring and impetuous’, (Ibid., p.8). whom the Adams family allows to date young Naomi until Jonathan’s mother (an experienced woman who wished her son would ‘settled down’ with afinancially worthy wife) steps into the scene: Naomi was blooming in all the charms o[f] early womanhood; her love for Lewis was pure and ardent; and the rumour was abroad that the marriage was shortly to take place. But an evil genius crossed the path of Lewis in the shape of his mother. Her ambition and avarice projected for her son amatch of adifferent character. She deemed it in the range of possibility that Jonathan might obtain the hand of Hettie Elliott, the sister of Benjamin Elliott, his employer (…) Mrs Lewis thought Miss Elliott aprize worthy an effort at least. The Elliotts were wealthy, honorable and of high OPEN ACCESS
28 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 1/2023 repute. (…) Lewis made some advances to Hettie, which were received in such away as to inspire hope. This was the turning of the tide in the fortunes of Lewis (Ibid., p.10). The rest of the novel is dedicated to Lewis’s intention to end Naomi’s life and the final completion of her assassination. The two characters, Jonathan and Naomi, exchange apetrifying dialogue that ‘doubles’ the theme of the eight-stanzas ballad at the end of the book, entitled ‘Song of Naomi Wise’: ‘The whole tragedy would, perhaps, have been lost in oblivion but for the song of ‘Omi Wise,’ which was sung in every neighbourhood’ (Ibid., p.21). This written source is considered areference to other versions spread from the late nineteenth century onwards, most of which do not include direct reference to the capture and detention of Jonathan/John Lewis, such as the one shown below.4 ‘Song of Naomi Wise’ Come, all good people, now you draw near, A. sorrowful story you quickly shall hear, Astory Iwill tell you about Naomi Wise, How she was deluded by Lewis’ lies. He promised to marry and use her well, But conduct contrary Isadly must tell; He promised to meet her at Adams’ spring, He promised marriage and many afine thing. Still nothing he gave, but flattered the case. He said: ‘We will marry and have no disgrace; ‘Come, get up behind me, we will go to town, And there be married, in union be bound.’ She got up behind him: he straightway did go To the banks of Deep River where the waters flow; He said: ‘Now, Naomi, I’ll tell you my mind; Iintend to drown you and leave you behind.’ ‘O! pity your infant, and spare me my life! Let me be rejected, and not be your wife!’ ‘No pity, no pity,’ the monster did cry; ‘In Deep River’s bottom your body shall lie!’ The wretch then choked her, we understand. And threw her in the river, below amill dam. Be it murder or treason, O! what agreat crime! To drown poor Naomi and leave her behind. 4 The song appeared in Caruthers, and Craven (1888, pp.116–117) is titled ‘Poor Naomi’. OPEN ACCESS
DELIA DATTILO 29 Naomi was missing! they all did well know, And hunting for her to the river did go; Finding her floating in the water so deep. Caused all the people to sigh and to weep. The neighbors were sent for to view the sight, For she had lain floating all that long night; Ho early next morning the inquest was held, The jury correctly the murderer did tell. TRAILS IN ORAL TRADITION Malcolm Laws stressed that: In the ballads, as in life, murder may be the outcome of alove which has become burdensome. ‘An American Tragedy’ told astory already too familiar to balladmakers here and abroad. Usually, the man lures his pregnant fiancée to alonely spot on the pretext of planning their wedding. He then announces that he will kill her. She pleads for her life and that of her baby, but he brutally murders her and attempt to conceal the body. The crime is soon revealed frequently by supernatural means and the murderer is executed. This story, with variations, may be found in ‘The Oxford Girl”, ‘The Cruel Ship’s Carpenter”, ‘The Old Oak Tree’, ‘James MacDonald’, and ‘Pat O’Brien’ (Laws, 1957, pp.21–22). These titles are referred to as ‘Ballads of Unfaithful Lovers”, in which ‘it is usually the disloyalty of only one lover which produces the conflict and hence the ballad story’ (Ibid., p.20), and belong to the wider pattern of the murdered sweetheart ‘in which agirl stated or assumed to be pregnant is murdered by her lover, who is usually brought to justice in one manner or another’. Wilgus’s list, which consists of British, Irish and American ballads in merit to the same theme, includes murder ballads such as ‘The Jealous Lover’ (Laws F1); ‘Poor Omie’ (Laws F4), and ‘On the Banks of the Ohio’ (Laws F5), all ‘closely related’ in away that ‘it is difficult to discuss asingle example of the pattern’ (Wilgus, 1979, p.172). Therefore, ‘Omie Wise’ is part of the specific category of murder sweetheart ballads linked to many other types that were performed in both continents.5 5 In association with the ‘Rose Connely’ ballad and the subsequent account of ‘Omie Wise’, Alan Lomax reports on adiscussion between two people involving questions of justice which reveal how the punishment of amurderer depended on the decisions taken by ‘the clan with the most political influence’: ‘Boze: Talkin’ ’bout killin’ people, there ain’t nothin’ to it. Idon’t see what aman worry his self bout atrial for. If Ihas enough ‘gainst aman, I’d set on the roadside one night an’ pick him off jes like Iwould abird. There ain’t nothin’ to it. If they ketch you an’ you use your head alittle bit an’ know what lawyer to git, you’ll come clear. Pede: It seems to me you’d have to fret some about the trial. Boze: Well, there OPEN ACCESS
30 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 1/2023 These generally develop through the following sequences: (1) aman invites awoman to talk about the possibility of getting married; (2) the man and woman walk or ride to the crime scene, usually an isolated place near abody of water-often by ariver-awood or aweeping willow; (3) the man threatens to kill the woman with aweapon (aknife, astone, astick); (4) the woman begs for mercy; (5) the man kills her; (6) the murderer gets rid of the body by throwing it into ariver or burying it; (7) the corpse is found, the offender is discovered and sentenced to death.6 There are also versions including the involvement of another person who buries the corpse after it is found in the wilderness, whether it is athird person (afamily member or astranger), or agroup of people cooperating to exhume the dead body to give it adecent burial, as sung in the Variant C of ‘Poor Omie’, collected by Cecil Sharp: He kicked her, he choked her, as we understand, Then throwed her in deep water below yon mill dam. Then Omie were missing and by no means could be found And people to hunt her they all gathered round (Sharp, 1917, pp.229, 230). Sharp’s transcription of the ‘Poor Omie’ tune as sung by Tom Rise (North Carolina); Variant C, or in the two types collected by Edward Henry Mellinger: ‘Poor Omie’ (Variant A) 12. Little Oma’s brother Was fishing one day. He saw the corpse of Oma, Come floating along.7 ‘Poor Omie’ (Variant B) 10. Early next morning Alittle boy fishing, about nine o’ clock, ought’n to be nothin’ to it. If somebody do you dirt, there ain’t no use to wait for the courts, cause the ain’t goin’ to do nothin’. The best way is to trust in God an’ your gun… (Wilderness, Adams, p.615; Lomax, 1960, p.261). 6 These sequences are mentioned by Arthur Field (1951). 7 “Poor Omie”, Variant A, “Little Oma Wise”. 1938. Obtained from Miss Mary King, Gatlinburg, Sevier County, Tennessee, August 12, 1929 (Mellinger, 1938, pp.221–222). OPEN ACCESS
DELIA DATTILO 31 He spied the corpse of Oma A-lying on the rocks 11. He took his canoe And brought her to the bank; Her clothes being dampen, He laid her on the bank. 12. The people all gathered From every city and town To see the corpes of Oma In the place of Oma drown.8 The constitutive elements of this ballad vary in the transmission process (distinctively: names of characters, toponyms, endings). Gerald Milnes reported the story of Leroy Wingfield, who in turn heard it from Robert Channel, who at the time was directly involved in the discovery of the body of amurdered woman named Naomi Wise, near amill, along the Cheat River (Randolph County, West Virginia):‘“Old man” Robert Channel told Wingfield he had helped pull the drowned girl out of the millrace and bury her on the hill above the river’ (Milnes, 1995, 381). Here is the version sung by Mrs. Amanda Ellen Eddy of Riversville, West Virginia, and reported by Milnes: 1. Oh come all you young people, astory Iwill tell About amaid they called Naomi Wise. Her face was fair and handsome: She was loved by everyone; In Randolph County now her body lies. 2. They say she had alove, young Lewis was his name; Each evening he would have her by his side; She learned to love and trust him and she believed his word; He told her she was doomed to be his bride. 3. One summer night he met her and took her for aride; She thought that she was going to be wed. They came down old Cheat River, and so the story goes, ‘You have met your doom,’ these words the villain said. 4. She begged him just to spare her; the villain only laughed. They say he was heartless to the core. In the stream he threw her, below the old mill dam, And sweet Naomi’s smile was seen no more. 8 “Poor Omie, Variant B, “Oma Wise”. Recorded by Mrs. Henry from the singing of Miss Dicey McLean, Crossnore, Avery County, North Carolina, July, 1929 (Ibid., pp.223–224). OPEN ACCESS
32 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 1/2023 5. Next day they found her body, floating down the stream, And all the folks for miles around did cry. Young Lewis left the country; they brought him back again, But could not prove that he caused her to die. 6. They say that on his deathbed young Lewis did confess; He said that he had killed Naomi Wise. So now we know her spirit still lingers round the place To save some girl from some villain’s lies. 7. Young people, oh take warning and listen while Isay, You must take care before it is too late. Don’t listen to the story some villain tongue may tell, Or you are sure to meet Naomi’s fate (Ibid., p.385). The last three stanzas (5, 6, 7), provide details surrounding the events omitted in Craven’s version: the community finds the body, Lewis leaves the country (5); Lewis confesses the murder on his deathbed (6); the singer/narrator warns young people (7). Some English broadsides on the theme of the murdered sweetheart, circulating in the nineteenth century, also present admonitions in their closing stanzas, e.g.: 1. ‘John Cooney’s Lamentation. For the murder of his Sweetheart’, sung from the viewpoint of the murderer: ‘Let each kind and tender youth awarning take be me, / To be ruled by their parents and shun bad company’;9 2. ‘Shocking Murder in Gloucestershire, ayoung woman shot by her sweetheart’: ‘Now all young men and maidens / Awarning take Ipray, / And with each others feeling’s / Be careful not to play (…)’ (Roud V32954);10 3. ‘Murder of aSweetheart at Witney’: ‘So all young men be warned in time. / And take advice from me, / Think of Edward Roberts’ fearful crime / And beware of jealousy.’ (Roud V32953);11 4. ‘The Lamentation of Patrick Kilkenny who is sentenced to die on the 20th of July, for the murder of his sweetheart, Margaret Forquhar’: ‘So now to end my sad tragedy, / To young and old let this awarning be, / For Margaret Farquher let each christian pray, / And for my salvation on my dying day.’ (Roud V1363).12 9 Cf. http://ballads.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/static/images/sheets/15000/10561.gif 10 A broadside printed in 1853, cf. http://ballads.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/static/images/ sheets/10000/05531.gif 11 Abroadside printed between 1860 and 1883, cf. http://ballads.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/static/images/sheets/20000/18895.gif 12 Abroadside ballad, from the viewpoint of the murderer, printed in Dublin, and circulating between 1850 and 1899, cf. http://ballads.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/static/images/ sheets/15000/12043.gif OPEN ACCESS
DELIA DATTILO 39 end of the video, her ‘vital signs’ are limited to the singing/narrative voice that doubles the man’s account. She tells her version from an innocent, virginal point of view that is pushed to the limit of pure naivety (‘They call me the wild rose / But my name was Elisa Day / Why they call me that Ido not know / For my name was Elisa Day’). The man is stuck in his role as apetty, almost unaware vehicle for the perpetration of violence— as if the latter should be considered auniquely masculine attribute. Tuccillo’s film presents anew story with anew ( apparently ‘happy”) ending for poor Omie, but it still portrays the main character— throughout the whole movie— as amiserable and insecure individual who is crushed by the events of her own life and only finds solace in marriage to aman: the once very lonely girl is now agrown woman surrounded by her new family (husband and two children), and the observer, who is familiar with the folktale, concludes that at least poor Omie did not die.25 WORKS CITED 25 User comments Ihave found in an online forum dedicated to this movie highlighted this very aspect. Anglin, M. 1995. Lives on the Margin: Rediscovering the Women of Antebellum Western North Carolina, Pudup, M.B.Billings, D.B. & A.L.Waller (eds). Appalachia in the Making. The Mountain South in the Nineteenth Century. The University of North Carolina Press. 185–209. [google books] Babcock, B.A. 1987. Taking Liberties, Writing from the Margins, and Doing It with aDifference, The Journal of American Folklore 100/398, 390–411. doi.org/10.2307/540900 Bronfen, E. 1992. Over Her Dead Body: Death, Femininity and the Aesthetic. Manchester University Press. Herren, G. 2021. Dreams and Dialogues in Dylan’s ‘Time Out of Mind’. London, New York: Anthem Press, [kindle edition]. Caruthers, E.W. & Craven, B. 1888. Abrief history of Col. David Fanning: also, Naomi Wise, or the wrongs of abeautiful girl: and Randolph’s manufacturing. Weldon, N.C.: Harrell’s Printing House. [hathitrust.org] Craven, B. 18??. Life of Naomi Wise, True story of aBeautiful Girl, Enacted in Randolph County, N.C. [archive.org] Craven, B. 1962. The Story of Naomie Wise and the History of Randleman. Randleman: Rotary Club. [archive.org] Dowd, J. 1896. Life of Braxton Craven. Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards & Broughton. [archive.org] Field, A. 1951. Why Is the ‘Murdered Girl’ so Popular, Midwest Folklore 1/2, 113–119. [jstor. org] Herren, G. 2021. Dreams and Dialogues in Dylan’s ‘Time Out of Mind’. London, New York: Anthem Press. [kindle edition] Hastie, C.R.2011. ‘This Murder Done’: Misogyny, Femicide, and Modernity in nineteenth Century Appalachian Murder Ballads. Master Theses, Knoxville: University of Tennessee. [trace. tennessee.edu/] Laws, G.M. 1950. Native American Balladry. ADescriptive Study and aBibliographical Syllabus. Philadelphia: The American Folklore Society. [hathitrust.org] Laws, G.M. 1957. American Balladry from British Broadsides. AGuide for Students and Collectors of Traditional Song. Philadelphia: The American Folklore Society. [hathitrust.org] Lomax, A. 1960. Folk Songs of North America in the English Language. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. [archive.org] Massek, S.2015. Herstory of Appalachia: Three Centuries of Oppression and Resistance, Appalachian Journal 42(3–4), 284–295. [jstor.org] OPEN ACCESS
40 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 1/2023 Mellinger, H.E. 1938. Folk Songs from the Southern Highlands. New York: J.J. Augustin. [archive.org] Mill, J.S.1869. The Subjection of Women. London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. [archive.org] Milnes, G. 1995. West Virginia’s Omie Wise: The Folk Process Unveiled, Appalachian Journal, 22(4), 376–389. [jstor.org] Milnes, G. 2015. Play of aFiddle: Traditional Music, Dance and Folklore in West Virginia. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Mulvey L. 1999. Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. New York, Oxford; Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, 833–844. Nelson, C.2015. Speaking of Neil Young, New England Review (1990-), 134–150. [nereview.com/] Sharp, C.1917. English Songs from Southern Appalachians. New York and London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. [archive.org] Smith, H.E. (liner notes). 1952. American Folk Music. New York: Folkways Records. Turino, T. 2008. Music as Social Life: The Politics of Participation. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Welter, B. 1966. The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820–1860, American Quarterly, 151–174. doi. org/10.2307/2711179 White, N.I. 1952. The Frank C.Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore, Volume Two. Folk Ballads from North Carolina edited by Henry M.Belden and Arthur Palmer Hudson. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. [archive.org] Wilderness, C. & Adams, E.C.L., cf. Lomax, A. 1960. Folk Songs of North America in the English Language. New York: Doubleday & Company. Wilgus, D.K. 1979. Rose Connoley: An Irish Ballad, The Journal of American Folklore 92:364, 172–195. doi.org/10.2307/539387 Zeleny, R.B. 2010. Ophelia, the Singing Corpse: Pleasure and the Gaze in Where the Wild Roses Grow, Neo-Victorian Studies 3/2, 56–72. [academia.edu] Delia Dattilo holds aPhD in Ethnomusicology (University of Cagliari) and is director of the book series ‘Geologie Umane’ (Ferrari Editore), amember of the Forum für Klanglandschaft (FKL), the Kommission für Volksdichtung (KfV), and the Istituto di Bibliografia Musicale (I.Bi.Mus.) Calabrese. She edited three volumes with grants from the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities (ex Mibac, now Mic). Her interests include circulation of oral expressions in written sources, multipart singing, transculturalism, temporary communities, soundscape. Contact: [email protected] OPEN ACCESS