The linguistic metaphors of deafness in Egyptian literary, biographical and medical texts

The linguistic metaphors of deafness in Egyptian literary, biographical and medical texts Amgad Joseph ABSTRACT This article examines and explores the attested occurrences of the linguistic metaphors of deafness in the Egyptian literary, biographical and medical texts, with aspecial examination of their significances and con‑ notations. It examines how the Egyptian culture expresses its values through various metaphors of deafness. The article also considers the virtues and vices of deafness in literary and biographical contexts. It examines the cognitive approaches to different lexical semantics of the Egyptian words for deafness. Comparative liter‑ ary, biographical and medical sources, inscriptions in private tombs, statues, papyri and stelae are examined. The article also examines deafness to Maat and its consequences. The Egyptian lexemes and expressions designating deafness will be examined in lexicographical, phraseological and thematic textual analyses. KEYWORDS Linguistic metaphors– deafness– deafness to Maat– virtues– vices ةيبطلاو ةيتاذلا ريسلا صوصن و ،ةيرصملا ةيبدلأا صوصنلا يف ممصلل ةيوغللا تاراعتسلاا فيزوج دجما صخلملا ةيتاذلا ريسلا ىف اضيأو ،ةيرصملا ةيبدلأا صوصنلا ىف ممصلل ةيوغللا تاراعتسلاا دوجو ىف قيقحتلاو ثحبلاب لاقملا اذه موقي اهميق نع ةيرصملا ةفاقثلا تربع فيك ثحبلا لوانتي .اهنيماضمو اهتلالاد لوح ةصاخ ةسارد اًمدقم ،ةيبطلا صوصنلا وأ ريسلاو ةيبدلأا تاقايسلا ىف ممصلا لئاذرو لئاضف صحف ىلإ لاقملا قرطتي امك .عمسلا نادقفل ةعونتم تاراعتسا للاخ نم ةيبدلأا رداصملا ةسارد ثحبلا لمشيو .ةلصلا تاذ ةيرصملا تاملكلل ةيمجعملا تلالادلل ةيفرعملا جهانملا فاشكتساب ،ةيتاذلا لاقملا لوانتي .تاحوللاو تايدربلاو ليثامتلاو دارفلأا رباقم ىف شوقنلا صحف ىلإ ةفاضلإاب ،ةنراقملا ةيبطلاو ةيتاذلا ريسلاو ةيمجعم ةيصن تلايلحت ىف ةلصلا تاذ ةيرصملا تارابعلاو مجاعملا صحف متيس .هبقاوعو تعامل تاصنلإا مدع راثآ اًضيأ .ةيعوضومو ةيظفلو ةلادلا تاملكلا لئاذرلا – لئاضفلا – تعامل تاصنلإا مدع – ممصلا – ةيوغللا تاراعتسلاا Deafness is alittle ‑discussed phenomenon in ancient Egypt. However, Nili Shupak briefly discussed the concept of “deafness as ametaphor” in aconcise study of three expressions of deafness, namely sxy (sXy), idi and msDrt dng. She examined these expressions in Egyptian wisdom literature in comparison to Biblical wisdom literature (Shupak 1993: 91–92). She PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023, 73–94 74 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 briefly discusses deafness as ametaphor in specific “school” and literary texts (Shupak 1993: 91–92). On the other hand, Jan Assmann, in his book “Ma’at: Gerechtigkeit und Unsterblichkeit im Alten Ägypten,” elaborates the topic of deafness for the words of Maat resulting in lack of friends (Assmann 1990: 69–84). In this part of his study, Assmann discusses deafness to Maat as deafness to connective justice (i.e. “communicative solidarity and reciprocity”; Assmann 1990: 69–84). This article, however, does not only study deafness as an impairment, but it also examines and detects its linguistic metaphors, significances and consequences in the literary, biographical and medical texts. In this context, the concept of deafness is examined in terms of other concepts, where there issome similarity or correlation between them revealing the linguistic metaphors of this concept.1 In order to compile astudy of deafness one should make use of sources from different historical and textual scopes to come to abroader understanding of such aphenomenon. Asemantic lexicographic study of deafness in ancient Egyptian therefore would require ade‑ tailed study of different genres of texts. Iwill focus on compiling the words for deafness in Egyptian language and on explicating their basic meanings and linguistic metaphors, which can be used as amethodology for in ‑depth analysis in the subsequent discussion of the cor‑ pus. The pieces of evidence include different genres, ranging from literary and biographical texts and in specific cases medical texts. Monumental pieces of evidence are also considered including inscriptions and papyri. Deafness in Egyptian texts is not only aphysiological phenomenon but also psychological, social, and cultural. Thus, this article extends the existing knowledge of this phenomenon and develops the current scholarly work about this topic in away which demonstrates the ambivalent and metaphoric use of deafness as avirtue and as avice. Additionally, this article adopts adifferent methodological approach to deafness through the discussion of its meta‑ phoric aetiologies as aphenomenon, and the phraseological explanation and analysis of its various occurrences beyond the levels of lexemes and semantics. The addressed research problem is to ascertain the linguistic metaphors and experiences of deafness as adysphemism or euphemism. It also aims to ascertain if this impairment was regarded as avirtue or avice in the perceptions of the ancient Egyptians. The methodology followed is to examine and analyse occurrences in which living individuals are described as deaf. Thus, the methodological approach of this phenomenon is examined in lexical, phra‑ seological and thematic textual analyses. The methodology followed aims at classifying the occurrences in consistent cases with the purpose of analysing them, taking into consideration their context, significance and phraseology. DEAFNESS IN EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE Different words for deafness can be attested in the Egyptian language. They provide subtle shades of meaning with nuances of semantics consistent with their perspective and phrase‑ ology. The Egyptian words include imr, ‘to be deaf’ (Wb I: 87, 18; Faulkner 1991: 21; P.Prisse 4, 1 Lakoff argues that “the locus of metaphor is not in language at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another” (Lakoff 1993: 203). 75AMGAD JOSEPH 3–4, 4 (ll. 10–11), Allen 2015: 168–169),2 idi, ‘to be deaf, to deafen’ (Wb I: 151, 13–15),3 sx, ‘deaf, to deafen’ (Wb IV: 228; Allen 2015: 319), sXi/ sxi, ‘to be deaf, turn adeaf ear’ (Wb III: 473, 16–474, 12; Faulkner 1991:239), dng, ‘deaf’ (Wb V: 470, 2–3), hhi, ‘to be unheard (of words), to deafen’ (Wb II: 502, 10; Lesko 2002: 292), and hhit, ‘hearing disorder/ ear disease’ (Wb II: 502, 10–11).4 THE GESTURAL SIGN LANGUAGE OF THE DEAF PEOPLE IN ANCIENT EGYPT It is attested that there were deaf ‑mutes in classical antiquity,5 and both physicians and non‑ ‑professionals would have noticed that any person who was born deaf and suffered congenital deafness also had limited speaking ability. Thus, deafness can cause impairments in speech and language acquisition as well as educational achievement. There are afew attestations of agestural sign language that employs signs made with the hand as acommunication medium for the deaf people in ancient Egypt. In the Nineteenth Dynasty Papyrus Koller, an early reference of signed or gestural means of communication is attested in aseries of Egyptian admonitions addressing threats and warnings to an idle scribe (Gardiner 1911: 39*; Erman 1927: 292; Iversen 1986: 183). Thus, amagistrate addresses the idle scribe saying: “You are one who is deaf and does not hear, to whom one make (signs) with the hand (ntk <s>xy bw iri⸗f sDm i iri⸗tw n⸗f m Drt)” (P.Koller = P.Berlin 3043, 2, 5; P.Anastasi IV = P.BM EA 10249, 2, 7; Gardiner 1911: 39*; Erman 1927: 292; Iversen 1986: 183). Similarly, in the Nineteenth Dynasty Papyrus Anastasi IV, when the idle scribe is rebuked for abandoning writing, he is addressed, “(Yet) you are not one who is deaf and cannot hear, to whom one make (signs) with the hand (nn ntk sxy iw bw iri⸗f sDm i iri⸗tw n⸗f m Drt)” (P.Anastasi IV = P.BM EA 10249, rt. 2, 7; Caminos 1954: 131–132, 134; Gardiner 1937: 36, 86; Ragazzoli 2012: 220). These attestations of scribal texts merely allude to the fact that such asign language for the deaf people with such impairments exist in the Egyptian society. DEAFNESS TO MAAT Hearing is the beginning of wisdom for listeners, since hearing is asublime virtue and afea‑ ture of the wise man (Shupak 1993: 54). In Maatian ethical discourses,6 aclear distinction is made explicit between the one who shuts his ears and the one who listens to the words of Maat. Horemheb, before his accession to the throne, justifies himself saying: “Iam kind ‑hearted before god, one knowledgeable and content, who hears to Maat (sDm⸗f mAat)” (see Winlock 1924: 2, pl. 4). In his self ‑presentation on his Abydene stela (Twelfth Dynasty), the chamberlain Intef, son of Senet, describes himself as “alistener who listens to the truth (ink sDmw sDm⸗i mAat)” 2 See also lexeme no. 26370 in the Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae. This word is only attested in the Instructions of Ptahhotep (see P.Prisse 4, 3–4, 4: ll. 11–12; Allen 2015: 168–169; Žába 1956: 16–17, ll. 16–22: version C, trans. 70–71; Estes 1993: 75). 3 ‘Taub sein, taub werden lassen’; lexeme no. 33890 in the Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae. 4 See further information about this word (Takács 1997: 150). 5 The Latin Vulgate version describes the deaf ‑mute man as surdum et mutum. On the other hand, the Greek version describes the deaf as kophos (Laes 2018: 117, no. 8). 6 Maulana Karenga argues that the Maatian ethics “is an ethical doctrine rather than aset of ethics” (Karenga 2004: 28). 76 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 (Stela BM EA 581, l. 20; Sethe 1928: 81, ll. 3–4; Lichtheim 1973: 122; Lichtheim 1988: 111). He then presents himself speaking of the virtues he has done to his neighbours, friends and the poor. Thus, he makes alink between listening to Maat and doing Maat. Similarly, on his Abydene stela (Twelfth Dynasty), the steward Mentuwoser makes astraightforward link between listening to and doing Maat saying: “Iam one who listens rightly and leans not (i.e. was not partial) to the possessor of bribes (ink sDmw r wn mAa tm nma n nb DbAw).”7 He declares that he has acted in amanner conforming to Maatian moral values. Thus, listening to the words of truth implies paying attention and reacting in aright way to the demands of Maat (Karenga 2004: 372). Individuals may declare that they did not turn adeaf ear to Maat in areference to their righteousness. In atext on the Eighteenth Dynasty schist scribal palette of the chief of craftsmen and vizier Ptahmose, he “turned not adeaf ear (lit. face) to the truth, through the terrors of his eye (n sXi.n⸗f Hr⸗f r mAat m Hrywt n ir(t)⸗f).”8 In contrast, deafness to Maat may lead to bad consequences. In the Middle Kingdom Discourses of the Eloquent Peasant, the peasant says: “There is no yesterday for the negligent, no friend for the one deaf to Maat (nn sf n wsfw nn xnms n sX mAat)” (P.Amherst 2, P.Berlin 3025, B2 109–111; Allen 2015: 319; Parkinson 1991: 47; Parkinson 1997a: 74; Parkinson 2012: 300–301). This is ametaphor for Rensi’sdeafness as aphysical incapacity and an expression of partiality and negligence (Parkinson 2012: 300). Thus, the pleas of Khunanpu have fallen on the deaf ears of Rensi, and consequently, the peasant was deprived of his possessions, rights and dignity. Khunanpu stresses hearing and responding in seeking justice (i.e. Maat), and defines the ideal relation between speaker and hearer (Parkinson 2012: 82), saying to Rensi: “When Ispeak, may you hear and do Maat (Dd⸗i sDm⸗k iri mAat)” (P.Amherst 1, P.Berlin 3023, B1 99; Allen 2015: 253–254; Parkinson 1991: 18–19; Parkinson 1997a: 61; Parkinson 2012: 81–82). He also addresses ahopeless speech to him saying: “Iam appealing to you and you do not hear it. Iwill go to appeal about you to Anubis (mi⸗k wi Hr spr n⸗k n sDm.n⸗k st iw⸗i r Smt r spr Hr⸗k n Inpw)” (P.Amherst 2, P.Berlin 3025, B2 113–115; Allen 2015: 319–320; Parkinson 1991: 47; Parkinson 1997a: 74; Parkinson 2012: 302–303; Shupak 1992: 10).9 One of the peasant’scondemnations of Rensi is attested in his address to him saying: “Hearer, you just do not hear, why do you fail to hear? (sDmw n A sDm.n⸗k tm⸗k tr sDm Hr mi)” (P.Amherst 1, P.Berlin 3023, B1211; Allen 2015: 281–282; Parkinson 1991: 31; Parkinson 1997a: 74; Parkinson 2012: 177–178). Thus, Rensi is acting as adeaf or choosing not to hear. Further‑ more, the peasant speaks of Rensi saying: “The seer comes out blind and the hearer deaf (pr mAw Spw{t} sDmw sxw)” (P.Amherst 1, P.Berlin 3023, B1 144–145; Allen 2015: 265–266; Parkinson 7 Stela of the Steward Mentuwoser, dated to the seventeenth year of King Senusret I(MMA 12.184, ll. 13–14, PM V, 102; Sethe 1928: 79, 18–19; Lichtheim 1988: 103–104; Lichtheim 1992: 33; Karenga 2004: 372; Parkinson 2012: 195). 8 Louvre Museum (N 3026; PM III 2 , 773; Pierret 1874: 93–94; De Putter – Karlshausen 2022: 150–151, fig. 79). In the ‘Declaration of Innocence’ in the mid ‑Eighteenth Dynasty Papyrus of Nu, the deceased declares that he has not been deaf to the words of Maat (n sXi⸗i Hr mdwt nt mAat), see BD 125 in the mid ‑Eighteenth Dynasty Papyrus of Nu = P.BM EA 10477 (Lapp 1997: pl. 66; Faulkner 1985: 32; Quirke 2013: 272). See also BD 125 in P.Cairo CG 24095 = P.Maiherperi, l. 432, it reads, “Ihave not been deaf (lit. my face was not deaf) to the words of Maat (n sXi Hr⸗i Hr mdt nt mAat)” (Munro 1994: pls. 129–131). 9 Parkinson argues that “the peasant does not rebuke Rensi for not listening to him, but to his petitioning” (Parkinson 2012: 303). 77AMGAD JOSEPH 1991: 24; Parkinson 1997a: 74; Parkinson 2012: 123). Rensi is also described as the one whose “face is blind to what he sees and deaf to what he hears, his heart straying from what has been mentioned to him (Hr⸗f Sp(w) r mAAt⸗f sx(w) r sDmt⸗f th ib Hr sxAyt n⸗f)” (P.Amherst 1, P.Berlin 3023, B1 218–220; Allen 2015: 283–284; Parkinson 1991: 31; Parkinson 1997a: 67; Parkinson 2012: 183–184). The deafness of Rensi in the aforementioned stanzas may indicate his failure to fulfil his duties (Shupak 1993: 79). The aforementioned stanzas also imply Rensi’sinability or rather unwillingness to respond fairly and hear the appeals of the peasant, and thus, he violates the moral Maatian values. In the meantime, no action of justice was taken and Rensi has metaphorically been blind and deaf indicating his partiality and unfairness. Thus, the peasant demanded hearing as an official virtue and response to all his appeals (Parkinson 2012: 123). THE VIRTUES AND VICES OF DEAFNESS The linguistic metaphors of deafness in Egyptian literary and biographical texts explicitly show the ambivalent use of deafness in different contexts. In specific occurrences, deafness can be regarded as avirtue in accordance with the Maatian moral values. Astanza in the Instruction of aMan for his Son demonstrates that turning adeaf face is alinguistic metaphor to calmness: “one who turns adeaf face is calm,10 in contrast to the one who rouses hostility (obb sXi Hr⸗f tm Stm)” (Lichtheim 1983: 13; Fischer ‑Elfert 1999: 248, 250, 427, § 24: 7; Posener 1950: 79–80, 83, nos. h–i).11 Deafness is also used as ametaphor to impartiality and negligence of the rich in favour of the weak. Hor ‑iri ‑aa (@r ‑iri ‑aA), the court official of King Psametik II,12 presents himself on the Twenty ‑sixth Dynasty seated Osiris statue (Cairo CG 38236) saying: “<I> was found as one deaf to the rich, but as (one) friendly to the deprived and as one who helped the weak against the strong. For Iknow that god is satisfied with one who acts thus (gm.tw <wi> m sX Hr iwti.n⸗f n ib n xwd nD<i> mAr m ‑a wsr iw⸗i rx.kwi Htp n nTr m ir<t> nn)” (Piehl 1887: 120–121; PM III/2, 849; Otto 1954: 161–162: 127, Inschrift 22; Lichtheim 1992: 140–141; Jansen ‑Winkeln 1996: 192–193, fig. 2b, pl. 33d; Heise 2007: 184, nn. 463–464: TextII.20, C, ll. 6–8; Jansen ‑Winkeln 2014: 336–338; Karenga 2004: 293). This text demonstrates the right deeds of Hor ‑iri ‑aa throughout his life, since he is acting in accordance with the god’sinstruction in doing Maat and establishing impartiality. Thus, he turns adeaf ear to the rich in favour of the deprived, poor and weak. In asimilar context, Rekhmire, the vizier of Thutmose III, justifies himself saying: “Idid not per[vert justice] for reward. Iwas not indeed deaf (lit. Iwas not indeed deaf of my face) to the weak of arm (indigent) (n sXi⸗i Hr⸗i rssy r sA ‑a)” (Urk. IV: 1079, 4–5; Gardiner 1925: 70–71; James 1984: 57).13 10 The mayor Paheri in his tomb at el ‑Kab says: “Idid not turn adeaf face (n sX⸗i Hr⸗i) to payments” (Urk.IV: 118, 16; Taylor– Griffith 1894: 30). 11 sXi Hr⸗f in this occurrence also means ‘careless’ (Fischer ‑Elfert 1999: 250). See also O.IFAO 2185, 3, where the text reads, sXi Hr⸗f r swA Hr⸗f, “he who turns adeaf face will pass him by” (Fischer ‑Elfert 1999: 427). 12 His surname is Nfr ‑ib ‑Ra ‑nfr. See further information about him (Pressl 1998: 21–22, 202–207, C2.1–8). 13 In the Duties of the Vizier, he is the one who hears every case (sDm mdt nbt) (Urk. IV: 1114, 12). 78 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 Discretion of the secret of ahigh official’shouse and dealing with what he has said like adeaf person is instructed in the Nineteenth Dynasty Maxims of Ani:14 “Beware of false testi‑ mony (lit. an instance of falsification) against ahigh official when making areport. Hide what <he> has said in <his> house! Treat it like one who is deaf, i.e. [One] did not (once) hear (it)! (sAw tw r spi (n) saDA r sri iw⸗k (Hr) ann smy imn i Dd<⸗f> m pr<⸗f> i iri sw m sXy bw)” (P.Cairo CG 58042 = P.Boulaq 4, rt. 15, 9–15,10, Version B; Quack 1994: 86–87). On the other hand, deafness can be attested as avice against the Maatian moral values. Turning adeaf ear to the advice of gods is regarded as avice. Thus, it is said about the king that he is the one “who acts according to their (i.e. gods’) words, and is not deaf to their advice (iri iSt xft Dd⸗sn nn sxi Hr Hr md(t)⸗sn).”15 Deafness is regarded as avice during the periods of foreign invasions and chaotic circum‑ stances. Astanza in the Eighteenth Dynasty Laments of Neferti, which describes the chaotic status of Egypt with persistent concerns about foreign invasion with its attendant reversal of authority and governmental anarchy, reads, “This land will go to and fro; the consequence is unknown and what will happen is hidden, like the saying: “See how the hearer is going deaf and the silent one is in front” (iw tA pn iT int n rx bs xpr.ty.fy imn m Dd ptr sDm Hr idw iw gr xft ‑Hr)” (P.Neferti VIIIc–VIIId = P.Petersburg 1116B, 37–38; Helck 1970: 34–35; Parkinson 1997a: 136–137; Quirke 2004: 137).16 In other poems, silence is presented as indifference to evil and lack of hearing is presented as an established theme in laments and notably those of Khak‑ heperreseneb and Sasobek (Parkinson 2012: 66).17 Deafness is used as alinguistic metaphor of idleness and unresponsiveness in an address in the Nineteenth Dynasty Papyrus Koller to the idle scribe who forsook and abandoned writing. The scribe is warned, admonished and insulted because of his unresponsiveness: “Your ear is deaf (?);18 you are like an ass in taking beatings (i.e. you are as stubborn and insensitive when punished as abeaten ass) (msDrt⸗k dng(?) tw⸗k mi aA{t} m Ssp onon)” (P.Koller = P.Berlin 3043, 2, 3–2, 4; Gardiner 1911: 38*; Gardiner 1937: 117; Caminos 1954: 437; Iversen 1986: 181–186; Eyre 2011b: 184). Asimilar text is also attested in Papyrus Anastasi IV (P.Anastasi IV = P.BM EA 10249, rt. 2, 5–2, 6; Gardiner 1911: 38*–39*; Gardiner 1937: 36; Caminos 1954: 131–132). In asimilar context, in the Twentieth Dynasty Papyrus Lansing, in an advice of ascribe to an unwilling pupil, the latter is addressed: “Oh young fellow, how conceited/ haughty you are (lit. How high is your heart)! You do not hearken when Ispeak (kri ‑Sri aA wsy ib⸗k bw sDm⸗k iw⸗i mdt)” (P.Lansing = P.BM EA 9994, rt. 2, 3–2, 4 = P.Louvre 80 / P.Louvre E. 8419: 2, 4–9; Gardiner 1937: 101; Caminos 1954: 377; Moers 2001: 127–128). 14 Quack argues that the original text of the Maxims of Ani dates to the early Nineteenth Dynasty (Quack 1994: 61–62). 15 The Naucratis Stela of King Nectanebo I(Cairo JE 34002: l. 5; Lichtheim 1980a: 88). 16 Nyord argues that this text relates to the violation of the bodily archetypes (Nyord 2009: 492, nos.4590–4591). Parkinson argues that the hearer in this stanza can mean ‘judge’ as the following stanzas give information about internal troubles without any reference to the invaders (Parkinson 1997a: 141, no. 17). 17 The text in the Laments of Khakheperreseneb reads, “silence against what is heard is adisease (pw gr r sDmt ih)” (see Khakheperreseneb, vs. 4, Parkinson 1997a: 148; Parkinson 1997b: 60). The text in the Laments of Sasobek reads, “you have not heard what you (should) have heard (n sDm⸗k sDmt.n⸗k)” (see P.Ramesseum I, Bii, 15; Quirke 2004: 194). 18 See the word dng, ‘deaf’ (Wb V: 470, 2–3). 79AMGAD JOSEPH Deafness as alinguistic metaphor for haughtiness is also attested in ascathing tirade in aletter dating to the Twentieth Dynasty, addressed to the childless Nekhemmut by an anony‑ mous writer, it reads, “Oh, what is the meaning of your getting into such abad state in which you are that nobody’sspeech can enter into your ear as aconsequence of your haughty (lit. high) character (Hna ‑Dd iA ix pAy⸗k xpr m pAy sxr bin nty tw⸗k i m⸗f iw bw irt mdwt n r(m)T nb ao m msDrt⸗k m ‑sA tAy⸗k biAt aA)” (O. Berlin P 10627, 3–6 = KRI VI, 155, 10–12; Wente 1990: 149; Neveu 2015: 133).19 The text demonstrates that Nekhemmut’sreluctance to listen implies that he is no longer able to listen to reason because of his haughty character. Thus, Nekhemmut behaves in an unfriendly way towards other people because he thinks that he is better than them. Deafness is also used as alinguistic metaphor for the affliction of malaise. In atext entitled “Longing for Memphis” in the Nineteenth Dynasty Papyrus Anastasi IV, the writer appeals to Ptah to come and take him to Memphis saying that he spent the day longing for sleep but evil has seized all of his limbs, his eye is faint when looking, his ear hears not (lit. <it> does not fill (with noises), and his voice is hoarse (at⸗i nb T[Ay]⸗w Dw irt⸗i bSd m nw {tAy}⸗{i} msDr⸗i bw mH⸗<st?> xrw⸗<i> xnr) (P.Anastasi IV = P.BM EA 10249, rt. 5, 2–5, 5; Caminos 1954: 150; Lich‑ theim 1980b: 21; Foster 1992: 60).20 The linguistic metaphor of deafness as reluctance to listen is attested in the Nineteenth Dynasty Papyrus Anastasi I,21 where the writer Hori, aman of great knowledge and celebrity, working in the royal stables, writes to his friend the scribe Amenemope. Hori mentions that he received aletter from Amenemope, who has taken other scribes to help him with his writing. The letter of Amenemope was somehow concerned with obtaining grain from the granary for the soldiers’ provisions. Here Amenemope “had proved his incompetence, his accounts being confused and inexact (Gardiner 1911: 9*, no. 6.).” Therefore, Hori addresses him saying: “Your (Amenemope’s) lists are confused, and cannot be made right. Kheruef plays the deaf man, 22 and does not listen (nAy⸗k {wpwt} <wpt> txtx bw iri⸗w wDA⸗w iry £ri⸗f sxy bw ir⸗f sDm)” (P.Anastasi I= P.BM EA 10247, 6, 5–6, 6 (= T 65); Gardiner 1911: 10*, 22*; Fischer ‑Elfert 1983: 64–65; Fischer‑ ‑Elfert 1986: 57, 60: Kapitel V; Wente 1990: 101–102).23 The text demonstrates that Kheruef, the pretended name of the overseer of the granary, pretends to be deaf and he is reluctant to hear. Deafness as avice is attested in the retribution of the herald. The theme here is malfeasance, misbehaviour or transgression against the regime. In the Middle Kingdom Story of Sinuhe, he explains how process for treachery had not been instigated against him reading, “Ihad not heard any reproaches. My name was not heard in the mouth of the herald (ni sDm⸗i TAs Hwrw ni sDm.tw rn⸗i m r wHmw)” (P.Berlin 3022 and P.Amherst n–q, B 227–228; Parkinson 1997a: 38, Allen 2015: 129–130; Eyre 2011a: 706). 19 Bierbrier has argued that Nekbemmut II, son of Amenkbau I, is identified with the childless Nekbemmut, the subject of ascathing tirade in the letter of Ostracon Berlin P.10627 (Bierbrier 1984: 205). See the letter of this ostracon (Ermann 1905: 100–106). 20 According to Foster, the writer of this text is an apprentice scribe weary of his schoolwork. Thus, he prays to Ptah to help him concentrate on his lessons. 21 It is asatirical letter that contains aseries of statements probably written by aroyal scribe in command of the troops. 22 Kheruef is the pretended name of the overseer of the granary (see Gardiner 1911: 10*, no.13). 23 See also the Nineteenth ‑Twentieth Dynasty O.DM 1177, vs. 2–3 (Posener 1952: 20, pl. 32). 80 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 Acontrast is made explicit between the hearer and the deaf in the Middle Kingdom In‑ structions of Ptahhotep. Afather will make of his son ahearer, who guides his mouth according to what has been said to him. He is ason who is talented, while the installation into office of anon ‑hearer will go wrong (nnm bs n tm sDm). In this occurrence, the non ‑hearer is used as ametaphor for the incompetent official whose installation will fail. Therefore, the wise man rises early to establish himself; while the foolish struggles (P.Prisse 16, 13–17, 4: ll. 564–574; Allen 2015: 218–219). The virtuous man is ahearer who hears speech, “but he who does what is said is the one who loves hearing (mrr sDm pw irr Ddt)” (P.Prisse 16, 8–16, 9: ll. 550–553; Allen 2015: 216–217). Deafness can be regarded as alinguistic metaphor for ignorance. Ignorance and blindness can be metaphorically used as traits of people who are reluctant to listen. Astanza in the Middle Kingdom Instuctions of Ptahhotep contrasts the character of the disobedient son in the following way: “As for the fool who does not hear (ir wxA iwt(i) sDm⸗f), he will not be able to see anything. He sees knowledge as ignorance, what is useful as what is painful (mnt)” (P.Prisse 17, 4–9: ll. 575–578; Allen 2015: 219–220).24 Thus, in this stanza the deafness of the son is ascribed to his foolishness in contrast to the preceding stanza which describes the righteous Maatian man. In arelevant context, in ateaching in the late Middle Kingdom Papyrus Ramesseum II, the experienced says that the trapper is like the ignorant, swallowing his talents, the talented heart is deaf to what it once knew (sX.n ib Ax rxt.n⸗f). Thus, the wise man says: “to whom can Ispeak?” (P.Ramesseum II, vs. Ii, 4; Quirke 2004: 189). Deafness is also used as alinguistic metaphor for incompetence and failures by magis‑ trates in their duties to investigate individual complaints and document mistreatments, and the abuse of revenue management in the exercise of government. These acts of corruption were condemned by the regime. This is attested in the Nauri Decree of Seti Ito protect the endowment of his temple reading,25 “But as for any [magistrate of] acourt, who is in any city, to whom any person of the Temple Heart ‑of ‑Men ‑maat ‑Re ‑is ‑happy in Abydos shall come to complain to him, and he shall be deaf about it (iw swt ir [sr n] onbt nb nty m niwt nb nty r rmT nb n tA Hwt Mn ‑mAat ‑Ra ib hr(w) m AbDw spr r⸗f r smi n⸗f mtw⸗f sX Hr r⸗f), so as not to leap up at (his) voice to deal with his case quickly,” (Nauri Decree of Seti I, Chap. 7, ll. 115–117; Edgerton, 1947: 227; Kitchen 1996: 48–55; Eyre 2011a: 709; David 2006: 104–105). 26 He will be dismissed from his post and reduced to the position of apeasant in the service of the Temple of Seti Iat Abydos (Nauri Decree of Seti I, Chap. 7, ll. 117–119; Edgerton, 1947: 227). In adifferent context, deafness is used as alinguistic metaphor for negligence. In the Twentieth Dynasty Papyrus Deir el ‑Medina IV, the scribe Nakhtsobek is attested as sending aletter to the crew member Amennakht asking him what offence he has done against him. The letter indicates that Nakhtsobek was not only being warned to abstain from entering 24 The word mnt is used to mean “suffering of pain,” but it is used here in afiguative expression (see Wb II: 67). 25 Eyre argues that fierce punishment was laid down for anybody who reduced the revenues, either by personal or office ‑related taking of income (Eyre 2011a: 709). 26 Arlette David translates sX Hr r⸗f as ‘he will not respond to him’. The determinative of sX ‑Hr in this text is the walking legs (Gardiner sign ‑list D54) instead of the ear of the ox (Gardiner sign ‑list F21) (David 2006: 257). 81AMGAD JOSEPH Amennakht’shouse, but he is also instructed to distance himself even from the posts which delimit the borders of Deir el ‑Medina (P.Deir el ‑Medina IV, vs. 1–4; Sweeney 1998: 109, no. o). It seems that Nakhtsobek offended Amennakht and the problem is that Amennakht in‑ tentionally ignored him, and therefore, he addresses him saying: “Don’t [turn adeaf ear (?)] to me” (P.Deir el ‑Medina IV, vs. 1–4; Wente 1990: 151; KRI VI: 264–265; Černý 1978: 16, pl. 20; Sweeney 1998: 109–110, no. q). Another occurrence in the Satirical Letter of Hori in the Nine‑ teenth Dynasty Papyrus AnastasiI 27 mentions the various towns visited by the Maher and speaks of the Mariannu or the Syrian warriors. It speaks of them as ones turning adeaf ear to the request of the Maher who asks them, “You may give (me) food and water, for Ihave arrived safely (i Di⸗tn Sbb Hr mw iw pH⸗i iw⸗i wDA.k(wi))” (P.Anastasi I= P.BM EA 10247, 26, 2–3; Gardiner 1911: 28*; Wente 1990: 108; Fischer ‑Elfert 1983: 148). However, “they play deaf and do not listen (iri⸗w sX Hr bw iri⸗w sDm)” (P.Anastasi I= P.BM EA 10247, 26, 2–3; Gardiner 1911: 28*; Fischer ‑Elfert 1983: 148, verse 1, § KÄT 148.3; Fischer ‑Elfert 1986: 224, 226, no. g, Kapitel XIXe; Wente 1990: 108). Thus, they take no notice of his account. AETIOLOGIES OF DEAFNESS Physical deafness can result from avariety of causes, including infection, trauma, aging, ge‑ netic syndromes, or excessive noise exposure. In the Middle Kingdom Instructions of Ptahhotep, deafness is regarded as atypical ailment of old age reading, “The eyes have shrunk, the ears have grown deaf, and strength is collapsing because of the heart’sweariness (irty nDsw anxwy imrw pHty Hr Ao n wrd ‑ib)” (P.Prisse 4, 3–4, 4: ll. 11–12; Parkinson 1997a: 250; Allen 2015: 168–169; Žába 1956: 16–17, ll. 16–22: version C, trans. 70–71; Estes 1993: 75). In the description of the idle scribe in the Nineteenth Dynasty Papyrus Anastasi V, the noisy pleasures of life have deafened the ears of the scribe, who whirls in pleasures. Thus, he is addressed, “You pay no attention to any word. Pleasures have deafened your hearing (lit. your temple (of the head)) (hhi Abw [mA]a⸗k)” (P.Anastasi V= P.BM EA 10244, 17, 4; Gardiner 1937: 65; Caminos 1954: 250; Ward 1969: 267; Vernus 2001: 379–380; Bresciani 1999: 331). This text is attested as an advice to the youthful idle scribe warning him not to be idle, or he shall be curbed immediately. He is also advised not to give his heart to pleasures, or he shall fail (P.Anastasi V= P.BM EA 10244, 8, 1–8, 2; Gardiner 1937: 59; Caminos 1954: 231). In adifferent context, deafness may also originate from outside the body. Thus, in the Nineteenth Dynas‑ ty medical Papyrus Berlin 3038, fumigation of the patient is necessary “[to dispel] aform of deafness which has entered from outside ([dr] hhyt ao nt m rwt).”28 As for the medical texts, the main sources of ear diseases are demonstrated in both the Edwin Smith and Ebers Papyri. 29 The Egyptian medical papyri are of great importance regarding the symptoms of ear diseases including ear discharge, hearing loss, ear pain and tinnitus. The 27 It is asatirical letter written by the scribe and squire Hori, who was employed in the royal stables to his friend the royal scribe in command of the army Amenemope, son of the steward Mose, who had claim to the title Maher (see Gardiner 1911: 5*; Wente 1990: 98–99). 28 See [dr] hhyt (Wb II: 502, 11). See also ao nt m rwt (P.Berlin 3038, 6, 10 = Section 70 of Brugsch Papyrus; Wreszinski 1909: 13; Caminos 1954: 250; Mudry 2006: 137). 29 There are many cases in Edwin Smith Papyrus dealing with ear troubles, discharge from the ear, wound in the ear, slit in the ear, bleeding from the ear, and orifice of the ear (Breasted 1930: 581; 88 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXXI/2023 in seeing knowledge as ignorance causing pain which distresses his life. Thus, he is atypical non ‑listener, one deaf to the requests and demands of Maat (Karenga 2004: 132). In contrast, the one who is discrete and reticent, who has access to knowledge, is open of ears (Frood 2007: 131). The hearer’sears listen to what is beneficial; he is the one who acts in harmony with Maat (P.Prisse 16, 1–16, 2: ll. 531–532; Allen 2015: 215–216). 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