Vegetation change across the Drake Passage region linked to late Eocene cooling and glacial disturbance after the Eocene-Oligocene transition

1. In oduc ion and Geological Se ing Global omog aphy and nume ical models sugges ha man le plume occu ences a e closely linked o he ma gins o la ge low-shea eloci y p o inces (Bu ke e al.,2008; F ench & Romanowicz,2015; Ga ne o e al.,2016; To s ik e al.,2014). In hese ma ginal zones, he ascen o ma e ial connec s deep man le dynamics wi h su ace p ocesses h ough p olonged man le plume ac i i y. This will e en ually o m la ge igneous p o inces (LIPs), ho spo acks and olcanoes (S einbe ge & To s ik,2012), like he mode n Galápagos A chipelago (Figu e1), Hawai'i and Eas e Islands. Recen s udies sugges ha despi e s iking di e ences in he su icial exp ession o he Galápagos, Eas e n and Hawai'i plumes, hey sha e a common gene a ion mechanism o igina ing a he Paci ic LLSVP (Ha pp,2020; Ha pp e al.,2014). The onse o ho spo magma ism is o en ma ked by a LIP, a e m including con inen al lood basal s and oceanic pla eaus. LIPs a e usually conside ed he esul o sho -li ed (∼1–2Ma) pe iods o in ense olcanism a e he impingemen o man le plumes a he base o he oceanic o he con inen al li hosphe e (Ke & Mahoney,2007; Sobole e al.,2011). LIPs ha e also been associa ed wi h episodes o anoxia and mass ex inc ion sho ly a e hei e up ion. In addi ion, hey a e associa ed wi h some o he la ges o e deposi s in he wo ld (e.g., Ni-Cu-PGE, Fe-Ti-V, and C o e deposi sE ns & Jowi ,2013). Man le plumes a e ac i e o long pe iods (Mad igal e al.,2016), howe e cons aining hei e olu ion h ough ime is complica ed because o he di icul y in ob aining p ecise absolu e age ela ionships in he ma ic ocks ound in his se ing and he ac ha , in he oceanic en i onmen , he plume p oduc s loca ed in he li hosphe e d i away and e en ually a e los upon subduc ion. One o he mos p ecise geoch onome e s is he U-Pb in zi con (Z SiO4), bu he zi con abundance in he oceanic c us is limi ed due o he incompa ible na u e o he Abs ac In his con ibu ion we epo he i s sys ema ic s udy o zi con U-Pb geoch onology and δ 18O-εH ( ) iso ope geochemis y om 10 islands o he ho -spo ela ed Galapagos A chipelago. The da a ex ac ed om he zi cons allow hem o be g ouped in o h ee ypes: (a) young zi cons (0–∼4Ma) wi h εH ( ) (∼5–13) and δ 18O (∼4–7) iso opic man le signa u e wi h c ys alliza ion ages da ing he islands, (b) zi cons wi h εH ( ) (∼5–13) and δ 18O (∼5–7) iso opic man le signa u e (∼4–164Ma) which a e in e p e ed o da e he ime o plume ac i i y below he islands (∼164Ma is he minimum ime o impingemen o he plume below he li hosphe e), and (c) e y old zi cons (∼213–3,000Ma) wi h mos ly con inen al (bu also ju enile) εH ( ) (∼−28–8) and δ 18O (∼5–11) iso opic alues documen ing po en ial con amina ion om a numbe o sou ces. The i s wo ypes wi h simila iso opic man le signa u e de ine wha we call he Galápagos Plume A ay (GPA). Gi en li hosphe ic pla e mo ion, his esul implies ha GPA zi con p eda ing he Galápagos li hosphe e (i.e., >14–164Ma) o med and we e s o ed a subli hosphe ic dep hs o ex ended pe iods o ime. In o de o explain hese obse a ions, we pe o med 2D and 3D he mo-mechanical nume ical expe imen s o plume-li hosphe e in e ac ion which show ha dynamic plume ac i i y gi es ise o complex as henosphe ic low pa e ns and esul s in dis inc long-las ing man le domains benea h a mo ing li hosphe e. This demons a es ha i is physically plausible ha old plume-de i ed zi cons su i e a as henosphe ic dep hs below ocean islands. ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. © 2022. The Au ho s. This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made. Zi con Da es Long-Li ed Plume Dynamics in Oceanic Islands Yami ka Rojas-Ag amon e1,2,3 , Bo is J. P. Kaus3 , And ea Piccolo3,4 , Ian S. Williams5 , Axel Ge des6,7, Jean Wong8, HangXian Xie2 , S ephan Buh e3, Theo ilos Toulke idis9, Pila Mon e o10, and An onio Ga cia-Casco10,11 1Ins i u ü Geowissenscha en, Ch is ian-Alb ech s-Uni e si ä zu Kiel, Kiel, Ge many, 2Beijing SHRIMP Cen e, Chinese Academy o Geological Sciences, Beijing, China, 3Ins i u e o Geosciences, Uni e si y o Mainz, Mainz, Ge many, 4Baye isches Geoins i u , Uni e si ä Bay eu h, Bay eu h, Ge many, 5Resea ch School o Ea h Sciences, Aus alian Na ional Uni e si y, Canbe a, ACT, Aus alia, 6Depa men o Geosciences, Goe he-Uni e si y F ank u , F ank u , Ge many, 7F ank u Iso ope and Elemen Resea ch Cen e (FIERCE), Goe he-Uni e si y F ank u , F ank u , Ge many, 8Depa men o Ea h Sciences, The Uni e si y o Hong Kong, Beijing, China, 9Uni e sidad de las Fue zas A madas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuado , 10Depa men o Mine alogy and Pe ology, Uni e si y o G anada, G anada, Spain, 11Andalusian Ea h Sciences Ins i u e (IACT), Uni e si y o G anada-CSIC, G anada, Spain Key Poin s: • Ou da a de ine he Galápagos Plume A ay de ined by man le εH ( ) and δ18O alues in he ange ∼0–164Ma • This inding allows da ing back plume ac i i y o, a leas , ea ly Middle Ju assic (∼164Ma) • Nume ical expe imen s con i m i is plausible ha old Plume-de i ed zi cons su i e in he as henosphe e o ex ended pe iods o ime Suppo ing In o ma ion: Suppo ing In o ma ion may be ound in he online e sion o his a icle. Co espondence o: Y. Rojas-Ag amon e and A. Ga cia-Casco, [email p o ec ed]; agcasco@ug .es Ci a ion: Rojas-Ag amon e, Y., Kaus, B. J. P., Piccolo, A., Williams, I. S., Ge des, A., Wong, J., e al. (2022). Zi con da es long-li ed plume dynamics in oceanic islands. Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems, 23, e2022GC010485. h ps:// doi.o g/10.1029/2022GC010485 Recei ed 19 APR 2022 Accep ed 8 SEP 2022 Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion: Yami ka Rojas- Ag amon e, Bo is J. P. Kaus, An onio Ga cia-Casco Da a cu a ion: Yami ka Rojas- Ag amon e, Bo is J. P. Kaus, Axel Ge des, Jean Wong, HangXian Xie, S ephan Buh e, Pila Mon e o, An onio Ga cia-Casco Funding acquisi ion: Yami ka Rojas- Ag amon e, Bo is J. P. Kaus, An onio Ga cia-Casco In es iga ion: Yami ka Rojas- Ag amon e, Bo is J. P. Kaus, And ea 10.1029/2022GC010485 RESEARCH ARTICLE 1 o 37 Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 2 o 37 elemen Zi conium (Z ) and he sca ce abundance o Z in basal ic magmas. Zi con o ms a e ac ional c ys al- liza ion o p imi i e Z -subsa u a ed basal ic magmas (Da ies e al.,2021; Pujol-Solà e al.,2020) and is s able down o ∼300km dep hs, below which i ans o ms in o eidi e (Akaogi e al.,2018). In addi ion, ecen s udies show c ys alliza ion o zi con in low-Z ma ic magmas o he mid-A lan ic idge is possible (Bea e al.,2022) bu mus in ol e he o ma ion o small (local) zi con-sa u a ed ansien zones nea g owing mine als in e aces. This opens a new window o esea ch on he age o p olonged ocused magma ic ac i i y a sub li hosphe ic dep hs, such as in man el plumes, wi h signi ican geodynamic implica ions o as henosphe e-li hosphe e in e - ac ions and as henosphe ic low. Man le plume upwelling in he Paci ic has been ac i e since a leas he mid-Ju assic, as eco ded in he Piga e a Basin, which con ains he oldes oceanic c us o he Paci ic pla e (∼170–160Ma) (Fisk & Kelley,2002; Se on e al.,2020). The Paci ic pla es o sho e Cen al Ame ica, Colombia-Ecuado , he Ca ibbean and associa ed acc e ed onsho e ock exposu es, con ain a Mesozoic o ecen eco d o Paci ic man le upwelling e en s ha esul ed in new oceanic li hosphe e, LIPs and ho spo acks (Andjić e al.,2019). The ea ly plume p oduc s ange om ea ly C e aceous o he las Paci ic LIP e en : he Ecuado ian-Colombian-Ca ibbean LIP (ECCLIP) ha o med mos ly a ∼90Ma, wi h po en ial addi ional e en s in he ange 139–74Ma (Dü ke älden e al.,2019; Hoe nle e al.,2004; Mad igal e al.,2016; Sin on e al.,1998). Man le he e ogenei ies and ecycled c us cha - ac e ize his C e aceous ac i i y o he plume (Gazel e al.,2021; T ela e al.,2015). Though he ECCLIP is gene ally conside ed o be a p oduc o he Galápagos plume, o he au ho s howe e , based on paleomagne ic econs uc ions, sugges ha he ECCLIP o igina ed 2,000km eas o he Galápagos ho spo , and may hus no be de i ed om he same man le plume (Boschman e al.,2014). On he o he hand (Shellnu e al.,2021), goes u he as o sugges ha he T iassic olcanic ocks o W angellia o wes e n No h Ame ica (mo e han 3,000km away om p esen -day Galápagos) we e gene a ed om a Paci ic man le plume sou ce. Thei pale- ogeog aphic cons ain s, he mal es ima es, and geochemis y sugges s ha i is possible ha he Galápagos ho spo gene a ed he olcanic ocks o W angellia and he Ca ibbean pla eau o , mo e b oadly, ha he eas e n Paci ic (Pan halassa) Ocean was a unique egion whe e anomalously high he mal condi ions ei he pe iodically o con inually exis ed om a leas ∼230Ma o he p esen day. The ho -spo - ela ed Galápagos A chipelago e up ed on op o hin and young oceanic c us (∼10Ma in he no he n pa o he A chipelago, ∼14Ma in he sou he n pa ) (Ha pp & Geis ,2018) c ea ed a he nea by Galápagos Sp eading Cen e (GSC; Figu e1). Owing o he eas wa d mo ion o he Nazca pla e he sou h eas e n- mos islands (e.g., Española; Figu e2), a e he oldes wi h K-A ages o ∼2.8Ma (Whi e e al.,1993). Galápagos olcanoes a e ed by a mix o plume- and MOR-as henosphe e-de i ed mel s ha p o ide impo an insigh s in o he e ogenei ies o he man le sou ces o ocean island olcanism (Bliche -To & Whi e,2001; Geis e al.,1988; Ha pp & Whi e,2001). Iso opic and ace elemen composi ions o basal ic la as in he Galápagos A chipelago indica e mel ing o se e al dis inc man le sou ces ha include componen s om ecycled oceanic and con i- nen al c us ma e ials (Bliche -To & Whi e,2001; Hoe nle e al.,2000). Paleomagne ic and geochemical da a eco d a complex in e ac ion be ween he ho spo and he GSC (De ick e al.,2002; Gibson e al.,2015; Ha pp e al.,2003; Ha pp & Geis ,2002). The in e play be ween he man le plume and he GSC da es back o Oligocene imes (∼23Ma), when he Fa allon pla e spli in o he Cocos and Nazca pla es and he aseismic Cocos, Ca negie and Malpelo idges s a ed o o m (Lonsdale,2005; Meschede & Ba ckhausen,2001). Upon d i ing away om he GSC, he oldes pa s o hese ho spo acks ha e been subduc ed a he Cen al Ame ica and Nazca subduc- ion zones ( he oldes p esen -day ages o idges a e ∼11–14Ma) (Ch is ie e al.,1992; We ne e al.,1999). In an e o o da e magma ism in he Galapagos A chipelago, we conduc ed a zi con U–Pb geoch onology s udy combined wi h H and O iso opic analysis o zi con g ains om 10 Galápagos islands. Due o he sca - ci y o zi con in ock samples, we decided o sample no only igneous ocks bu also de i al ma e ial de i ed om he igneous ocks o he islands (see below). The iso opic esul s om 238 zi con g ains allow o e ing a s ong a gumen o he age o he a chipelago. Howe e , unexpec edly hey also allow insigh in o he long- e m empo al e olu ion o he Galápagos plume, as many zi cons a e olde han he age o he Galapagos li ho- sphe e, posing undamen al ques ions on plume dynamics a as henosphe ic dep hs and plume-li hosphe e in e - ac ions. We he e o e pe o med 2D and 3D he mo-mechanical geodynamic simula ions o unde s and he a e o plume-de i ed zi con g ains and he dynamics o he plume i sel . Ou geochemical and he mo-mechanical modeling esul s can likely be ep oduced in o he oceanic islands. Piccolo, Ian S. Williams, Theo ilos Toulke idis, An onio Ga cia-Casco Me hodology: Bo is J. P. Kaus, And ea Piccolo, Axel Ge des, Jean Wong, HangXian Xie, S ephan Buh e, Pila Mon e o W i ing – o iginal d a : Yami ka Rojas- Ag amon e, Bo is J. P. Kaus, And ea Piccolo, Ian S. Williams, Theo ilos Toulke idis, An onio Ga cia-Casco W i ing – e iew & edi ing: Yami ka Rojas-Ag amon e, Bo is J. P. Kaus, An onio Ga cia-Casco 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 3 o 37 2. Me hods 2.1. Sampling S a egy We conduc ed an ex ensi e sampling o basal ic and hyoli ic ocks (pumice), ca e deposi s collec ed on he loo o a la a ube and o sands om s eam beds and beaches in 10 Galápagos islands (Figu es2–4; Table1) co e ing mos o he main a ea o he A chipelago. Finding a e zi cons in basal ic ocks is a di icul ask, he e o e na u al geological p ocesses such as e osion and sedimen o ma ion a e good allies in he sea ch o zi con. Beaches and soils on oceanic islands a om he con inen s will ha e concen a es o ecen ma e ial e oded om basal ic ocks ha inge p in each island (Seelos e al.,2021). Thi y-six (36) zi con-bea ing samples (Figu e2; Table1) we e e ie ed om he Wes e n (Isabela 3 samples), Cen al (Rábida 2, San a Fe 5), Sou he n (Española 1, Flo eana, 11), and Eas e n (Bal a 2, Geno esa 1, Pinzón 2, San C is obal 4, San a C uz 5) iso opic zones de ined by Hoe nle e al.(2000). F om hese samples we analyzed 238 zi con g ains o U-Pb da ing and H and O iso opic composi ions (see Suppo ing In o ma ionS1 o me h- ods and Figu es5–7). 2.2. Analy ical P ocedu e 2.2.1. Sample P ocessing and Zi con Sepa a ion App oach Sand and soil samples we e collec ed and panned locally in beaches o hea y mine als in each island o he Galápagos A chipelago. This app oach is used o educe he isk o ex e nal and labo a o y con amina ion o a minimum. In his way, he samples a e ne e in con ac wi h o he samples ha do no come om he island whe e hey we e aken. Simila echniques ha e been applied success ully in o he egions o he wo ld, o example, Mau i ius (To s ik e al.,2013), Indonesia (Se as jano a e al.,2011), and G enada (Rojas-Ag amon e Figu e 1. Pla e- ec onic con igu a ion o he Paci ic and he Ca ibbean egion and loca ion o upli ed and acc e ed Ecuado ian-Colombian-Ca ibbean-La ge-Igneous-P o ince (ECCLIP) agmen s. See Figu e2 o sample loca ions con aining zi con g ains. 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 4 o 37 Figu e 2. Galápagos A chipelago map showing sample loca ions in he islands con aining zi con g ains and p esen posi ion o he plume (Villagómez e al.,2014). (a) Beach sand sample GAL38 a Pinzón, was collec ed a he same loca ion as sample GAL36. Samples ha con ain zi con g ains olde han 14Ma a e designa ed in bold le e s and unde lined (see Tables2 and3). 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 5 o 37 e al.,2017). The sands on beaches in Galápagos a y in composi ion, colo and g ain size as a esul o biological ac i i y and he na u e o dynamic p ocesses ha a ec ed he sou ce ocks hey come om (p o iding mos ly g ains o oli ine, py oxene and magne i e) as well as by coas al p ocesses ha modi y he sand o e long pe iods o ime (Seelos e al.,2021) (Figu e3). In addi ion, co al ee s loca ed o sho e and he ca bona e pa s o o he animals la gely con ibu e o he composi ion o beach sands (Seelos e al.,2021). The basal and pumice samples we e p ocessed a Mainz Uni e si y. We a e awa e ha con amina ion may occu in he lab du ing sample p epa a ion, he e o e we ook good ca e du ing he p ocess. One o he me hodologies ha we use o a oid sample labo a o y con amina ion is o “con amina e” he jaw c ushe a Mainz Uni e si y wi h glass bo les which we e passed h ough he machine a minimum o h ee imes be o e s a ing he p epa a- ion o he samples. Ano he measu e we ook was ha wo k by o he s was no allowed in he sample sepa a ion oom un il he ull se o Galapagos samples was inished. App oxima ely 1–5kg o each whole- ock sample was c ushed o a g ain size o ∼250μm, using a jaw c ushe and olle mill. A i s concen a e o hea y mine al ac ion was hen p oduced by panning wi h wa e and a F an z magne ic sepa a o a Mainz Uni e si y. The inal hea y mine al concen a es (mos ly zi con) om ocks and de i us we e ob ained by panning wi h alcohol in he Beijing SHRIMP Cen e, China. We employed he panning echnique o exclude ha any zi con in he mine al concen a e was due o labo a o y con amina ion. Zi cons o iso opic analysis we e hen handpicked du ing op ical inspec ion unde a binocula mic oscope and moun ed in epoxy esin. Abou 100g o he homogenized coa se ock ma e ial we e powde ized in a Sieb echnik ® ungs en ca bide mill o chemical and whole- ock iso opic analysis. Zi con was analyzed in si u o U-Pb and O iso opes using he SHRIMP II a he Beijing SHRIMP Cen e, Chinese Academy o Geological Sciences, and o H iso opes using he LA-MC-ICP-MS a Hong Kong and F ank u Uni e si ies (Tables2 and3; Tables S1 and S2; Table S4 in Suppo ing In o ma ionS1). The analyses we e guided by op ical and ca hodoluminescence (CL) images (Figu es5–7). Analy ical p ocedu es a e p esen ed in de ail in Suppo ing In o ma ionS1. Figu e 3. Examples o con as ing Galápagos beach sands (a, b, c, d, e) and a la a ube deposi ( ). See Table1 o sample/beach coo dina es. (a) Whi e sand beach om Playa Mansa a To uga Bay, sou h o San a C uz (GAL3), (b) G een beach (Pi a e ca e), no heas o Flo eana (FL8, GAL149), (c) oli ine beach no h o Flo eana. Coa se ( ounded) g ained beach, con aining mos ly ma ic mine als (no e g een oli ine) wi h a g ain size o up o 3mm. (d) Red beach no h o Rábida, con aining many young zi con g ains (GAL28). (e) Las Bachas beach nea canal de I abaca, no h o San a C uz (GAL17). ( ) Soil sample (GAL6) collec ed a Cascajo Ca e, a la a ube loca ed in sou h-cen al San a C uz. 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 6 o 37 2.3. Geodynamic Modeling App oach The nume ical expe imen s we e pe o med using LaMEM (Kaus e  al., 2016; Piccolo e  al., 2020), a isco-elas o-plas ic ini e di e ence code. LaMEM sol es he undamen al conse a ion equa ions o mass (Equa ion1), momen um (Equa ion2), and ene gy (Equa ion3), assuming he ocks o be incomp essible: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 =0 (1) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 +𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 =0 (2) 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑖𝑖( 𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷 𝜕𝜕 𝑖𝑖) (3) whe e i a e he componen s o he eloci ies along he xi di ec ion, τij a e he componen s o he de ia o ic s ess enso , P is he p essu e, g is he g a i a ional accele a ion and ρ is he densi y. DT/D is he subs an ial ime de i a i e o he empe a u e, Cp is he hea capaci y, k is he he mal conduc i i y. The conse a ion equa ions a e sol ed in a ixed Eule ian ame o e e ence, using a ini e di e ence s agge ed g id scheme, while he ad ec ion is explici wi h ime and pe o med using Lag angian pa icles and a second o de Runge Ku a scheme. The Lag angian pa icles ca y all he his o ical in o ma ion needed o sol e he equa ions. 2.3.1. Nume ical Design The main goal o ou simula ions is o unde s and i plume-li hosphe e in e ac ion is able o gene a e chemically dis inc man le domains ha p ese es geoch onological in o ma ion o a su icien ly long pe iod o ime (i.e., >80My s). Fu he mo e, we wan o assess i some o hese chemical he e ogenei ies can be cap u ed again by Figu e 4. Pho os o some ock samples and loca ions om whe e samples ha con ain zi cons we e collec ed. See Table1 o sample coo dina es and TableS1 o sample geochemis y. (a) Sample GAL15 is a po phy i ic basal wi h plagioclase phenoc ys s collec ed a Las G ie as sou h o San a C uz, (b) Sample GAL36 was collec ed in a ocky cli om wes e n Pinzón, he sample is a po phy i ic basal wi h abundan plagioclase phenoc ys s up o 6mm long, (c) GAL40 is a esicula basal wi h oli ine phenoc ys collec ed in a d y s eam wes o Pue o Vaque izo Mo eno (San C is obal), (d) GAL45a is a esicula basal wi h plagioclase phenoc ys collec ed in he NW coas o San a Fe, (e) GAL162 is a po phy i ic basal wi h oli ine phenoc ys s (up o 5mm in leng h) collec ed a La Lobe ia, wes e n Flo eana. 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 7 o 37 he man le plume du ing a la e model s age. Fo simpli ica ion, we do no conside he e ec s o adiogenic, adiaba ic, and shea hea ing. We employ la e al in low-ou low bounda y condi ions o simula e he mo ion o he oceanic pla e, as well as a plume in low bo om bounda y condi ion. To iden i y he po en ial domains ha unde go pa ial mel ing and chemical e inemen , we in e pola e he olume ic mel ac ion (ϕ) and solid densi y (ρsolid) om a p ecompu ed man le pe ological phase diag am. Island Field numbe Geog aphic coo dina es Loca ion Sample San a C uz GAL3 S00°45′49.56″ W090°20′25.14″ To uga Bay Beach sand GAL6 S00°39′34.8″ W090°16′09.3″ Cascajo ca e La a ube deposi GAL15 S00°45′24.7″ W090°18′56.3″ Las G ie as Basal GAL16 S00°39′34.8″ W090°16′09.3″ Cascajo ca e La a ube deposi GAL17 S00°29′48.5″ W090°17′51.8″ Las Bachas beach Beach sand Bal a GAL56 S00°26′05.8″ W90°16′58.1″ La ma ina Beach Beach sand GAL86 S00°28′26.2″ W90°15′40.8″ SE o Bal a Island a canal I abaca Beach sand Flo eana FL-6 S01°16′34.6″ W90°29′17.4″ Playa Neg a Beach sand FL-7 S01°14′12.78″ W90°27′0.77″ Pos O ice beach Beach sand FL-8 S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ Las Cue as beach Beach sand GAL70 S01°16′34.4″ W90°29′17.2″ Playa Neg a Beach sand GAL140 S01°14'11.7″ W90°26'57.2″ Pos O ice beach Beach sand GAL147 S01°13′40.85″ W90°25′25.62″ Pun a Co mo án Beach sand GAL149 S1°15′39.52″ W90°22′12.24″ Las Cue as beach Beach sand GAL155 S01°15′57.79″ W90°29′15.64″ No h o Pue o Velazco Beach sand GAL162 S01°17′13.83″ W90°29′44.17″ La Lobe ía Basal GAL172 S01°17′36.72″ W90°29′41.68″ Sou h o La lobe ia Beach sand GAL183 S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ Cue a de los pi a as s eam S eambed deposi GAL197 S01°15′40.23″ W90°26′07.28″ S eam coming down Ce o Ven ana o Pos O ice S eambed deposi San C is obal SCR-2 S00°53′26.6″ W89°36′43.53″ Cabo de Ho no beach a Ca ola poin Beach sand SCR-3 S00°55′32.5″ W89°25′47.7″ Pue o Chino Beach sand SCR-5 S00°55′30.09" W89°36′50.40" La Lobe ia Beach sand GAL40 S00°54′29.60″ W89°36′20.43″ D y s eambed Basal Rábida GAL28 S00°24′14.8″ W90°42′11.2″ NE o Rabida Beach sand GAL29B S00°24′14.8″ W90°42′11.4″ NE o Rabida Basal Isabela GAL30 S00°23′32.1″ W90°59′44.0″ Volcán Alcedo Basal GAL120 S00°24′30.30″ W90°59′13.30″ Volcan Alcedo, close o Pun a Al a o, Pumice GAL122 S00°24′25.0″S W90°59′2.19″ Volcano no h o Pun a Al a o Beach sand Pinzón GAL36 S00°36′10.0″ W90°38′54.7″ Wes e n coas Basal GAL38 S00°36′10.0″ W90°38′54.7″ Wes e n coas Beach sand San a Fé GAL43 S00°48′17.7″ W90°05′09.3″ NW coas Beach sand GAL45a S00°48′17.7″ W90°05′09.3″ NW coas Basal GAL47 S00°48′9.53″ W90° 2′26.93″ Ba ing on Bay Beach sand GAL48 S00°48′13.9″ W90°02′27.9″ Ba ing on Bay Beach sand GAL230 S00°49′34.22″ W90°01′45.37″ Pun a del miedo Beach sand Española GAL53 S01°21′15.32″ W89°39′34.64″ Ga dne Bay Beach sand Geno esa GAL54 N00°19′6.42″ W89°56′57.81″ Geno esa Bay Beach sand Table 1 Sample Loca ion, Rock Samples A e Designa ed in Bold Le e s 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 8 o 37 Densi y depends on empe a u e and olume ic mel ac ion: 𝜌𝜌solid =𝜌𝜌0(1−𝛼𝛼(T−T e )) (4) 𝜌𝜌e =𝜌𝜌solid(1−𝜙𝜙)+𝜌𝜌mel 𝜙𝜙 (5) whe e ρe is he e ec i e densi y, ρsolid is he solid densi y, ρmel is he mel densi y, α is he he mal expansion coe icien , T is he ac ual empe a u e and T e is he e e ence s a e empe a u e. We assume ha mos mel ha o ms in he man le is apidly ex ac ed and ha only a maximum amoun o mel can emain in he man le, which is why ϕ=0.08 is aken as an uppe bound in Equa ion5. The man le phase diag am has been compu ed using Pe ple_X (Connolly,2009) using he py oli e composi ion om McDonough and Sun(1995), and he solu ion model o Jennings and Holland(2015) see also Piccolo e al.(2020). All he ele an p ope ies o each o he composi ional phases a e lis ed in Table S5 in Suppo ing In o ma ionS1. We employ a pu ely iscous cons i u i e ela ionship in his s udy whe e he de ia o ic s ain a e, 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =1 2 ( 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑖𝑖 +𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑖𝑖) consis s o a combina ion o di usion and disloca ion c eep and: 𝜀𝜀 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜏𝜏 shea 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2 𝜂𝜂e =𝜀𝜀 di 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝜀𝜀 disl 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝜀𝜀 uppe 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (6) whe e 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 e is he e ec i e c eep iscosi y. The iscosi y o he di usion and disloca ion c eep mechanisms a e gi en by 𝜂𝜂 di =1 2𝐵𝐵−1 di exp ( 𝐸𝐸 di ac +𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 di ac 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ), Figu e 5. Ca hodoluminiscence (CL) images o he mos ep esen a i e Galapagos Plume A ay (GPA) zi con g ains (0–164Ma). Red ci cles ep esen SHRIMP spo s while g een and yellow ci cles ep esen H and δ18O spo s, espec i ely. Scale ba s in whi e (100μm). 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 9 o 37 𝜂𝜂 disl =1 2 𝐵𝐵−1∕𝑛𝑛 disl ( 𝜀𝜀 disl 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ) 1 𝑛𝑛−1exp ( 𝐸𝐸 disl ac +𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 disl ac 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ), (7) whe eas he linea iscous uppe cu o 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 uppe is cons an and he second in a ian o he s ain a e enso s and de ia o ic s ess enso s a e gi en by 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =(0.5𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 0 . 5 , and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = ( 0.5𝐴𝐴shea 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴shea 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )0.5 espec i ely. Bdi and Bdisl a e he p e-exponen ial ac o o di usion and disloca ion c eep espec i ely, n he s ess exponen , 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 he second in a ian o he s ain a e enso , and Eac and Vac a e he ac i a ion ene gy and olume espec i ely (see Table S5 in Suppo ing In o ma ionS1). By subs i u ing Equa ion7 in o Equa ion6 and using he squa e oo o he second in a ian o s ain a e and s ess, Equa ion6 can be exp essed as: 𝜀𝜀 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 2𝜂𝜂 di +𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 2𝜂𝜂 uppe + ( 𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 2𝜂𝜂 disl ,0 )𝑛𝑛 (8) Figu e 6. (a) Ca hodoluminiscence (CL) image wi h da ed spo s (a) and We he ill Disco dia diag am (b) o zi con g ains om sample GAL29B. 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 16 o 37 Table 2 Con inued Sample no. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U % 206Pb 208Pb/ 206/238 208/232 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ± 206_8 238U ±e 232Th ±e Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) FL-6.4 51 91 1.76 79.9 0.00011 0.00004 0.00011 0.00003 0.68 0.25 2.16 0.68 0.68 0.25 12.9 FL-6.5 2,313 4,586 1.98 0.1 0.00014 0.00000 0.00005 0.00000 0.92 0.03 0.93 0.03 0.92 0.03 10.9 FL-6.6 213 163 0.76 21.1 0.00013 0.00000 0.00011 0.00001 0.86 0.03 2.22 0.10 0.86 0.03 11.4 FL6-1 220.4 322.4 1.46 13.8 0.00018 0.00001 0.00009 0.00001 1.18 0.05 1.78 0.26 1.18 0.05 8.2 5.72 0.10 FL6-2 1,295.7 9,059.9 6.99 74.6 0.00010 0.00000 0.00003 0.00000 0.67 0.02 0.63 0.02 0.67 0.02 8.6 5.13 0.07 FL6-4 251.6 210.9 0.84 20.7 0.00003 0.00000 0.00003 0.00000 0.21 0.01 0.64 0.08 0.21 0.01 7.5 3.83 0.16 FL-7 (Beach sand) S01°14′12.78" W90°27'0.77" Pos -o ice beach FL-7.1 216.7 156.7 0.72 61.4 0.00003 0.00002 0.00007 0.00003 0.23 0.13 1.47 0.56 0.23 0.13 8.0 FL-7.2 104.5 8.4 0.08 42.2 −0.00001 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.10 12.7 FL-7.3 83.0 93.3 1.12 64.0 0.00003 0.00001 0.00006 0.00002 0.23 0.08 1.23 0.50 0.23 0.08 10.4 FL-7.4 58.8 36.3 0.62 33.0 0.00040 0.00004 0.00052 0.00004 2.56 0.26 10.60 0.87 2.56 0.26 9.5 FL-7.5 120.3 49.8 0.41 22.7 0.00034 0.00003 0.00048 0.00002 2.22 0.17 9.77 0.32 2.22 0.17 10.4 FL-7.6 653.6 1,060.8 1.62 2.8 0.00014 0.00001 0.00005 0.00000 0.93 0.05 1.02 0.11 0.93 0.05 9.1 FL7-1 317.0 345.7 1.09 3.9 0.00045 0.00002 0.00017 0.00000 2.93 0.14 3.51 0.04 2.93 0.14 7.9 FL7-2 96.4 66.5 0.69 41.7 −0.00001 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001 0.3 0.10 0.09 0.11 0.30 0.10 9.4 FL7-3 57.7 33.7 0.58 67.8 0.00007 0.00003 0.00021 0.00003 0.48 0.17 4.24 0.53 0.48 0.17 6.8 FL7-4 180.7 363.7 2.01 15.3 0.00010 0.00001 0.00004 0.00000 0.63 0.05 0.86 0.03 0.63 0.05 10.7 FL8 (Beach sand) S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ Las Cue as beach FL8.2.1 158.8 152.8 0.96 16.7 0.00020 0.00003 0.00013 0.00001 1.32 0.22 2.53 0.30 1.32 0.22 10.5 FL8.3 2,637.6 6,580.2 2.49 1.4 0.00011 0.00000 0.00004 0.00000 0.69 0.01 0.72 0.03 0.69 0.01 10.5 4.38 0.13 FL8.4 241.7 128.0 0.53 10.8 0.00045 0.00000 0.00032 0.00003 2.88 0.03 6.42 0.60 2.88 0.03 8.9 FL8.12 741.7 3,281.0 4.42 6.1 0.00013 0.00000 0.00004 0.00000 0.84 0.02 0.88 0.05 0.84 0.02 9.8 FL8.13 189.6 79.1 0.42 6.3 0.00050 0.00002 0.00030 0.00003 3.22 0.09 6.10 0.55 3.22 0.09 10.1 FL8.15 421.5 352.4 0.84 3.6 0.00048 0.00001 0.00019 0.00001 3.08 0.05 3.86 0.21 3.08 0.05 9.1 FL8.16 43.4 13.8 0.32 44.6 0.00059 0.00014 0.00183 0.00032 3.81 0.90 36.90 6.45 3.81 0.90 9.3 4.88 0.11 FL8.19 52.2 43.2 0.83 25.7 0.00046 0.00005 0.00041 0.00002 2.98 0.34 8.30 0.39 2.98 0.34 9.4 4.73 0.11 FL8.20 39.9 27.5 0.69 36.0 0.00042 0.00002 0.00054 0.00006 2.72 0.13 10.99 1.24 2.72 0.13 8.9 FL8.21 96.5 71.1 0.74 20.6 0.00055 0.00005 0.00046 0.00005 3.53 0.29 9.31 1.11 3.53 0.29 8.2 4.52 0.18 FL8.22 654.6 331.4 0.51 3.6 0.00046 0.00001 0.00021 0.00002 3.00 0.10 4.32 0.36 3.00 0.10 8.7 FL8.23 62.6 37.8 0.60 21.0 0.00038 0.00004 0.00037 0.00001 2.46 0.25 7.53 0.15 2.46 0.25 8.8 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 17 o 37 Table 2 Con inued Sample no. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U % 206Pb 208Pb/ 206/238 208/232 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ± 206_8 238U ±e 232Th ±e Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) GAL140 (Beach sand) S01°14′11.7″ W90°26′57.2″ Pos -o ice GAL140-1.1 477.1 409.1 0.86 5.6 0.00039 0.00000 0.00018 0.00001 2.55 0.03 3.55 0.13 2.55 0.03 9.3 GAL140-2.1 423.0 542.5 1.28 53.2 0.00008 0.00000 0.00009 0.00000 0.54 0.02 1.80 0.02 0.54 0.02 8.8 GAL140-3.1 422.3 595.2 1.41 61.4 0.00011 0.00000 0.00012 0.00001 0.69 0.02 2.48 0.17 0.69 0.02 10.7 GAL140-4.1 400.9 535.2 1.34 30.4 0.00015 0.00000 0.00010 0.00000 0.96 0.01 2.13 0.03 0.96 0.01 10.5 GAL140-5.1 182.7 103.2 0.56 6.0 0.00285 0.00004 0.00147 0.00008 18.37 0.25 29.78 1.57 18.4 0.3 6.7 GAL140-6.1 627.1 773.6 1.23 28.9 0.00011 0.00000 0.00008 0.00000 0.69 0.02 1.67 0.06 0.69 0.02 10.9 GAL140-7.1 392.3 395.7 1.01 19.4 0.00044 0.00001 0.00029 0.00001 2.85 0.05 5.82 0.12 2.85 0.05 8.6 GAL149 (Beach sand) S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ Playa Las Cue as GAL149-1.1 205.0 115.6 0.56 60.3 0.00014 0.00000 0.00036 0.00000 0.93 0.03 7.30 0.03 0.93 0.03 11.5 GAL149-2.1 498.9 505.3 1.01 72.7 0.00010 0.00000 0.00017 0.00001 0.68 0.02 3.37 0.11 0.68 0.02 10.8 GAL149-4.1 945.9 852.5 0.90 44.1 0.00007 0.00000 0.00008 0.00001 0.46 0.02 1.65 0.11 0.46 0.02 8.8 GAL149-5.1 1592.7 1663.9 1.04 15.8 0.00011 0.00000 0.00006 0.00000 0.72 0.01 1.30 0.03 0.72 0.01 10.0 GAL149-7.1 640.6 494.0 0.77 28.6 0.00011 0.00000 0.00012 0.00000 0.69 0.01 2.38 0.07 0.69 0.01 7.9 GAL149-10.1 180.1 120.2 0.67 29.7 0.00017 0.00000 0.00019 0.00001 1.09 0.03 3.95 0.19 1.09 0.03 10.9 GAL149-11.1 325.8 473.2 1.45 28.6 0.00016 0.00000 0.00010 0.00000 1.02 0.03 2.10 0.09 1.02 0.03 10.4 GAL149-12.1 210.5 211.7 1.01 74.5 0.00005 0.00001 0.00010 0.00000 0.31 0.03 1.98 0.05 0.31 0.03 7.3 GAL149-13.1 830.9 990.3 1.19 5.0 0.00016 0.00001 0.00007 0.00000 1.06 0.03 1.33 0.08 1.06 0.03 10.6 GAL149-14.1 563.0 741.2 1.32 6.1 0.00015 0.00001 0.00006 0.00000 0.94 0.03 1.20 0.07 0.94 0.03 11.4 GAL149-15.1 598.3 299.7 0.50 31.5 0.00010 0.00000 0.00016 0.00004 0.63 0.03 3.23 0.86 0.63 0.03 11.2 GAL149-16.1 87.8 49.5 0.56 11.9 0.00046 0.00002 0.00033 0.00002 2.96 0.11 6.64 0.34 2.96 0.11 8.3 GAL172 (Beach sand) S01°17′36.72″ W90°29′41.68″ sou h o la Lobe ia GAL172-1.2 268.9 192.4 0.72 43.4 0.00029 0.00004 0.00042 0.00000 1.90 0.30 8.40 0.10 1.90 0.30 12.1 GAL183 (S eambed deposi ) S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ S eam a he Cue a de los pi a as GAL183-3.1 699.9 999.1 1.43 36.5 0.00034 0.00002 0.00025 0.00002 2.20 0.10 5.10 0.30 2.20 0.10 9.2 San C is obal 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 18 o 37 Table 2 Con inued Sample no. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U % 206Pb 208Pb/ 206/238 208/232 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ± 206_8 238U ±e 232Th ±e Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) SCR2 (Beach sand) S00°53′26.6″ W89°36′43.53″ Cabo de Ho no beach, Ca ola poin SCR-2.1 143.5 89.0 0.62 48.5 0.00011 0.00001 0.00021 0.00000 0.74 0.08 4.17 0.00 0.74 0.08 11.7 SCR-2.2 285.9 183.3 0.64 26.1 0.00012 0.00001 0.00013 0.00002 0.79 0.04 2.69 0.36 0.79 0.04 13.1 SCR-2.3 114.6 70.5 0.62 32.1 0.00023 0.00003 0.00030 0.00001 1.48 0.19 6.00 0.23 1.48 0.19 11.0 SCR-2.4 35.3 23.4 0.66 70.4 0.00008 0.00006 0.00020 0.00015 0.52 0.41 4.02 2.93 0.52 0.41 11.3 SCR-2.5 358.6 356.4 0.99 20.1 0.00012 0.00000 0.00008 0.00001 0.79 0.03 1.68 0.20 0.79 0.03 11.7 SCR-2.6 217.1 133.4 0.61 20.5 0.00016 0.00002 0.00015 0.00001 1.02 0.12 3.09 0.17 1.02 0.12 11.5 SCR-2.20 124.5 69.4 0.56 25.6 0.00033 0.00003 0.00039 0.00003 2.10 0.19 7.93 0.63 2.10 0.19 9.3 SCR-2.24 301.5 128.0 0.42 5.1 0.00119 0.00004 0.00065 0.00005 7.68 0.26 13.15 1.04 7.68 0.26 6.4 SCR2-2 288.7 171.4 0.59 3.8 0.00018 0.00001 0.00008 0.00000 1.18 0.07 1.67 0.09 1.18 0.07 8.7 SCR2-3 476.7 288.8 0.61 16.9 0.00017 0.00001 0.00015 0.00000 1.11 0.05 2.99 0.01 1.11 0.05 10.5 SCR2-4 256.1 174.2 0.68 13.4 0.00016 0.00003 0.00010 0.00001 1.03 0.18 2.13 0.12 1.03 0.18 10.3 SCR2-7 137.1 111.9 0.82 12.7 0.00017 0.00001 0.00011 0.00001 1.12 0.06 2.13 0.22 1.12 0.06 9.6 SCR2-10 334.4 367.7 1.10 0.6 0.00018 0.00000 0.00006 0.00000 1.19 0.02 1.25 0.03 1.19 0.02 9.1 SCR2-11 521.5 479.6 0.92 2.0 0.00019 0.00002 0.00007 0.00001 1.25 0.17 1.41 0.12 1.25 0.17 11.5 SCR2-12 689.5 1,172.6 1.70 45.0 0.00017 0.00002 0.00012 0.00000 1.13 0.15 2.50 0.10 1.13 0.15 6.1 SCR2-13 50.6 28.1 0.55 29.2 0.00021 0.00002 0.00029 0.00000 1.38 0.16 5.80 0.04 1.38 0.16 11.6 SCR2-14 124.2 48.2 0.39 35.6 0.00019 0.00002 0.00040 0.00001 1.22 0.15 8.03 0.29 1.22 0.15 9.3 SCR2-16 152.8 123.1 0.81 71.6 0.00016 0.00003 0.00031 0.00000 1.03 0.19 6.26 0.06 1.03 0.19 10.6 SCR3 (s eambed deposi ) S00°55′32.5″ W89°25′47.7″ Pue o Chino SCR-3.2 886.6 1,514.4 1.71 2.6 0.00014 0.00001 0.00005 0.00000 0.92 0.03 1.00 0.03 0.92 0.03 12.6 SCR-3.4 524.4 743.3 1.42 57.7 0.00014 0.00000 0.00014 0.00000 0.89 0.01 2.86 0.08 0.89 0.01 10.6 SCR-3.8 102.2 56.7 0.6 0.57 0.00015 0.00004 0.00037 0.00003 0.94 0.23 7.50 0.67 0.94 0.23 13.3 SCR-3.9 376.9 613.1 1.6 1.67 0.00011 0.00000 0.00005 0.00001 0.69 0.03 0.98 0.22 0.69 0.03 8.7 SCR5 (Beach sand) S00°55′30.09" W89°36′50.40" La Lobe ia SCR5-1 172.9 110.4 0.64 17.9 0.00015 0.00001 0.00013 0.00001 0.97 0.06 2.64 0.25 0.97 0.06 8.9 SCR5-2 66.0 40.9 0.62 58.8 0.00014 0.00002 0.00030 0.00003 0.88 0.12 6.04 0.55 0.88 0.12 10.9 SCR5-5 152.0 90.5 0.60 20.8 0.00015 0.00000 0.00016 0.00002 0.99 0.02 3.19 0.36 0.99 0.02 11.5 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 19 o 37 Table 2 Con inued Sample no. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U % 206Pb 208Pb/ 206/238 208/232 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ± 206_8 238U ±e 232Th ±e Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) GAL40 (Basal ) S00°54′29.60″ W89°36′20.43″ N o Pue o Vaque izo Mo eno GAL40-1 2,044.2 3,644.3 1.78 26.1 0.00012 0.00000 0.00007 0.00001 0.8 0.0 1.4 0.1 0.80 0.00 8.5 GAL40-2 1,605.2 9,524.4 5.93 −537.4 0.00012 0.00001 0.00002 0.00000 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.80 0.00 11.1 GAL40-3 430.3 1,330.3 3.09 −14.2 0.00022 0.00002 0.00006 0.00000 1.4 0.1 1.2 0.0 1.40 0.10 9.9 Isabela Gal30 (Basal wi h Palgioclase phenoc ys ) S00°23′32.1″ W90°59′44.0″ Volcán Alcedo GAL30-3.1 58.1 34.0 0.59 139.3 0.00003 0.00000 0.00019 0.00003 0.21 0.02 3.81 0.55 0.21 0.02 10.6 GAL30-4.1 74.9 44.1 0.59 137.7 0.00002 0.00002 0.00017 0.00005 0.16 0.13 3.36 1.12 0.16 0.13 12.5 GAL30-5.1 61.7 30.4 0.49 97.5 0.00002 0.00001 0.00011 0.00004 0.11 0.07 2.14 0.72 0.11 0.07 10.9 GAL30-6.1 149.6 112.9 0.75 93.9 0.00002 0.00000 0.00008 0.00000 0.16 0.01 1.56 0.02 0.16 0.01 8.7 GAL120 (Pumice) S00°24′30.30" W90°59′13.30" Volcan Alcedo, Pun a Al a o GAL120-2.1 61.2 44.1 0.72 96.6 0.00140 0.00012 0.06641 0.00146 9.04 0.75 1,299.53 27.63 9.04 0.75 8.8 GAL120-4.1 265.9 236.2 0.89 98.4 0.00019 0.00001 0.00043 0.00001 1.22 0.10 8.63 0.17 1.22 0.10 9.7 GAL122 (Beach sand) S00°24′25.0"S W90°59′2.19" Volcan no h o Pun a Al a o GAL122-3.1 246.9 170.1 0.69 . 0.00000 0.00000 0.00003 0.00000 0.01 0.01 0.58 0.09 0.01 0.01 9.5 GAL122-4.1 132.2 80.3 0.61 . 0.00001 0.00000 0.00009 0.00001 0.07 0.02 1.83 0.15 0.07 0.02 7.9 GAL122-5.1 141.2 114.0 0.81 . 0.00001 0.00001 0.00003 0.00002 0.06 0.06 0.56 0.35 0.06 0.06 5.5 GAL122-7.1 59.8 34.2 0.57 . 0.00000 0.00000 0.00007 0.00000 0.01 0.02 1.32 0.05 0.01 0.02 7.9 GAL122-8.1 107.4 63.3 0.59 . 0.00001 0.00000 0.00005 0.00001 0.07 0.01 1.11 0.26 0.07 0.01 6.5 GAL122-9.1 18.3 6.5 0.35 83.6 0.00002 0.00001 0.00013 0.00001 0.13 0.04 2.61 0.13 0.13 0.04 8.2 GAL122-10.1 81.1 46.8 0.58 79.5 0.00002 0.00002 0.00008 0.00003 0.14 0.13 1.70 0.61 0.14 0.13 6.1 San a Fé GAL43 (Beach sand) S00°48′17.7″ W90°05′09.3″ NE coas GAL43-1 38.3 16.5 0.43 16.3 0.00034 0.00007 0.00036 0.00014 2.20 0.42 7.25 2.86 2.20 0.42 7.5 GAL43-2 36.8 14.3 0.39 27.9 0.00061 0.00014 0.00103 0.00027 3.93 0.89 20.83 5.52 3.93 0.89 9.8 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 20 o 37 Table 2 Con inued Sample no. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U % 206Pb 208Pb/ 206/238 208/232 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ± 206_8 238U ±e 232Th ±e Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) GAL45 (Basal ) GAL45-1.1 254.5 204.3 0.80 5.3 0.00038 0.00002 0.00017 0.00001 2.44 0.11 3.41 0.25 2.44 0.11 7.5 GAL47 (Beach sand) S00°48′9.53" W90°02′26.93" Ba ing on bay GAL47-1 262.9 172.3 0.66 5.0 0.00035 0.00001 0.00016 0.00001 2.26 0.09 3.26 0.21 2.26 0.09 10.1 GAL47-2 116.2 26.0 0.22 4.6 0.00040 0.00002 0.00030 0.00009 2.62 0.14 6.03 1.76 2.62 0.14 8.9 GAL47-3 58.7 22.9 0.39 7.1 0.00040 0.00007 0.00027 0.00008 2.61 0.43 5.38 1.67 2.61 0.43 9.2 GAL47-5 185.6 57.8 0.31 9.2 0.00035 0.00001 0.00032 0.00003 2.23 0.06 6.52 0.57 2.23 0.06 9.0 GAL47-6 189.2 109.6 0.58 2.0 0.00034 0.00003 0.00013 0.00003 2.22 0.21 2.71 0.57 2.22 0.21 8.9 GAL48 (Beach sand) S00°48′13.9″ W90°02′27.9″ Ba ing on bay GAL48-1 65.0 23.4 0.36 −1.8 0.00028 0.00005 0.00006 0.00006 1.80 0.35 1.25 1.22 1.80 0.35 10.2 GAL48-2 93.4 46.4 0.50 5.5 0.00033 0.00001 0.00018 0.00011 2.12 0.04 3.57 2.23 2.12 0.04 9.0 GAL48-3 207.2 119.4 0.58 5.0 0.00032 0.00001 0.00016 0.00002 2.07 0.05 3.22 0.40 2.07 0.05 9.4 GAL48-4 32.5 12.9 0.40 14.1 0.00025 0.00002 0.00026 0.00003 1.60 0.12 5.20 0.55 1.60 0.12 9.3 GAL48-5 151.9 88.6 0.58 5.2 0.00031 0.00003 0.00016 0.00002 2.02 0.23 3.16 0.40 2.02 0.23 9.8 GAL48-6 39.8 20.1 0.51 19.8 0.00040 0.00005 0.00043 0.00013 2.56 0.35 8.63 2.58 2.56 0.35 8.3 Rábida GAL28 (Beach sand) S00°24′14.8″ W90°42′11.2″ GAL28-1 180.1 131.0 0.73 11.2 0.00012 0.00003 0.00007 0.00000 0.80 0.19 1.45 0.05 0.80 0.19 10.0 GAL28-2 86.7 58.0 0.67 3.3 0.00012 0.00003 0.00007 0.00000 0.80 0.19 1.45 0.05 0.80 0.19 9.1 GAL28-3 102.6 66.1 0.64 −0.5 0.00016 0.00002 0.00005 0.00003 1.04 0.14 1.00 0.59 1.04 0.14 10.5 GAL28-4 91.7 37.2 0.41 22.9 0.00008 0.00004 0.00011 0.00002 0.50 0.28 2.19 0.32 0.50 0.28 9.1 GAL28-5 573.3 938.7 1.64 −8.6 0.00014 0.00000 0.00003 0.00000 0.91 0.01 0.67 0.06 0.91 0.01 11.6 GAL29 (Basal ) S00°24′14.8″ W90°42′11.4″ GAL29B-1.1 97.6 64.5 0.66 107.0 0.00013 0.00000 0.00046 0.00001 0.82 0.01 9.30 0.29 0.82 0.01 9.6 GAL29B-2.1 68.2 39.9 0.59 131.3 0.00013 0.00002 0.00061 0.00001 0.88 0.15 12.38 0.19 0.88 0.15 9.6 GAL29B-3.1 104.4 58.6 0.56 102.1 0.00017 0.00001 0.00067 0.00003 1.09 0.06 13.53 0.57 1.09 0.06 10.3 GAL29B-4.1 142.6 108.6 0.76 121.5 0.00013 0.00001 0.00044 0.00001 0.83 0.04 8.89 0.12 0.83 0.04 10.6 GAL29B-5.1 223.7 293.3 1.31 76.9 0.00015 0.00001 0.00020 0.00001 0.95 0.10 4.07 0.25 0.95 0.10 8.7 GAL29B-6.1 114.2 79.4 0.70 18.3 0.00013 0.00001 0.00012 0.00000 0.87 0.06 2.35 0.06 0.87 0.06 8.3 GAL29B-7.1 124.1 93.9 0.76 21.4 0.00013 0.00001 0.00012 0.00001 0.86 0.05 2.43 0.12 0.86 0.05 8.9 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 21 o 37 Sample no. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U % 206Pb 208Pb/ 206/238 208/232 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ± 206_8 238U ±e 232Th ±e Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) GAL29B-8.1 205.1 235.9 1.15 14.5 0.00012 0.00001 0.00006 0.00000 0.77 0.05 1.31 0.08 0.77 0.05 9.1 GAL29B-9.1 237.2 236.0 0.99 9.9 0.00016 0.00001 0.00008 0.00001 1.01 0.05 1.52 0.14 1.01 0.05 6.9 GAL29B-10.1 169.5 139.4 0.82 14.0 0.00014 0.00001 0.00009 0.00002 0.91 0.07 1.78 0.40 0.91 0.07 9.1 GAL29B-11.1 134.8 109.0 0.81 13.6 0.00013 0.00001 0.00009 0.00000 0.87 0.04 1.89 0.09 0.87 0.04 9.7 GAL29B-12.1 137.6 145.5 1.06 58.8 0.00015 0.00001 0.00021 0.00000 0.96 0.04 4.20 0.03 0.96 0.04 8.3 Española GAL53 (Beach sand) S01°21′15.32″ W89°39′34.64″ Ga dne bay GAL53-2 2,659.4 3,708.1 1.39 10.1 0.00053 0.00001 0.00024 0.00002 3.44 0.07 4.76 0.42 3.44 0.07 8.5 GAL53-1.1 377.6 396.5 1.05 15.9 0.00028 0.00001 0.00016 0.00000 1.82 0.03 3.29 0.08 1.82 0.03 13.6 GAL53-2.1 316.9 244.0 0.77 26.7 0.00030 0.00001 0.00029 0.00002 1.93 0.05 5.76 0.31 1.93 0.05 10.9 GAL53-3.1 333.9 295.9 0.89 1.9 0.00032 0.00002 0.00011 0.00000 2.06 0.10 2.32 0.07 2.06 0.10 13.2 GAL53-4.1 327.9 193.1 0.59 3.3 0.00036 0.00001 0.00015 0.00001 2.31 0.09 3.00 0.27 2.31 0.09 11.6 GAL53-5.1 530.5 456.9 0.86 6.0 0.00030 0.00001 0.00014 0.00001 1.97 0.09 2.81 0.13 1.97 0.09 11.0 GAL53-6.1 711.1 944.0 1.33 7.0 0.00008 0.00000 0.00003 0.00000 0.50 0.02 0.67 0.04 0.50 0.02 9.9 No e. εH ( ) and δ 18O da a a e also included in bold i alic bes age. Table 2 Con inued 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 22 o 37 Sample No. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U 206Pb 207Pb 206Pb 207Pb 206/238 207/235 207/206 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ±204Pb 206Pb 238U 235U Age±1s Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) San a C uz GAL3 (Beach sand) S00°45′49.56″ W090°20′25.14″ To uga Bay (Playa mansa) GAL3-1 312 169 0.54 39,667 0.0575±6 0.0812±7 0.644±10 503±4 505±6 513±23 503 4 4.1 9 0.1 GALl3-2 322 184 0.57 1,329 0.2039±6 0.5571±51 15.67±16 2,855±21 2,857±10 2,858±5 2,858 5 −8.8 8 0.1 GALl3-3 436 220 0.50 62,617 0.2304±2 0.6031±55 19.16±18 3,042±22 3,050±9 3,055±2 3,055 2 −11.3 5 0.1 GAL3-4 453 50 0.11 180,180 0.0669±3 0.1393±13 1.286±13 841±7 839±6 836±8 841 7 −8.5 11 0.1 GAL3-5 74 63 0.85 20,907 0.0575±14 0.0816±8 0.647±18 506±4 507±11 513±54 506 4 −11.5 8.7 0.1 GAL3-6 165 80 0.48 42,827 0.1961±4 0.5487±51 14.834±14 2,820±21 2,805±9 2,794±3 2,794 3 −3.5 6.00 0.10 GAL6 (la a ube deposi ) S00°39′34.8″ W090°16′09.3″ Cue a Cascajo GAL6-1 191 57 0.30 149,254 0.0931±4 0.2585±24 3.32±4 1,482±12 1,485±8 1,489±8 1,489 8 4.4 8.40 0.10 Gal6-2 33 8 0.24 37,807 0.0487±37 0.0034±1 0.023±2 22±1 23±2 132±150 22.0 1.0 11.4 4.95 0.07 GAL6-3 493 183 0.37 203,252 00,750±2 0.1784±16 1.85±2 1,058±9 1,062±7 1,069±6 1,058 9 −5.8 11.3 0.1 Gal6-7 115 79 0.69 32,852 0.0464±15 0.0085±1 0.055±2 55±1 54±2 20±47 55.0 1.0 8.0 7.13 0.04 GAL6-8 93 80 0.86 19,301 0.0556±15 0.604±6 0.463±14 378±3 386±10 435±61 378 3 −5.1 8.20 0.10 GAL6-11 728 161 0.22 209,644 0.0603±2 0.0997±9 0.828±8 613±5 613±5 613±8 613 5 −6.1 7.20 0.10 GAL6-14 90 22 0.24 18,015 0.0668±10 0.1383±13 1.28±2 835±7 835±10 833±30 835 7 6.7 5.63 0.10 Bal a Gal86 (Beach sand) S00°28′26.2″ W90°15′40.8″ SE o Bal a Island a canal I abaca Gal86-1 217 145 0.67 5,956 0.0246±946 0.0146±14 0.049±191 93±9 43±109 0±972 93.0 9.0 9.0 Gal86-3.1 244 141 0.58 1,843 0.0438±186 0.0146±3 0.088±38 94±2 86±35 0±345 94.0 2.0 10.8 Gal86-3.2 ( im) 109 72 0.66 786 0.1579±3,432 0.0026±9 0.056±120 18±0.3 0±32 0±1,350 18.5 0.3 1.7 Gal86-4.2 (co e) 253 186 0.73 187.8 0.0788±1,251 0.0033±4 0.036±58 21±3 36±46 1,166±1,429 21.0 3.0 2.4 Pinzón GAL36 (Basal ) S00°36′10.0″ W90°38′54.7″ Wes e n coas GAL36-1 742 276 0.37 7,268 0.0530±3 0.0518±6 0.378±5 326±4 326±4 329±13 326 4 −7.9 Table 3 SHRIMP II Analy ical Da a o Spo Analyses o Zi con G ains Olde Than he Galápagos Plume A ay (GPA) Zi cons (>164 Ma) in Bold I alic Bes Age 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 23 o 37 Table 3 Con inued Sample No. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U 206Pb 207Pb 206Pb 207Pb 206/238 207/235 207/206 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ±204Pb 206Pb 238U 235U Age±1s Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) Geno esa GAL54 (Beach sand) N00°19′6.42″ W89°56′57.81″ Bahia Geno esa GAL54-1 925 145 0.16 132,275 0.0593±2 0.0933±8 0.763±8 575±5 576±4 578±8 575 5 −8.1 GAL54-2 94 65 0.69 302,115 0.1005±3 0.3029±27 4.20±4 1,706±13 1,674±8 1,634±6 1,634 6 3.3 Flo eana FL6 (Beach sand) S01°16′34.6″ W90°29′17.4″ Playa Neg a FL6.3 302 77 0.25 79,808 0.0743±3 0.1776±17 1.819±20 1,054±9 1,052±7 1,049±8 1,054 9 4.1 7.83 0.10 FL8 (Beach sand) S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ Las Cue as beach FL8-1 105 209 1.99 10,405 0.0582±22 0.0952±9 0.764±30 586±5 576±17 539±82 586 5 −24.9 5.79 0.11 FL8-5 156 151 0.97 75,758 0.0684±6 0.1459±13 1.377±18 878±8 879±8 881±18 878 8 1.8 4.68 0.07 GAL70 (Beach sand) S01°16′34.4″ W90°29′17.2″ Playa Neg a GAL70-1.1 149 88 0.59 1,490 0.0520±72 0.0250±3 0.180±25 159±2 168±22 287±288 159 2 4.7 GAL70-2.1 980 851 0.87 1,514 0.0485±26 0.0258±2 0.172±10 164±1 161±8 123±123 164 1 6.0 GAL147 (Beach sand) b Playa de o ugas, pun a Co mo án GAL147-1 130 82 0.63 13,387 0.0848±30 0.2263±19 2.65±10 1,315±10 1,314±28 1,312±28 1,312 28 0.9 GAL149 (Beach sand) S01°15′44.1″ W90°22′15.7″ Playa Las Cue as Gal149-6.1 197 111 0.56 758 0.0406±228 0.0082±1 0.046±24 53±1 46±13 0±152 53.0 1.0 9.8 GAL149-8 188 60 0.32 3,755 0.0476±91 0.0366±4 0.240±46 232±3 218±38 77±239 232 3 −2.1 GAL149-17 (co e) 696 513 0.74 19,794 0.1660±1 0.4720±59 10.80±14 2,492±26 2,506±12 2,517±1 2,517 1 1.0 GAL149-18 ( im) 124 122 0.98 195,313 0.1655±2 0.4375±55 9.99±13 2,339±25 2,433±12 2,513±2 2,513 2 −0.6 GAL 155 (Beach sand) S01°15′58.38" W90°29'15.10" no h o Pue o Velazco GAL155-1.1 236 69 0.29 49,237 0.0799±7 0.2038±13 2.243±27 1,195±7 1,195±8 1,194±18 1,195 8 7.4 GAL155-2.1 3,480 959 0.28 48,426 0.0522±3 0.0496±3 0.357±3 312±2 310±2 294±14 312 2 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 24 o 37 Table 3 Con inued Sample No. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U 206Pb 207Pb 206Pb 207Pb 206/238 207/235 207/206 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ±204Pb 206Pb 238U 235U Age±1s Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) GAL155-3.1 310 66 0.21 8,033 0.0720±9 0.1654±11 1.642±24 986±6 986±9 986±25 986 6 GAL155-4.1 (co e) 994 52 0.05 5,814 0.0587±8 0.0899±6 0.727±11 555±3 555±7 555±29 555 3 −27.7 GAL155-4.2 ( im) 476 37 0.08 3,040 0.0511±26 0.0336±2 0.237±12 213±1 216±10 247±115 213 1 −3.7 GAL155-5.1 427 104 0.24 188 0.0607±40 0.0021±1 0.018±12 14±1 18±12 629±821 14.0 1.0 10.1 GAL155-6.1 411 317 0.77 36,873 0.0787±5 0.2042±13 2.215±22 1,198±7 1,186±7 1,164±13 1,186 7 3.8 GAL155-7.1 200 120 0.60 6,859 0.0591±18 0.0879±6 0.717±22 543±3 549±13 572±65 543 3 −7.6 GAL160 (Beach sand) S01°17′6.07″ W90°29′38.07″ Beach sand sou h o la Lobe ia GAL160-1 6,344 1,628 0.26 50,891 0.0546±2 0.0640±4 0.482±4 400±2 400±3 398±9 400 2 GAL162 (Basal ) S1°17′21.42" W90°29′45.71" sou h o la Lobe ia GAL162-1.1 259 105 0.41 14,959 0.0752±11 0.1787±12 1.853±31 1,060±6 1,064±11 1,074±29 1,060 6 8.2 GAL162-1.2 95 41 0.43 1,726 0.0733±35 0.1687±13 1.706±85 1,005±7 1,011±32 1,023±98 1,005 7 7.1 GAL162-2.1 255 113 0.44 18,044 0.0791±9 0.1991±13 2.171±29 1,171±7 1,172±9 1,174±21 1,172 9 6.1 GAL162-3.1 226 145 0.64 8,619 0.0734±10 0.1691±11 1.711±27 1,007±6 1,013±10 1,025±27 1,007 6 −5.9 GAL172 (Beach sand) S01°17′36.72″ W90°29′41.68″ sou h o la Lobe ia GAL172-1.1 53 44 0.83 2,253 0.1240±26 0.3586±31 6.301±150 2,023±15 2,019±21 2,014±37 2,014 37 −9.1 GAL197 (s eambed deposi ) S01°15′40.23″ W90°26′07.28″ S eam coming down Ce o Ven ana o Pos O ice GAL197-1.1 268 266 1.00 20,829 0.0856±7 0.2291±15 2.703±31 1,330±8 1,329±8 1,328±17 1,329 8 2.8 GAL197.1.2 200 140 0.70 54,377 0.0857±11 0.2313±15 2.735±41 1,341±8 1,338±11 1,332±24 1,338 11 2.6 GAL197-2.1 970 460 0.47 1,237 0.0537±17 0.0611±4 0.453±15 382±2 379±10 360±71 382 2 −5.0 GAL197-3.1 376 137 0.36 67,159 0.0965±5 0.2735±18 3.636±33 1,558±9 1,557±7 1,556±11 1,557 7 2.2 GAL197-4.1 229 100 0.44 7,013 0.0740±9 0.1747±11 1.783±27 1,038±6 1,039±10 1,042±25 1,038 6 2.0 GAL197-5.1 238 241 1.01 12,101 0.0582±19 0.0939±6 0.754±26 578±4 570±15 538±72 578 4 −17.5 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 25 o 37 Sample No. Coo dina es Loca ion U ppm Th ppm Th/U 206Pb 207Pb 206Pb 207Pb 206/238 207/235 207/206 Bes age ±1s εH ( )δ 18OSMOW ±204Pb 206Pb 238U 235U Age±1s Age±1s Age±1s Age (Ma) GAL197-6.1 255 350 1.37 6,169 0.0640±16 0.1262±8 1.114±29 766±5 760±14 742±51 766 5 −9.5 GAL197-7.1 396 422 1.06 944 0.0535±28 0.0566±4 0.417±22 355±2 354±16 351±119 355 2 −2.8 GAL197-8.1 1,589 531 0.33 17,173 0.0531±5 0.0613±4 0.449±55 384±2 376±4 333±22 384 2 −1.0 San C is obal SCR3 (s eambed deposi ) S00°55′32.5″ W89°25′47.7″ Pue o Chino SCR3-3 503 205 0.41 93,809 0.0947±5 0.2658±35 3.47±5 1,519±18 1,521±11 1,522±9 1,522 9 −0.5 Isabela Gal30 (Basal wi h Palgioclase phenoc ys ) S00°23′32.1″ W90°59′44.0″ Volcán Alcedo GAL30-1 212 99 0.47 29,586 0.0585±28 0.0258±3 0.209±85 164±2 177±9 356±112 164 2 9.7 San a Fé al230 (Beach sand) S00°49′34.22″ W90°01′45.37″ Pun a del miedo Gal230-1.1 29 12 0.41 44.6 0.6034±253 0.0101±25 0.838±428 65±6 618±241 4,516±1,854 65.0 6.0 13 Table 3 Con inued 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 32 o 37 4.3. Geodynamic Implica ions A i s -o de obse a ion is ha ou da a places he minimum ime o impingemen o he Galapagos plume below he li hosphe e o a leas ∼170Ma, much ea lie han commonly hough (∼139–74Ma (Dü ke älden e al.,2019; Hoe nle e al.,2004; Mad igal e al.,2016; Sin on e al.,1998)). E en i mos GPA zi con was sampled om su icial de i us, one o he oldes GPA zi con g ains (i.e., 164Ma) was sampled om a basal ic la a a he Alcedo Volcano on Isabela Island (Figu es2b and3). In addi ion, he p esence o pos - and p e-14Ma GPA (mos ly he ones o med a <4Ma) zi cons in sands om almos i gin beaches and uphill s eams (in he Bal a, Flo eana, San C is obal, San a C uz and San a Fé islands) and inland la a ube deposi s (San a C uz) clea ly poin o a local p o enance om e osion o exposed olcanic ocks. Fu he mo e, a p o enance s udy ca ied ou on beaches om 11 islands o he a chipelago shows ha he mine al g ains and ock agmen s in he sand we e de i ed om locally exposed basal ic ocks and excludes ex e nal sou ces (Seelos e al.,2021). All lines o e idence hus poin o he c ys alliza ion o 14–164Ma GPA zi cons in he sub-li hosphe ic sou ce o Galápagos la as. Expe imen al wo k shows ha zi con can su i e in he p esence o ma ic mel o long pe iods o ime (millions o yea s) as long as he olume o mel ha in e ac s wi h a zi con c ys al is small o shielded wi hin o he mine al g ains (Bea e al.,2018). I shielded wi hin a Pb- ee mine al, zi con g ains can e ain hei U-Pb c ys alliza ion ages e en a 1,500°C, independen ly o hei esidence ime in he man le (Bea e al.,2018; see also Bindeman e al.,2018). Shielding is also needed o p e en zi con om dissol ing in a zi con-unde sa u a ed basal ic liquid (Shao e al.,2019). Zi con g ains ha occu as inclusions in majo man le mine als a e sealed agains ou -o -g ain Pb loss; consequen ly, hei U-Pb ages ne e ese (Bea e al.,2018). F om he a o emen ioned we can conclude ha i is possible ha GPA zi con c ys allized om zi con-sa u a ed e ol ed basal ic liquids and emained in he plume-head egions wi h limi ed o no mel ac ion o a signi ican pe iod o ime. E en ually, apidly ascending magmas may pick up hese zi con g ains o zi con-bea ing mine al o ock agmen s. A his s age, dissolu ion o zi con occu ed i exposed o he liquid and he mine al is no shielded o he magma esided long in a magma chambe . Ul ima ely, howe e , some as henosphe ic zi con g ains su i ed and eached he su ace in he c ys- allizing magmas ha , in u n, e en ually eached zi con sa u a ion and o med new zi con, as demons a ed by he o e whelming amoun o young zi con g ains (<4Ma) ha da e Galapagos su ace olcanism (Figu e10b). Ou finding o old as henosphe ic man le zi con g ains challenges cu en ideas abou as henosphe e con ec ion and plume/li hosphe e in e ac ion (Gazel e al.,2018). Con a y o expec a ions, ou inding implies ha no all zi con was dispe sed o ca ied away om he plume by con ec i e low and li hosphe ic mo ion e en a e mo e han 100 Mys esidence ime in he as henosphe e, which has made i possible o da e he ac i i y o he plume. Assuming ha he onse o ho spo magma ism is o en ma ked by a LIP and ha he Galapagos plume is as old as ∼170Ma: whe e is he associa ed LIP o ha age? Pe haps i is los by subduc ion below Ame ica. In any case, bu by be e cons aining he ch onology o man le plumes and wi h he help o o he disciplines (e.g., geody- namics, paleomagne ism) i could be possible o p edic whe e o ind he acc e ed agmen s o he associa ed LIPs and any po en ial o e deposi s. Finally, he esul s o he 2D/3D he mo-mechanical nume ical simula ions o plume-li hosphe e in e ac ion sugges ha , once o med, some zi con c ys als can emain wi hin he as henosphe ic man le o ex ended pe i- ods o ime. Following hese esul s, he eco ded as henosphe ic zi con ages hence allow da ing he Galápagos plume back o Ju assic imes, a much olde age han p e iously epo ed. Simila zi con obse a ions and models o as henosphe ic low below ocean islands could apply o o he plume- ela ed ho spo s. The e o e, a sys ema ic analysis o zi con om ocean islands will allow moni o ing empo al anges o plume ac i i y and dynamics o e much longe pe iods han hose implied by he ages o he e up ed la as, ho spo acks, pla eaus and, e en ually, plume- ela ed e anes acc e ed o ac i e con inen al ma gins. 5. Conclusions In his con ibu ion, we show o he i s ime he a e o zi con g ains g own in a plume en i onmen a as heno- sphe ic dep hs below he Galápagos A chipelago. Zi con g ains we e e ie ed om basal ic and hyoli ic ocks (pumice) and sand deposi s collec ed on he loo o a la a ube, s eam beds and beaches. Ou indings allow da ing plume ac i i y o a leas , ∼164Ma (ea ly Middle Ju assic). E idence o his comes om 0 o 164Ma 15252027, 2022, 11, Downloaded om h ps://agupubs.onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GC010485 by Csic O ganización Cen al Om (O icialia Mayo ) (U ici), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/06/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Geochemis y, Geophysics, Geosys ems ROJAS-AGRAMONTE ETAL. 10.1029/2022GC010485 33 o 37 zi con wi h a plume iso opic signa u e (Galápagos Plume A ay; GPA) eco e ed om la as and sedimen s om 10 islands o he a chipelago. Da a om he GPA is also consis en wi h exis ing iso opic da a o whole ocks, oli ine and plagioclase om he A chipelago and associa ed Ca negie, Cocos, Malpelo and Coiba idges. Gi en li hosphe ic pla e mo ion, his esul implies ha GPA zi con p eda ing he Galápagos li hosphe e (i.e., ∼14–164Ma) o med and we e s o ed a subli hosphe ic dep hs. The mo-mechanical nume ical expe imen s o plume dynamics and plume-li hosphe e in e ac ion show a complex pa e n o as henosphe ic man le low, bu hey also show ha old zi con g ains can be s o ed below he a chipelago wi hin leng hy local s able as henosphe ic domains (>50My s in he models) o be la e cap u ed by subsequen ising plume magmas. Ano he impo an implica ion o ou s udy is ha by cons aining he ch onology o a man le plume i will be possible o p edic (wi h he help o o he disciplines e.g., geodynamics, paleomagne ism) whe e o ind he acc e ed agmen s o he associa ed LIPs. Da a A ailabili y S a emen Co e da a including analy ical p ocedu es, and ables con aining zi con εH ( ) and δ18O iso opes as well as whole- ock majo and ace elemen concen a ion da a can be accessed h ough h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/ zenodo.7047729. The e e ence model se up o he nume ical expe imen s can be accessed h ough h ps://doi. o g/10.5281/zenodo.6967187. Re e ences Aa ons, S. M., Aciego, S. M., & Gleason, J. 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