Russia’s space defence from its beginning to the present time

Russia’s space defence from its beginning to the present time József Deák INTRODUCTION The centenary series of events commemorating the breakout of the First World War started last year. The proof of the failure of its closing peace treaties is the hardly two decades of time in peace. Fortunately for us, almost seven decades have already passed in peace. However, the Yugoslav war in 1991 has warned us first of the fragility of the peace.1 At that time international cooperation was able to prevent the conflict from spreading. Ukraine has been loud of gunfire for two years now and what is more, Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula more than a year ago.2 Hopefully in the new European conflict a dispute will soon be settled respecting and taking into account the interest of both parties. Otherwise the tense world political situation, which stimulated the arms race and its extension into space, may repeat itself. In our time the consequences of the changes triggered by new military technology are unpredictable. As more and more countries conquer outer space and as probably it is more and more used for everyday communication, navigation and the gathering of information, wars would probably extend into space as well — even in the form of single pieces of metal which, by falling from the height of hundreds of miles, could simply hit ground targets by their kinetic energy. The extension of wars into space would be such a change as extending it into the air was during the First World War. New organizations, new operational conditions, new initial strike motivators and new ways of warfare will appear overnight.3 But what world political situation and space technological development lead to this point? When, with what purpose, how the new cosmic, space defence forces 1 Http://konfliktuskutato.hu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12:polgar haboru-jugoszlaviaban&catid=2:tarsadalmi-konfliktusok [28.04.2015]. 2 Http://mno.hu/hirtvkulfold/putyin-elismerte-parancsot-adott-a-krim-annektalasara -1276415 [20.04.2015]. 3 BAYLIS, John — WIRTZ, James — COHEN, Eliot — GRAY, S. Colin, A stratégia a modern korban: Bevezetés a stratégiai tanulmányokba, Budapest 2005, p. 316. OPEN ACCESS 10 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 2/2015 were born and developed in the Soviet Union and how was it perfected in its legal successor, the Russian Federation (RF)? How did this part of the armed forces of the Russian Federation become one of the world’s most developed military technologies in its category, which soon integrated an entire military service, the Air Forces? THE “COSMIC” EFFECTS STARTING WITH THE COLD WAR Following the Second World War, there were wide activities aiming at the development of various types of ballistic rockets in the industrially developed countries, in the Soviet Union and the Unites States first of all. The military application of these rockets clearly showed their importance: destroying the enemy in a huge distance from the launch.4 So, space warfare started during WWII, when German scientists, led by Werner von Braun, created the V-2 (Vergeltungswaffe-2, revenge weapon-2) ballistic rocket. Altogether 3480 pieces were manufactured and they were deployed against targets in England, the Netherlands, Belgium and France. After the war the Allied Forces seized about 800 of them, which then they divided among themselves and took home. Both the USA and the SU used these rockets for the development of their own ones, with the captured rocket scientists participating.5 During the cold war, the unstoppable, increasing impetus of the ideological battle, penetrating into world politics, manifested mostly in the armament, and in it, in the space race. The United States and the Soviet Union were occupied by the classic armament race during the cold war.6 When the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, the Sputnik, during the Eisenhower administration, the Americans started to worry about both the peaceful race and their strategic shortfall. During his second presidency (1953–1961), Eisenhower initially reduced the military and space research expenses. But the pioneering technical success of the Soviets, the launch of the Sputnik caused panic in the USA especially because the satellite passed several times above the country in its orbit. As it became obvious that the Soviet Union was capable of bombing any part of the planet, the USA was forced to take steps and Eisenhower announced the space race, as part of which the NASA was founded in 1958.7 The Soviet Union and the USA — according to the cold war doctrines — were preparing for a world war fought with nuclear weapons. They set up military rocket forces and space commands. The importance of competition in this field was beyond the technological, technical and armament struggle of the super powers, 4 ANUREJEV, I. I., A rakéta kozmikus védelem eszközei, Budapest 1975, p. 12. 5 SZABÓ, József (ed.), Hadtudományi lexikon II. (M–Zs), Budapest 1995, p. 1378. 6 HUNTINGTON, Samuel P., A civilizációk összecsapása és a világrend átalakulása, Budapest 2005, p. 312. 7 BRZEZINSKI, Zbigniew, Stratégiai vízió: Amerika és a globális hatalom válsága, Budapest 2013, pp. 17–18. JózSEf DEÁk 11 because it referred back to the irreconcilable fight of the radically different ideological bases.8 By the mid-1960s the Soviet results in the initial period of the space race, not to mention the construction of the nuclear arsenal of the Soviet Union, seemingly predicted an inevitable Soviet victory in the wider ideological, idealist/materialist competition.9 Only the 1975 Helsinki conference brought some alleviation in the fierce cold war struggle. The European Safety Conference was a substitute for Brezhnev for the German peace treaty that he was never able to force to happen with his Berlin ultimatum — and for the general acknowledgement of the status quo after the war.10 The alleviation period culminated in 1975 and by the end of the decade the gradual increase of the distance between the powers caused “a new little cold war” (others mention a second cold war).11 By the end of the 70s, the Western countries were increasingly concerned by the new Soviet wave of war preparation.12 The way the West saw it, what happened was that the Soviet leadership actively used the alleviation period to strengthen its armed forces and reach a military balance with the United States and generally all the powers it stood against.13 The world had to wait for the real alleviation until Gorbachev came to power. Gorbachev radically changed the foreign politics conception of the Soviet Union, refusing the confrontation with the West, putting an end to the ideologization of the international relations. He practically refused the “red expansion” of the Bolsheviks, which was degenerated to “proletarian internationalism” under Brezhnev as well.14 But the communist system was not able to take reforms any more. According to Timothy Garton Ash, a British historian-publicist, its fall “took ten years in Poland, ten months in Hungary, ten weeks in Eastern-Germany and ten days in Czechoslovakia.”15 It must be noted here that though the social system and geopolitical situation of Hungary and the entire Middle-European area have been radically transformed with the changes of the political systems but because of our geographical location, the Hungarian-Russian relations are still of determining importance. 8 DEÁK, József, Az orosz légés űrvédelmi csapatok, Felderítő Szemle, Available in: http:// knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/fsz/2015–1.pdf [01.06.2015]. 9 BRZEZINSKI, Z., op. cit., p. 71. 10 KISSINGER, Henry, Diplomácia, Budapest 1996, pp. 757–758. 11 FISCHER, Ferenc, A kétpólusú világ 1945–1989, Budapest 2014, p. 299. 12 SZABÓ, M. Miklós, A Zrínyi Miklós Katonai Akadémia Története 1970–1979, Budapest 2008, p. 7. 13 KISSINGER, H., op. cit., p. 802. 14 ANISZIMOV, E. V., Isztorija Rosszii ot Rjurika do Putyina, Ljugyi szobütvija datü, [Oroszország története Ruriktól Putyinig, Emberek, események, dátumok.] Szentpétervár 2010, p. 519. 15 HORVÁTH, Jenő — PARAGI, Beáta — CSICSMANN, László, Nemzetközi Kapcsolatok története 1941–1991, Budapest 2013, p. 281. 12 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 2/2015 In connection with the situation of the Hungarian-Russian relations it must be emphasized that Russia, because of the position it takes in the international politics, the effect is has on the realization of our country’s foreign political objectives and its strong strategic importance in the relational system of the area, will stay an important partner for us. Hungary’s NATO membership in itself does not endanger the Russian security interests; it appears rather in the loss of their influence in the area.16 Parallel to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the disintegration of its economy and society, the military strength of the once super power started to decline quickly. At the beginning of the 90s, together with the leadership of the Russian military forces, the early warning system became weaker as well. The lack of maintenance and the loss of alert points which once belonged to the Soviet Union made great holes in its system. During specific parts of the day some American intercontinental ballistic rocket bases and submarine-base ballistic rockets could not be observed with satellites and radars serving early warning purposes.17 When Putin rose to power in May, 2000, centralisation and authoritarianism were strengthened in the domestic politics of Russia as well as the interesting events in their foreign politics, the desire to regain the position of a great power and the application of old, unsuccessful economic and political pressure.18 By the mid-2000s the Russian Federation (RF) recovered from the economic, domestic and foreign political crisis following the fall of the Soviet Union. In parallel with this, since the middle of the first decade of the 21st century, the Russian leadership has more and more powerfully represented the Russian national interests. The Russian safety political documents define the RF as the main depositary of the safety of regional organizations, the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Russia, becoming stronger in the first decade of the 21stcentury decided-decides it is time to appear as a power factor in the world politics.19 Today, according to the point of view well expressing the world political attitude of Russia: “If the globalization of power takes the form of the old hegemonism and the ‘unipolar ambitions’, then it will inevitably provoke the reaction against a new nationalism and confrontative block-thinking. It must be stated straight that the unipolar world model is incompatible with the existence of great sovereign states — they, based on their definition, do not fit in its structure as they do not wish to be in the role of obedient satellites. So the followers of the unipolar world system have to do everything to ‘destroy’ or infinitely weaken the great states which mean the actual or potential opponents of the unipolar system.”20 16 TÖMÖSVÁRY, Zsigmond, A hagymakupolák árnyékában (Egy katonadiplomata viss zae mlé kezései), in: Felderítő Szemle, Available in: http://knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/fsz/2013–2.pdf, p. 101. 17 BAYLIS, J. — WIRTZ, J. — COHEN, E. — GRAY, S. C., op. cit., p. 345. 18 ANISZIMOV, E. V., op. cit., pp. 539–543. 19 DEÁK, Anita, Regionális Biztonsági komplexum — a Független Államok Közössége, in: Felderítő Szemle, Available in: http://www.kfh.hu/hu/letoltes/fsz/2011–3-4–2012–1.pdf, p. 25. 20 LJUBOV, Siselina — GAZDAG, Ferenc (eds.), Oroszország és Európa: Orosz geopolitikai szöveggyűjtemény, Budapest 2004, p. 413. JózSEf DEÁk 13 DEVELOPMENT IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY WITH COSMIC SPEED In the second half of the 1950s, because of the unequal industrial development of the Soviet Union, the technical underdevelopment became more and more evident in most of the sectors. In some fields however, like the rocket building and space technology, the Russian constructors were ahead of most of their American and European colleagues. This made possible the launch of the first satellite of the world in 1957 and the first manned spaceship in 1961 as well as the preparation of the landing on the moon.21 The USA took a huge step in the field of space technology and military initiatives when, as the highest achievement of the new industrial-scientific-information technological revolution, on 12 April, 1981 — exactly 20 years after the space travel of Gagarin — they launched the first reusable spacecraft, the Columbia. This, unlike space ships and rockets, could return to a ground base and in space it was able to do manoeuvres, approach a satellite to repair or even damage it. This latter was what the Russians were concerned about as the American space crafts could get close to their satellites and could have “blindfolded” the Soviet “sky eyes” watching the United States. The launch of the American space crafts was a sort of a forerunner of the announcement of president Reagan on 23 March, 1983 about the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), which attracted international attention and which was commonly referred to as the Star Wars plans.22 The program, announced in 1983, aimed at the construction of a defence system against military ballistic rockets. The program was originally planned for 5 years. The new rocket defence system would have consisted of military equipment deployed in space, which the 1972 American-Soviet agreement about the limitation of military defence weapon systems prohibited. The long-term development program counted with reconnaissance satellites, long-range radar systems, controlled laser beam weapons deployed in space and on the ground, space mirrors to direct and concentrate laser beams, satellite destroyer aircraft missiles and various electronic control, telecommunication and other devices. In 1986 a request was made for the development of the European version of the rocket defence system. In 1993 however, the USA entirely reoriented the original plans, excluding its cosmic elements.23 So the Star Wars plans were not realized but as we could see, the fight against satellites means a serious challenge for the participants of the space race even today. The satellites, delivered into orbit, were used for more and more purposes — reconnaissance, prediction, communication, meteorological forecast, navigation, oceanographic observations, measurements etc. Thus their importance for ground warfare suddenly increased. The leading powers started the development of antisatellite systems as a very special field of the armament race between them, because this purpose demanded enormous costs, not to mention the construction of the most modern exploratory experimental technical bases. Both the USA and the SU started the development of their anti-satellite systems at the beginning of the 70s. In the mid21 ANISZIMOV, E. V., op. cit., p. 495. 22 FISCHER, F., op. cit., p. 317. 23 Ibidem, pp. 443–444. 14 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 2/2015 80s the American experiments were aimed at the development of aircraft-launched ASAT (anti-satellite) weapons while the similar Soviet attempts aimed at weapons to be deployed in outer space with the help of carrier rockets. While the 1967 space treaties prohibited the deployment of nuclear weapons into outer space but they did not prohibit the temporary use of space for traditional weapons and they only partly governed the issues raised by the development of anti-satellite systems.24 The UN formed a Space Committee with 28 members in 1959 in order to study the technical and legal issues regarding the use of outer space. The most important of the three treaties is “The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”. It was signed on 27 January, 1967 in Moscow, London and Washington and came into effect on 10 October. In January, 2008 the Treaty had 98 members (including Hungary) and 27 countries signed it.25 The Treaty states that outer space is open for the entire humanity and it — together with the planets — cannot be monopolized. Similarly to the open sea, outer space can freely be used by any state. The Treaty prohibits the deployment of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction into orbit, on planets or their storage in outer space. It also prohibits the construction of military bases, the performance of military exercises and weapon experiments. So, outer space can only be used for peaceful purposes. The Treaty also defines the principles in connection with the assistance of astronauts in trouble, the responsibilities for damages resulting in space activities and other details of activities performed in outer space.26 FROM THE ARCTIC CIRCLE TO THE CRIMEAN AND BEYOND… The mainly political circumstances, detailed above, led to the fact that today the Russian air and space defence forces guarantee among other things Russia’s world political interests and its safety in the cosmic sphere. Colonel Dmitri Zhenin, representative of the Press and Information Department of the Defence Ministry of the Russian Federation’s Aerospace Defence Forces (VVKO) said the following in connection with the anniversary of the reorganization of the forces of 1December: “On 1 December, 2011 the first shift of the Command Centre of the VVKO started its duty and control over the forces of the missile attack early warning, the anti-missile, the air defence, cosmic space monitoring and the cosmic equipment launching and control systems as well as the military control over our centralized forces. The forces of VVKO were set up on the basis of the earlier Cosmic Forces. Higher units of the air-cosmic operational command are also enlisted. Today the VVKO forces cover the entire territory of Russia, from Kaliningrad to Kamchatka, and can be found in many 24 SZABÓ, József (ed.), Hadtudományi lexikon I, (A–L), Budapest 1995, p. 939. 25 Http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html [15.06.2015]. 26 BOGNÁR, Károly (ed.), Világpolitikai kislexikon, Budapest 1978, p. 461. JózSEf DEÁk 15 of the members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Every day more than 3000 soldiers and civil professionals take up duty at the VVKO.”27 As part of the technical development of the VVKO troops, the construction of new generation radar stations was started, including the territory of the RF beyond the Arctic Circle. On the Crimean Peninsula, in Sevastopol and Yevpatoria, two of the VVKO’s satellite control objects had been installed by 1 December, 2014.28 The growing importance of these forces is well illustrated by the fact that the structure of the Russian armed forces is made up of three military services: the land forces, the air force and the navy; and three independent corps: the military-purpose rocket forces, the cosmic (today called air and space defence — the author) forces and the airborne troops and other troops not belonging to a service.29* The VVKO, from the point of view of guaranteeing the safety of Russia, means an entirely new military service in the application principles of the aerial-cosmic sphere — as it turns out from the website of the Defence Ministry of the Russian Federation.30 In the latest military doctrine of the Russian Federation, accepted on 26 December, 2014, Russia considers the strengthening and development of the continuous monitoring possibilities of the objects orbiting the planet Earth as an important task in the prevention and withholding of military conflicts. It regards the due warning of the RF Armed Forces High Command of any air-cosmic attack and the warning of the bodies of the state and military leadership of the detected threat as one of the most important tasks even in times of peace. Other tasks of the same importance are the air-cosmic protection of the featured objects of the RF, the continuous alert to beat off such attacks and the deployment and operation of space equipment which enable the activities of the Armed Forces.31 FROM THE BIRTH OF THE MILITARY AND SPACE DEFENCE ROCKET FORCES TO OUR DAYS The immediate legal predecessor of the space defence forces, the Cosmic Troops of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, was established by a presidential order on 24 March, 2001 but let us begin at the beginning: — in 1955 the first military troops with deep space tasks were formed and a decision was 27 Http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=1161763&cid=7 [04.12.2013]. 28 Http://function.mil.ru/news_page/country/more.htm?id=11990511@egNews [08.12.2014]. 29 DEÁK, János, Oroszország katonai stratégiája a második világháború befejezésétől napjainkig, Budapest 2010, p. 169. * Note: there has been a decision to unite the Air Forces and the Air and Space Defence Forces in 2015 so the name of the new third military service changes to Air and Space Defence Forces. See reference 55. [the author] 30 Http://www.mil.ru [28.04.2015]. 31 Http: //www.news.kremlin.ru/media/events/files/41d527556bec8deb3530.pdf [21.01.2015]. 16 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 2/2015 made of the construction of a scientific-experimental shooting range32 to launch the world’s first satellite.33 The shooting range was built by 2 July. This was the first step towards the launch station of what we know as the Baikonur cosmodrome. — while preparing for the launch of the world’s first satellite, the Command Complex of Cosmic Devices, Launches and Control was established. In the same year, in the town of Mirny, the construction of the shooting range to launch R-7 intercontinental rockets started — today it is known as the Plesetsk launch station.34 — according to the TASS communication of 27 August, a successful experiment was carried out by launching an intercontinental ballistic rocket and testing a nuclear weapon.35 — on 4 October the world’s first artificial satellite, called “PS-1” (“Elementary satellite”) was launched.36 This cosmic device was a sphere of less than 60 centimetres in diameter, weighing 80 kilograms and it travelled more than 60 million kilometres orbiting the Earth.37 — on 15 July the object code-named “Angara” was established (its name today is Governmental experimental space rocket launch station — Plesetsk) and the first higher unit of intercontinental ballistic rockets was set up. At the end of the 50s and at the beginning of the 60s the following were included in the organizational structure of the cosmic units: experimental control, the independent engineer-researcher units and the measurement complex of the Baikonur shooting range, the Command Complex Centre and 12 independent scientific measurement sites.38 — in 1960, to realize the long-term military cosmic program, a directorate was established within the Strategic Rocket Troops and Kerimov Kerim Alievits was appointed its commander, who was member of the Soviet group of specialist formed to study German rocket technology after the Second World War. He had significant role in the organization of the orders of the first series of rockets. Before his appointment he was the chairman of the governmental committee of the space experiments in connection with launching astronauts and manageable cosmic equipment.39 — on 4 March, 1961 for the first time in history, the warhead of the V-1000 anti-rocket, developed by the group of P. D. Grushin, succeeded in destroying the warhead of a domestic R-12 ballistic rocket, launched from Kapustin Yar, Kasahstan, in the air.40 32 Http://ria.ru/spravka/20101004/280859730.html [05.12.2013. 33 Http://armyrus.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=1473 [15.12.2013]. 34 Http://ria.ru/spravka/20101004/280859730.html [05.12.2013]. 35 SZABÓ, M. Miklós, A Zrínyi Miklós Katonai Akadémia Története 1955–1960, Budapest 2007, p. 7. 36 Http://armyrus.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=1473 [15.12. 2013]. 37 Http://ria.ru/spravka/20101004/280859730.html [05.12.2013]. 38 Http://armyrus.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=1473 [15.12. 2013.] 39 Http://ria.ru/spravka/20101004/280859730.html [05.12.2013]. 40 Ibidem. JózSEf DEÁk 17 — on 12 April the world’s first manned spaceship called “Vostok” was launched, with astronaut Yuri Gagarin on board.41 — on 6 August Gherman Titov followed Gagarin in outer space, who spent more than a day there, proving that astronauts can keep their combat readiness even in the state of weightlessness. Astronautics then was motivated by its military application; the astronauts were military officers carrying out combat tasks. Titov’s space flight was of extreme military importance because it proved that the nuclear devices, deployed in outer space, can be used from manned space crafts. So for the Soviets it became possible to attack the United States from outer space as well using military nuclear weapons.42 — on 1 November 1963 the Mars-1 rocket was launched towards the planet Mars.43 — in 1964 the Central Directorate of Cosmic Devices of the Defence Ministry of the Soviet Union was established.44 — on 12–13 October three astronauts flew around Earth on board of Voskhod-1: colonel Vladimir Komarov, engineer Konstantin Feoktistov and medical doctor Boris Yegorov.45 — 18–19 March: the space flight of colonel Pavel Belyayev colonel Alexey Leonov on board of Voskhod-2, while Leonov carried out the first “space walk” of humanity.46 — 18 June: the satellite Sonda-3 was launched to map the invisible side of the Moon.47 — on 12 November the Venus-3 was launched, which hit the Venus on 01 March 1966.48 — on 17 March 1966 cosmic-purpose rockets — the “Vostok-2” and “Cosmos-112” — were first launched from the Governmental Experimental Spacecraft Lauch Station (today called Plesetsk).49 — in 1967, according to the 31 January and 30 March directives of the Chief Directorate of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union, the Directorate of the Rocket Defensive and Cosmic Defensive Command was established.50 — in 1968 airplane construction experiments began with a satellite interceptor complex.51 41 Http://ria.ru/spravka/20101004/280859730.html [05.12.2013]. 42 REMES, Péter — GRÓSZ, Andor — SZABÓ, József, A magyar repülőés űrorvostan története, Budapest 2013, p. 146. 43 SZABÓ, M. Miklós, A Zrínyi Miklós Katonai Akadémia Története 1961–1969, Budapest 2008, p. 6. 44 Http://ria.ru/spravka/20101004/280859730.html [05.12.2013]. 45 SZABÓ, M. Miklós, A Zrínyi Miklós Katonai Akadémia Története 1961–1969, Budapest 2008, p. 6. 46 Ibidem. 47 Ibidem. 48 Ibidem. 49 Http://armyrus.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=1473 [15.12.2013]. 50 Ibidem. 51 Ibidem.