Gnss constraints to active tectonic deformations of the south american continental margin in ecuador

sensors Article GNSS Constraints to Active Tectonic Deformations of the South American Continental Margin in Ecuador JoséTamay 1,2, Jesús Galindo-Zaldivar 2,3,* , John Soto 1,2 and Antonio J. Gil 4,5   Citation: Tamay, J.; Galindo-Zaldivar, J.; Soto, J.; Gil, A.J. GNSS Constraints to Active Tectonic Deformations of the South American Continental Margin in Ecuador. Sensors 2021,21, 4003. https://doi.org/10.3390/ s21124003 Academic Editor: JoséDarrozes Received: 2 April 2021 Accepted: 7 June 2021 Published: 10 June 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, San Cayetano Alto, Apartado Postal, Loja 11-01-608, Ecuador; [email protected] (J.T.); [email protected] (J.S.) 2Departamento de Geodinámica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain 3Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra (IACT)—CSIC, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain 4Departamento de Ingeniería Cartográfica, Geodésica y Fotogrametría, Campus de las Lagunillas, Universidad de Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; [email protected] 5Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ciencias de la Tierra, Energía y Medio Ambiente (CEACTEMA), Campus de las Lagunillas, Universidad de Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain *Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: GNSS observations constitute the main tool to reveal Earth’s crustal deformations in order to improve the identification of geological hazards. The Ecuadorian Andes were formed by Nazca Plate subduction below the Pacific margin of the South American Plate. Active tectonic-related deformation continues to present, and it is constrained by 135 GPS stations of the RENAGE and REGME deployed by the IGM in Ecuador (1995.4–2011.0). They show a regional ENE displacement, increasing towards the N, of the deformed North Andean Sliver in respect to the South American Plate and Inca Sliver relatively stable areas. The heterogeneous displacements towards the NNE of the North Andean Sliver are interpreted as consequences of the coupling of the Carnegie Ridge in the subduction zone. The Dolores–Guayaquil megashear constitutes its southeastern boundary and includes the dextral to normal transfer Pallatanga fault, that develops the Guayaquil Gulf. This fault extends northeastward along the central part of the Cordillera Real, in relay with the reverse dextral Cosanga–Chingual fault and finally followed by the reverse dextral Sub-Andean fault zone. While the Ecuadorian margin and Andes is affected by ENE–WSW shortening, the easternmost ManabíBasin located in between the Cordillera Costanera and the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes, underwent moderate ENE–WSW extension and constitutes an active fore-arc basin of the Nazca plate subduction. The integration of the GPS and seismic data evidences that highest rates of deformation and the highest tectonic hazards in Ecuador are linked: to the subduction zone located in the coastal area; to the Pallatanga transfer fault; and to the Eastern Andes Sub-Andean faults. Keywords: GPS networks; active tectonics; transfer faults; Ecuadorian Andes; fore-arc basin 1. Introduction The subduction of oceanic plates at convergent tectonic boundaries is responsible for the release of more than 90% of the total seismic moment, mainly occurring along the subduction interface [ 1 , 2 ] and the development of first-order large elongated cordilleras [ 3 ]. Scientific research has shown that the subduction zone along the northwestern edge of America is one of the most active convergent margins in the world [4–11]. Oblique convergence leads to strain partitioning in thrust and shear components that are, respectively, perpendicular and parallel to the trench [ 12 ] and may give rise to the development of large continental domains bounded by faults. Moreover, convergent continental boundaries may undergo extension adjacent to shortening in fore-arc basins, as seen in Baja California [ 13 , 14 ]. These processes occur in the Ecuadorian Andes ( Figures 1and 2 ), where the North Andean Sliver [ 15 , 16 ] is affected by shortening and extension and displaced northeastward from the South American Plate, favored by the Sensors 2021,21, 4003. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21124003 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors Sensors 2021,21, 4003 2 of 17 Chingual–Cosanga–Pallatanga–Punáfault system [ 16 ] (Figure 1e). In this framework, discussion of the structures that accommodate deformation involving the main active faults and domains of the South American Plate margin in Ecuador has led to different proposals [2,16–18] (Figure 1). Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 displaced northeastward from the South American Plate, favored by the Chingual– Cosanga–Pallatanga–Puná fault system [16] (Figure 1e). In this framework, discussion of the structures that accommodate deformation involving the main active faults and domains of the South American Plate margin in Ecuador has led to different proposals [2,16– 18] (Figure 1). Geodetic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) measurements are widely used for precise monitoring of the velocity vectors in active tectonic areas where seismicity is also located. The pattern of surface strain reflects the behavior of plate boundaries. Thus, the relative motion of the Nazca, Cocos, Caribbean and South America Plates constrains shortening along the northwestern South America Plate boundary [19–25]. Figure 1. Main tectonic domains and structures proposed for the South American Plate margin in Ecuador. (a) Location of the North Andean Domain. (b) Proposal by [17]; Cauca Patia and Romeral Fault, CPRF; Chingual–La Sofía fault, CSF; Sub-Andean Front Fault Zone, SAFFZ. (c) Proposal by [18]; Pallatanga Fault, PF; Río Chingual La Sofía, RCLS; Oriente Fault, OF. (d) Proposal by [16]; Chingual–Cosanga–Pallatanga–Puná Fault Zone, CCPP (Chingual–La Sofía fault, ChL; Cosanga fault, Co; Pallatanga fault, Pa; Puná fault, P); Quito Fault, Q; Latacunga Fault, L. (e) Proposal by [2]; Define different domains according to the description given for oblique convergence tectonics. Borbón Basin, B; Manabí Basin, M; Progreso Basin, P. Figure 1. Main tectonic domains and structures proposed for the South American Plate margin in Ecuador. ( a ) Location of the North Andean Domain. ( b ) Proposal by [ 17 ]; Cauca Patia and Romeral Fault, CPRF; Chingual–La Sofía fault, CSF; Sub-Andean Front Fault Zone, SAFFZ. ( c ) Proposal by [ 18 ]; Pallatanga Fault, PF; Río Chingual La Sofía, RCLS; Oriente Fault, OF. ( d ) Proposal by [ 16 ]; Chingual–Cosanga–Pallatanga–PunáFault Zone, CCPP (Chingual–La Sofía fault, ChL; Cosanga fault, Co; Pallatanga fault, Pa; Punáfault, P); Quito Fault, Q; Latacunga Fault, L. ( e ) Proposal by [ 2 ]; Define different domains according to the description given for oblique convergence tectonics. Borbón Basin, B; ManabíBasin, M; Progreso Basin, P. Sensors 2021,21, 4003 3 of 17 Geodetic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) measurements are widely used for precise monitoring of the velocity vectors in active tectonic areas where seismicity is also located. The pattern of surface strain reflects the behavior of plate boundaries. Thus, the relative motion of the Nazca, Cocos, Caribbean and South America Plates constrains shortening along the northwestern South America Plate boundary [19–25]. The available GPS data in Ecuador from RENAGE and REGME databases [ 26 , 27 ] support regional displacements with respect to the South American Plate, showing in detail the heterogeneous tectonic behavior of each region. Most proposals support northeastward displacement of the North Andean Sliver, considered a main crustal block, as well as the activity of the Chingual–Cosanga–Pallatanga–Punáfault system [ 16 ]. Along the InterAndean Depression this system would form a restraining bend along the central and northern Ecuadorian Andes [17,28]. Along the western South American coastline, including Ecuador (Figure 3), most earthquakes are related to subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate (Figure 1a) [ 8 , 15 , 27 ] including shallow crustal seismicity in the Andes Cordillera and shallow to intermediate seismicity associated with the subducting slab. Since the early twentieth century, Ecuador has been damaged by several major earthquakes. The largest one occurred in 1906, with a magnitude of 8.8 (Mw) and a 500–600 km long break along the coast of Ecuador and Colombia, that caused a large tsunami. It was followed by earthquakes in the same area in 1942 (Mw = 7.8), 1958 (Mw = 7.7), 1979 (Mw = 8.2) and 2016 (Mw = 7.9) [ 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 11 ]. Such a concentration of earthquakes suggests the presence of asperities in the plate rupture [ 8 , 11 , 15 , 27 ] with especial relevance focused on the subduction of the Carnegie Ridge [8,11,29]. The aim of this research is to analyze and discuss the kinematics of the main tectonic features in Ecuador, crossing from the coast, the Ecuadorian Andes up to the Oriente foreland basin, based on the available GPS displacement and seismicity data. The mapping of areas with homogeneous active tectonic behavior allows us to improve our knowledge of the active tectonic deformations patterns and will contribute to improving the seismic hazard studies. 2. Geological Setting 2.1. The Ecuador Continental Margin Ecuador is located in northwestern South America, between latitudes 1 ◦ N and 4 ◦ S, crossed by the NNE-SSW Andes Cordillera (Figure 1), formed by the repeated accretion of allochthonous terranes against the northwestern margin of the South American Plate. Ecuador harbors three predominant structural domains: the coastal region (fore-arc); the Andean region (volcanic arc) and the Oriente Basin (foreland) (Figure 2a). Sensors 2021,21, 4003 4 of 17 Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18 Figure 2. Subdivision regions of Ecuador (a). Simplified geological map of Ecuador, after [30] (b). Inter-Andean Depression, IAD; Puná Fault, P; Pallatanga Fault, Pa; Pallatanga Terrain, PaT; Pujilí Fault, Pu; Chingual–La Sofia Fault, ChL; Cosanga Fault, Co; Salado Fault, S; Macuchi Terrane, MT. The coastal region comprises the NNE–SSW and NW–SE branches of Cordillera Costanera and Chongón–Colonche. In addition, this region includes the Progreso, Manabí and Borbón basins [31,32] (Figure 2b). Allochthonous oceanic terrains were accreted to the continental margin during the Cretaceous [33,34]. Volcano-clastic and turbiditic sequences of latest Cretaceous and Paleogene age were derived from the Macuchi Terrain. Shallow marine sediments were deposited during Oligocene–Miocene, followed by Miocene to Quaternary sub-areal flood plains and alluvial deposits that are coeval with volcanic activity [34–36]. The Andean region (Figure 2) consists of the NNE–SSW Real and Occidental Cordilleras with active volcanoes separated by the Inter-Andean Depression. The Cordillera Real is mostly composed by sub-linear belts of Palaeozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic rocks intruded by S-type and I-type granite bodies [37–39]. The Cordillera Occidental is formed by two accreted oceanic terranes: the Macuchi terrane to the west and the Pallatanga terrane to the east. The Pallatanga terrane consists of early to late Cretaceous oceanic plateau rocks, a probable late Cretaceous tectonic melange and marine turbidites. The Macuchi Figure 2. Subdivision regions of Ecuador ( a ). Simplified geological map of Ecuador, after [ 30 ] ( b ). Inter-Andean Depression, IAD; PunáFault, P; Pallatanga Fault, Pa; Pallatanga Terrain, PaT; Pujilí Fault, Pu; Chingual–La Sofia Fault, ChL; Cosanga Fault, Co; Salado Fault, S; Macuchi Terrane, MT. The coastal region comprises the NNE–SSW and NW–SE branches of Cordillera Costanera and Chongón–Colonche. In addition, this region includes the Progreso, Manabí and Borbón basins [ 31 , 32 ] (Figure 2b). Allochthonous oceanic terrains were accreted to the continental margin during the Cretaceous [ 33 , 34 ]. Volcano-clastic and turbiditic sequences of latest Cretaceous and Paleogene age were derived from the Macuchi Terrain. Shallow marine sediments were deposited during Oligocene–Miocene, followed by Miocene to Quaternary sub-areal flood plains and alluvial deposits that are coeval with volcanic activity [34–36]. The Andean region (Figure 2) consists of the NNE–SSW Real and Occidental Cordilleras with active volcanoes separated by the Inter-Andean Depression. The Cordillera Real is mostly composed by sub-linear belts of Palaeozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic rocks intruded by S-type and I-type granite bodies [ 37 – 39 ]. The Cordillera Occidental is formed by two accreted oceanic terranes: the Macuchi terrane to the west and the Pallatanga terrane to the east. The Pallatanga terrane consists of early to late Cretaceous oceanic plateau rocks, a probable late Cretaceous tectonic melange and marine turbidites. The Macuchi terrane consists of an early Eocene, basaltic to andesitic, volcano sedimentary island arc Sensors 2021,21, 4003 5 of 17 sequence [ 40 – 42 ] (Figure 2). The Interandean Depression is filled by late Miocene–Holocene alluvial fans, fluvial and lacustrine facies, and volcanic deposits up to 1400 m thick [ 28 ] controlled by a fault system [ 17 , 43 – 45 ]. Eastward, the Sub-Andean zone is formed by Jurassic to Oligocene–Early Miocene metasedimentary rocks, overlying a Jurassic granitic batholith [37,39]. The Oriente Basin is formed by the Precambrian Guyana shield basement overlain by Paleozoic marine sediments, Triassic–Jurassic marine and continental rift deposits and Late Jurassic volcanoclastic sediments [ 46 ]. These, in turn, are unconformably overlain by a shallow marine to continental Cretaceous sedimentary series [ 46 – 48 ], and Paleogene and Neogene to Recent continental and shallow marine sediments [47]. Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18 500 km [4,52]; in 1942 (Mw = 7.8); in 1958 (Mw = 7.7); in 1979 (Mw = 8.2) [4,8,10] and 2016 (Mw = 7.8) [11]. Figure 3. Seismicity distribution in Ecuador. The focal mechanisms associate the possible rupture zone. (a) Epicenters from the unified earthquake catalog 1976–2009. The main catastrophic historical earthquakes are indicated. (b) Depth distribution of earthquakes with >5 Mw. Data from Instituto Geofísico of Ecuador, after [49]. 3. GPS Data in Ecuador The first regional GPS research to provide direct measurements of displacement was carried out from 1988 to 1998 under the CASA project (Central and South America). They evidence that motions are due to the relative displacements of the Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca and South American plates, supporting that subduction at the western margin of North Andean Sliver is oblique at present [18,19,24]. Moreover, the CASA GPS data evidence a partitioning of continental deformation that is highly controlled by the diverging motion of two continental slivers: the Inca Sliver in northern Perú and southern Ecuador Figure 3. Seismicity distribution in Ecuador. The focal mechanisms associate the possible rupture zone. ( a ) Epicenters from the unified earthquake catalog 1976–2009. The main catastrophic historical earthquakes are indicated. ( b ) Depth distribution of earthquakes with >5 Mw. Data from Instituto Geofísico of Ecuador, after [49]. Sensors 2021,21, 4003 6 of 17 2.2. Recent Tectonic Structures The tectonics of Ecuador is influenced by three main tectonic elements: The Nazca and South America plates and the North Andean Sliver located in between (Figure 1a). Moreover, seismicity and volcanism show a high degree of segmentation along the strike of the Andes Cordillera due to the subduction of Carnegie Ridge [8,29]. The geodynamics of the North Andean Sliver is controlled through the Pallatanga Fault [ 40 ]. This fault system extends east of the Gulf of Guayaquil [ 43 ] up to the InterAndean Depression. There are different proposals regarding the detailed structure of the fault system. The authors of [ 17 ] hold that Cauca Patia and Romeral faults reach the margin of the Cordillera Occidental, and that the Pallatanga fault is located along the Inter-Andean Depression. The Chingual–La Sofia fault furthermore affects the Cordillera Real and Sub Andean front (Figure 1b). The authors of [ 18 ] confirm the presence of the Pallatanga fault, but modify the trace of the Chingual–La Sofia Fault, extending it toward the western border of the Cordillera Real, forming a boundary with the Inter-Andean Depression ( Figure 1 c). The authors of [ 16 ] propose the continuity of the Chingual–Cosanga–Pallatanga–Puná fault zone, which represents the best-developed fault zone in Ecuador, over 800 km long ( Figure 1 d). The Inter-Andean Depression is deformed by Quito and Latacunga N–Soriented fault zones, curved westward up to NNE–SSW and apparently rooted in the Pujilí Suture zone (Figure 1d). A new geodynamic model for oblique convergence tectonics of Ecuador [ 2 ], considers three main fault segments: (a) the Romeral-Cauca–Patia domain (formed by the Quito and Latacunga fault zone in Ecuador and El Angel fault system in Colombia), (b) the North Andean fault zone that encompasses strike-slip and reverse faults (includes four segments: the Chingual–Cosanga–Pallatanga and Punáfault) and (c) the Andean foreland, subdivided in Napo, Cutucúand the Moyobamba fault zones at the boundary with the South American Plate (Figure 1e). 2.3. Seismicity The region has undergone numerous earthquakes in historical and instrumental periods [ 49 ] (Figure 3). Local seismic station coverage is dense enough to allow for determination of hypocentral depths [ 49 , 50 ] and earthquake focal mechanisms [ 50 , 51 ]. Regional seismicity shows a heterogeneous distribution, including shallow and intermediate seismicity reaching roughly 200 km depth related to the subduction of the Nazca Plate below the North Andean Sliver and South American Plate (Figure 3). In Andes Cordillera, the shallow seismicity extends from Cordillera Occidental up to the Sub-Andean zone. Southward in the Ecuadorian Andes, the seismicity is distributed over a broad area including intermediate seismicity in the foreland Oriente Basin. Another seismicity band is located parallel to the coast close to the subduction trench. The continental margin in Ecuador undergoing active subduction has a seismic segmentation most likely caused by deep transverse faults [ 8 ]. Five main catastrophic historical earthquakes occurred in this region: in 1906, with Mw = 8.8 and a breaking length of 500 km [ 4 , 52 ]; in 1942 (Mw = 7.8); in 1958 (Mw = 7.7); in 1979 (Mw = 8.2) [ 4 , 8 , 10 ] and 2016 (Mw = 7.8) [11]. 3. GPS Data in Ecuador The first regional GPS research to provide direct measurements of displacement was carried out from 1988 to 1998 under the CASA project (Central and South America). They evidence that motions are due to the relative displacements of the Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca and South American plates, supporting that subduction at the western margin of North Andean Sliver is oblique at present [ 18 , 19 , 24 ]. Moreover, the CASA GPS data evidence a partitioning of continental deformation that is highly controlled by the diverging motion of two continental slivers: the Inca Sliver in northern Perúand southern Ecuador and the North Andean Sliver in Ecuador and Colombia [ 15 ]. These relative motions are linked to the sequence of great earthquakes during the last century [ 10 , 11 , 15 , 18 , 53 , 54 ]. The GPS studies Sensors 2021,21, 4003 7 of 17 evidence in addition the creep character of active faults in the Andes [ 55 ], accommodating deformation and decreasing their related seismicity. GPS data in Ecuador were obtained from non-permanent stations of the RENAGE network [ 26 ] installed by the IGM (Ecuadorian Military Geographical Institute). This network has 135 sites throughout Ecuador, and measurements go back to 1994, 1996 and 1998. The Reference Frame corresponds to SIRGAS95, ITRF94, reference time 1995.4. The network used in this research comprises 24 CGPS stations of REGME and 87 nonpermanent sites measured over 15 years, from April 1995 to January 2011 (Figure 4). Twenty-four non-permanent stations were discarded because they do not allow enough GPS measures to establish the calculation of rates. The Station Position at epoch 2011.0 and velocity were estimated with GAMIT/GLOBK software [ 56 ], expressed in the IGS08 reference frame (Table 1). The residual velocity field was computed with respect to the South American fixed reference frame (Figure 4, Table 1). Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18 Figure 4. Velocity field of continental Ecuador, considering the South American stable plate reference. Error ellipses of 95% confidence. Modified from [26]. Locations of profiles 1 and 2 of Figure 5 are indicated. 4. Tectonic Displacements from GPS Data Residual velocity vectors with respect to the stable South American Plate are heterogeneous, generally with an E to ENE trend. They have greater magnitude by the coast, reaching up to 36 mm/yr, then decreasing towards the Andean region and the Oriente Basin as well as in the Inca Sliver (Figure 4). The Oriente Basin is characterized by low magnitude displacements, ENE to SE (AHUA, 3.9 mm/yr; LUMD, 3.5 mm/yr; SNTI, 4.3 mm; MONT, 1.8 mm/yr; PUYO, 3.5 mm/yr; AUCA, 2.3 mm/yr; LORO, 1.7 mm/yr and HENO, 2.2 mm/yr), of variable trend, that in general have an eastward component. The anomalous high TETE rate (16.6 mm/yr) is considered to be a local effect (Figure 4). In the Andes cordillera, most displacements have an eastward component, yet with variable trends and magnitudes. In the northern part, between 1°30′ S and 0°45′ N, the displacement has a homogeneous ENE trend, though magnitude varies (JER1, 8.9 mm/yr; LITS, 13.4 mm/yr; TURI, 14.5 mm/yr; PAPA, 9.9 mm/yr; LITA, 12.3 mm/yr; UNGU, 12.1 mm/yr; CUEL, 12.5 mm/yr; LANCH, 10.1 mm/yr; RETU, 10.0 mm/yr; CONE, 7.9 mm/yr; LATA, 9.3 mm/yr; RIOP, 5.3 mm/yr; REVE, 4.0 mm/yr) (Figure 4). However, south of 1°30′ S, the trends change to SSE and the rates are lower (TOTO, 5.7 mm/yr; ZHUD, 6.0 mm/yr; GUAQ, 4.5 mm/yr; ZAMO, 4.5 mm/yr; CAJA, 5.1 mm/yr; GONZ, 4.0 mm/yr; CUEC, 4.5 mm/yr; HONA 3.8 mm/yr and LJEC, 4.5 mm/yr). Figure 4. Velocity field of continental Ecuador, considering the South American stable plate reference. Error ellipses of 95% confidence. Modified from [26]. Locations of profiles 1 and 2 of Figure 5are indicated. Sensors 2021,21, 4003 8 of 17 Table 1. Absolute velocities in North and East components from GPS position time series in IGS08 frame, epoch 2011.0 and 1σ uncertainties. Residual velocities with respect to South America fixed reference frame. Geodetic Coordinates (deg.) Velocity (mm/yr) Uncertainty (mm/yr) Residual Velocity (mm/yr) Station Lat. (N) Long (E) VEast VNorth sVEast sVNorth VrEast VrNorth 3009 0.9890 − 79.6265 14.6 15.3 0.5 0.3 19.5 6.2 AHUA −1.0610 − 77.5500 −0.8 8.9 0.9 0.4 3.8 −0.6 AMAL −4.5812 − 79.4266 0.1 7.1 0.8 0.4 4.2 −2.1 ANCO −2.3296 − 80.8947 4.6 13.0 1.0 0.5 9.1 4.1 AREN −3.5591 − 80.0685 1.5 7.7 1.5 0.9 5.8 −1.4 AU14 −0.7301 − 76.8867 −2.4 9.0 1.2 0.6 2.3 −0.5 AUCA −0.6408 − 76.8827 −3.4 7.5 1.2 0.9 1.2 −2.0 AYAN −1.9885 − 80.7569 8.6 12.4 1.8 0.9 13.1 3.4 BALZ −1.3675 − 79.9086 6.0 9.5 3.5 1.8 10.6 0.4 BILB −1.4466 − 78.5016 −4.4 6.9 1.1 0.7 0.1 −2.3 BUFE −0.8771 − 79.4884 2.3 11.6 4.1 1.8 6.9 2.5 CABP −0.3865 − 80.4287 12.9 12.3 0.9 1.0 17.6 3.3 CAJA −2.7531 − 79.2370 0.5 7.8 0.9 0.5 4.9 −1.4 CAME −0.6797 − 78.5063 5.1 10.7 1.0 0.4 9.8 1.4 CAPA −0.3689 − 80.4732 20.8 12.9 1.4 0.4 25.6 3.9 CASI −0.0366 − 78.4802 6.9 11.4 2.0 1.0 11.7 2.1 CATE 0.0002 − 78.4284 5.7 9.3 1.6 0.7 10.5 0.0 CHIS −1.0531 − 80.7284 11.2 15.2 0.6 0.4 15.8 6.2 CHON −1.4331 − 78.4632 1.1 9.7 0.9 0.4 5.6 0.5 CLPI −3.2549 − 79.3200 0.0 5.9 3.5 1.9 4.3 −3.2 CNJO 0.2381 − 76.8447 −2.8 9.5 1.5 0.7 2.0 0.0 CONE −0.6600 − 78.4137 3.2 10.3 0.6 0.4 7.9 1.0 CORA −1.1381 − 79.0792 2.3 10.8 1.6 0.8 6.9 1.6 CORE −0.3278 − 78.5241 5.5 10.9 1.4 0.6 10.3 1.6 CUEC −2.8833 − 79.0025 −0.3 7.3 0.8 0.6 4.1 −2.0 CUEL 0.3895 − 78.5328 7.7 8.8 1.4 0.7 12.5 −0.5 CUER −2.3587 − 79.5328 1.0 12.1 1.3 0.7 5.4 3.0 DAUL −1.8766 − 79.9955 6.2 12.1 4.8 2.0 10.6 3.0 DESV −1.0405 − 79.9240 6.4 12.6 0.7 0.4 11.0 3.5 ELCH −0.3345 − 77.8064 −0.8 10.2 0.7 0.4 3.9 0.8 FLFR −0.3574 − 79.8427 10.5 11.0 0.9 0.8 15.2 1.9 FRAN −3.0078 − 79.0431 −3.6 11.8 2.7 1.6 0.7 2.6 GONZ −4.2264 − 79.4307 −0.7 7.1 0.7 0.4 3.5 −2.1 GPH1 −2.7372 − 79.9112 1.8 10.9 2.0 1.1 6.2 1.9 GUAQ −3.8304 − 79.5748 −4.9 4.7 3.4 1.8 −0.6 −4.4 GYEC −2.1494 − 79.8919 4.4 13.8 0.8 0.7 8.9 4.7 HENO −0.1319 − 76.6490 −2.6 9.0 1.7 0.7 2.1 −0.5 HONA −3.4765 − 79.1599 −0.8 7.6 0.6 0.4 3.5 −1.6 HUAC −0.7073 − 77.8049 0.2 8.2 0.9 0.5 4.9 −1.2 IGMV −0.2151 − 78.4936 7.0 9.3 1.5 0.7 11.7 0.0 IGNA −0.4509 − 78.7519 5.6 11.8 0.7 0.4 10.3 2.5 ISPT −1.2621 − 81.0736 31.1 14.8 1.0 0.5 35.6 5.9 JER1 −0.0054 − 78.3580 3.9 11.6 1.9 0.9 8.6 2.2 JERU −0.0056 − 78.3580 5.0 11.7 0.6 0.3 9.8 2.4 JICA −2.2718 − 79.9039 4.0 12.8 1.5 0.8 8.4 3.7 JUJA −1.8943 − 79.5539 5.0 12.6 1.3 0.6 9.5 3.4 LACH 0.1610 − 78.4200 5.0 11.9 5.0 2.4 9.7 2.6 LATA −0.8139 − 78.6265 4.5 10.8 0.5 0.3 9.2 1.5 LCOL −0.2499 − 79.2037 8.4 11.6 0.7 0.4 13.1 2.5 LGCB 0.3821 − 79.5753 12.1 12.5 0.8 0.5 16.9 3.3 LIBE −2.2191 − 80.9051 7.6 10.4 1.6 1.0 12.0 1.5 LITA 0.7263 − 78.2187 7.2 12.0 2.1 1.4 12.0 2.7 Sensors 2021,21, 4003 9 of 17 Table 1. Cont. Geodetic Coordinates (deg.) Velocity (mm/yr) Uncertainty (mm/yr) Residual Velocity (mm/yr) Station Lat. (N) Long (E) VEast VNorth sVEast sVNorth VrEast VrNorth LITS 0.8702 − 78.4480 8.3 11.7 0.6 0.3 13.2 2.4 LJEC −3.9883 − 79.1985 −0.7 6.2 2.9 0.8 3.5 −2.9 LORO −1.6132 − 75.9869 −5.1 11.3 1.7 0.8 −0.5 1.6 LUMD 0.0083 − 77.3222 −1.3 9.6 1.0 0.4 3.5 0.2 MACH −3.2565 − 79.9685 1.8 9.3 1.8 1.0 6.1 0.2 MALD 1.0701 − 78.9089 6.7 9.5 7.9 4.0 11.6 0.3 MANT −0.9366 − 80.6712 11.8 12.6 3.0 1.6 16.5 3.6 MARI −0.0496 − 76.2951 −2.7 8.6 6.2 2.8 2.0 −1.0 MEND −2.7175 − 78.3196 0.1 7.6 1.0 0.5 4.5 −1.7 MINA −0.9632 − 80.2788 5.6 12.5 1.2 0.6 10.3 3.5 MIRA −0.2704 − 78.5089 5.4 10.1 1.4 0.7 10.1 0.8 MIRD −0.5827 − 79.1640 3.0 14.3 2.2 1.1 7.7 5.1 MOCA −1.1871 − 79.5091 5.1 11.9 0.9 0.5 9.7 2.8 MONT −2.0673 − 76.9808 −2.7 9.6 1.5 0.7 1.8 0.1 MORU −0.7253 − 78.4591 4.2 11.1 0.8 0.5 8.8 1.8 MUIS 0.6045 − 80.0238 15.2 13.9 0.5 0.3 20.0 4.9 NARI −3.1413 − 79.5365 −1.0 7.9 1.0 0.5 3.3 −1.2 OYAM −0.2034 − 78.3285 0.5 19.6 10.0 4.8 5.3 10.3 PAJA −1.5541 − 80.4283 7.3 12.1 2.3 1.2 11.9 3.1 PANE −0.2291 − 78.5183 2.2 13.9 12.0 6.9 6.9 4.7 PAPA −0.3809 − 78.1405 4.1 13.7 0.6 0.3 8.8 4.4 PDNS 0.1114 − 79.9910 13.9 14.2 0.9 0.7 18.7 5.2 PINT −0.4201 − 78.3556 5.9 14.2 4.9 2.2 10.6 4.8 POSO −2.7102 − 80.2434 3.3 8.2 4.6 2.4 7.6 −0.8 PPRT −0.1253 − 80.2165 15.4 15.7 0.8 0.5 20.1 6.7 PROG −2.4108 − 80.3654 5.4 11.9 0.7 0.4 9.8 2.9 PTEC −1.0580 − 80.4746 7.8 13.1 3.1 2.0 12.4 4.1 PTGL 0.7815 − 80.0304 18.9 14.1 1.0 0.6 23.8 5.0 PTQT 0.1230 − 79.2520 11.0 9.6 2.3 1.5 15.8 0.4 PUEB −1.5589 − 79.5307 5.7 10.2 1.0 0.5 10.2 1.1 PUYO −1.5048 − 78.0640 −1.5 7.7 1.0 0.5 3.1 −1.6 QNDE 0.3275 − 79.4755 10.9 11.1 0.7 0.4 15.7 2.0 QUEM −0.2371 − 78.4973 8.1 11.4 0.8 0.4 12.9 2.1 QUI1 −0.2152 − 78.4936 7.2 10.8 0.3 0.2 12.0 1.6 REDO 0.3044 − 78.0462 1.3 10.5 2.6 1.2 6.1 1.1 RETU −1.4518 − 78.4424 5.4 9.6 2.2 0.8 10.0 0.3 REVE −0.0473 − 77.5268 −1.3 7.3 0.7 0.4 3.4 −2.1 RIOB −1.7007 − 78.5912 3.1 6.2 3.1 1.4 7.6 −3.1 RIOP −1.6506 − 78.6511 −0.6 5.7 0.5 0.2 3.9 −3.6 RVRD 1.0676 − 79.3851 16.2 14.3 1.0 0.5 21.1 5.1 SABA −1.8409 − 80.2230 4.1 10.6 0.9 0.5 8.6 1.5 SALN −2.1862 − 80.9908 8.8 12.2 1.2 0.8 13.3 3.3 SBAR 0.6463 − 77.5248 0.7 12.5 0.9 0.4 5.6 3.1 SCHA −0.3264 − 76.9125 −5.5 9.1 3.1 1.3 −0.8 −0.4 SFCO 1.0915 − 78.7012 7.4 13.6 5.6 2.6 12.3 4.3 SNLR 1.2925 − 78.8470 10.2 8.8 1.5 1.3 15.2 −0.4 SNTI −3.0495 − 78.0102 −0.8 6.9 1.2 0.5 3.5 −2.4 SRAM −0.6100 − 79.5607 8.2 11.2 3.9 1.9 12.9 2.1 STAA −1.1827 − 80.3872 4.0 12.1 0.8 0.4 8.6 3.1 TAMB −0.6872 − 78.4011 3.2 10.4 0.8 0.3 7.9 1.1 TETE 0.1769 − 76.5329 11.8 10.3 6.6 1.8 16.6 0.7 TOLA 1.2103 − 79.0454 11.4 10.8 0.7 0.4 16.3 1.6 TOTO −2.2569 − 78.6728 0.7 6.8 0.6 0.3 5.1 −2.5 TULC 0.8120 − 77.7053 2.8 12.2 0.8 0.4 7.7 2.8 Sensors 2021,21, 4003 16 of 17 15. Nocquet, J.M.; Villegas-Lanza, J.C.; Chlieh, M.; Mothes, P.A.; Rolandone, F.; Jarrin, P.; Cisneros, D.; Alvarado, A.; Bondoux, F.; Vallée, M.; et al. Motion of continental slivers and creeping subduction in the northern Andes. Nat. Geosci. 2014 ,7, 287–291. [CrossRef] 16. Alvarado, A.; Audin, L.; Nocquet, J.M.; Jaillard, E.; Mothes, P.; Jarrín, P.; Segovia, M.; Rolandone, F.; Cisneros, D. Partitioning of oblique convergence in the Northern Andes subduction zone: Migration history and the present-day boundary of the North Andean Sliver in Ecuador. Tectonics 2016,35, 1048–1065. [CrossRef] 17. Ego, F.; Sébrier, M.; Yepes, H. Is the Cauca-Patia and Romeral Fault System left or rightlateral? Geophys. Res. Lett. 1995 ,22, 33–36. [CrossRef] 18. White, S.M.; Trenkamp, R.; Kellogg, J.N. Recent crustal deformation and the earthquake cycle along the Ecuador–Colombia subduction zone. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2003,216, 231–242. [CrossRef] 19. Freymueller, J.T.; Kellogg, J.N.; Vega, V. Plate motions in the North Andean region. J. Geophys. Res. 1993 ,98, 21853–21863. [CrossRef] 20. Kellogg, J.N.; Vega, V. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America; Geological Society of America Special Paper 295; Geological Society of America: Boulder, CO, USA, 1995. 21. Kendrick, E.C.; Bevis, M.; Smalley, R.F.; Cifuentes, O.; Galban, F. Current rates of convergence across the central Andes: Estimates from continuous GPS observations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1999,26, 541–544. [CrossRef] 22. Norabuena, E.O.; Dixon, T.H.; Stein, S.; Harrison, C.G. Decelerating Nazca-South America and Nazca-Pacific plate motions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1999,26, 3405–3408. [CrossRef] 23. Kendrick, E.; Bevis, M.; Smalley, R.; Brooks, B. An integrated crustal velocity field for the central Andes. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 2001,2. [CrossRef] 24. Trenkamp, R.; Kellogg, J.N.; Freymueller, J.T.; Mora, H.P. Wide plate margin deformation, southern Central America and northwestern South America, CASA GPS observations. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 2002,15, 157–171. [CrossRef] 25. Kendrick, E.; Bevis, M.; Smalley, R.; Brooks, B.; Vargas, R.B.; Laurıa, E.; Fortes, L.P.S. The Nazca–South America Euler vector and its rate of change. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 2003,16, 125–131. [CrossRef] 26. Cisneros, D.; Nocquet, J.M. Campo de velocidades del Ecuador, obtenido a través de Mediciones de Campañas GPS de los últimos 15 años y medidas de una Red GPS Permanente. Rev. Geoespac. 2011,9, 30–49. 27. Staller, A.; Álvarez-Gómez, J.A.; Luna, M.P.; Béjar-Pizarro, M.; Gaspar-Escribano, J.M.; Martínez-Cuevas, S. Crustal motion and deformation in Ecuador from cGNSS time series. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 2018,86, 94–109. [CrossRef] 28. Winkler, W.; Villagomez, D.; Spikings, R.; Abegglen, P.; Egüez, A. The Chota basin and its significance for the inception and tectonic setting of the inter-Andean depression in Ecuador. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 2005,19, 5–19. [CrossRef] 29. Gutscher, M.A.; Malavieille, J.; Lallemand, S.; Collot, J.Y. Tectonic segmentation of the North Andean margin: Impact of the Carnegie Ridge collision. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1999,168, 255–270. [CrossRef] 30. INIGEMM. Mapa Geológico de Ecuador; INIGEMM: Quito, Ecuador, 2014. 31. Deniaud, Y.; Baby, P.; Basile, C.; Ordoñez, M.; Mascle, G.; Montenegro, G. Neogene evolution of the main Ecuadorian forearc sedimentary basins and sediment mass-balance inferences. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Andean Geodynamics, Gottingen, Germany, 4–6 October 1999; pp. 201–205. 32. Witt, C.; Bourgois, J.; Michaud, F.; Ordoñez, M.; Jiménez, N.; Sosson, M. Development of the Gulf of Guayaquil (Ecuador) during the Quaternary as an effect of the North Andean block tectonic escape. Tectonics 2006,25. [CrossRef] 33. Feininger, T.; Bristow, C.R. Cretaceous and Paleogene geologic history of coastal Ecuador. Geol. Rundsch. 1980 ,69, 849–874. [CrossRef] 34. Reynaud, C.; Jaillard, É.; Lapierre, H.; Mamberti, M.; Mascle, G.H. Oceanic plateau and island arcs of southwestern Ecuador: Their place in the geodynamic evolution of northwestern South America. Tectonophysics 1999,307, 235–254. [CrossRef] 35. Daly, M. Correlations between Nazca/Farallon plate kinematics and forearc basin evolution in Ecuador. Tectonics 1989 ,8, 769–790. [CrossRef] 36. Jaillard, E.; Ordoñez, M.; Benitez, S.; Berrones, G.; Jiménez, N.; Montenegro, G.; Zambrano, I. Basin development in an accretionary, oceanic-floored fore-arc setting: Southern coastal Ecuador during late Cretaceous-late Eocene time. In Petroleum Basins of South America, AAPG Memoir 62; Tankard, A.J., Suárez, S.R., Welsink, H.J., Eds.; AAPG: Tulsa, OK, USA, 1995; pp. 615–631. 37. Aspden, J.A.; Litherland, M. The geology and Mesozoic collisional history of the Cordillera Real, Ecuador. Tectonophysics 1992 , 205, 187–204. [CrossRef] 38. Aspden, J.A.; Fortey, N.; Litherland, M.; Viteri, F.; Harrison, S.M. Regional S-type granites in the Ecuadorian Andes: Possible remnants of the breakup of western Gondwana. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 1992,6, 123–132. [CrossRef] 39. Litherland, M.; Aspden, J.A.; Jemielita, R.A. The Metamorphic Belts of Ecuador, British Geological Survey, Overseas Memoir 11; British Geological Survey: Keyworth, UK, 1994; Volume 147. 40. Hughes, R.; Pilatasig, L. Cretaceous and Tertiary terrane accretion in the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes of Ecuador. Tectonophysics 2002,345, 29–48. [CrossRef] 41. Jaillard, E.; Ordonez, M.; Suarez, J.; Toro, J.; Iza, D.; Lugo, W. Stratigraphy of the late Cretaceous–Paleogene deposits of the Cordillera Occidental of central Ecuador: Geodynamic implications. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 2004,17, 49–58. [CrossRef] 42. Vallejo, C.; Winkler, W.; Spikings, R.A.; Luzieux, L.; Heller, F.; Bussy, F. Mode and timing of terrane accretion in the forearc of the Andes in Ecuador. Geol. Soc. Am. 2009,204, 197–216. Sensors 2021,21, 4003 17 of 17 43. Winter, T.; Avouac, J.P.; Lavenu, A. Late Quaternary kinematics of the Pallatanga strike-slip fault (Central Ecuador) from topographic measurements of displaced morphological features. Geophys. J. Int. 1993,115, 905–920. [CrossRef] 44. Lavenu, A.; Winter, T.; Dávila, F. A Pliocene–Quaternary compressional basin in the Interandean Depression, central Ecuador. Geophys. J. Int. 1995,121, 279–300. [CrossRef] 45. Fiorini, E.; Tibaldi, A. Quaternary tectonics in the central Interandean Valley, Ecuador: Fault-propagation folds, transfer faults and the Cotopaxi Volcano. Glob. Planet. Chang. 2012,90, 87–103. [CrossRef] 46. Jaillard, E.; Caron, M.; Dhondt, A.; Ordoñez, M.; Andrade, R.; Bengtson, P.; Henri, C.; Davila, C.; Diaz, R.; Huacho, J.; et al. Síntesis Estratigráfica y Sedimentológica del Cretáceo y Paleógeno de la Cuenca Oriental del Ecuador; Orstom-Petroproduccion Publication: Quito, Ecuador, 1997. 47. Baby, P.; Rivadeneira, M.; Christophoul, F.; Barragan, R. Style and timing of deformation in the Oriente Basin of Ecuador. In Fourth International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics; University of Goettingen: Goettingen, Germany, 1999; pp. 68–72. 48. Barragan, R.; Baby, P. A Cretaceous hot spot in the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin: Geochemical, geochronological, tectonic indicators. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium Andean Geodynamics, Gottingen, Germany, 4–6 October 1999; pp. 77–80. 49. Beauval, C.; Yepes, H.; Palacios, P.; Segovia, M.; Alvarado, A.; Font, Y.; Aguilar, J.; Troncoso, L.; Vaca, S. An earthquake catalog for seismic hazard assessment in Ecuador. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2013,103, 773–786. [CrossRef] 50. Segovia, M.; Alvarado, A. Breve Análisis de la Sismicidad y del Campo de Esfuerzos en el Ecuador. In Geologia y Geofisica Marina y Terrestre del Ecuador: Desde la Costa Continental Hasta las Islas Galapagos; Collot, J.Y., Sallares, V., Pazmino, N., Eds.; INOCAR: Guayaquil, Ecuador, 2009; pp. 131–149. 51. Bethoux, N.; Segovia, M.; Alvarez, V.; Collot, J.Y.; Charvis, P.; Gailler, A. Seismological study of the central Ecuadorian margin: Evidence of upper plate deformation. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 2011,31, 139–152. [CrossRef] 52. Kelleher, J.A. Rupture zones of large South American earthquakes and some predictions. J. Geophys. Res. 1972 ,77, 2087–2103. [CrossRef] 53. Rolandone, F.; Nocquet, J.M.; Mothes, P.A.; Jarrin, P.; Hernandez, S. Early postseismic deformation following the 2016 Mw7. 8 Pedernales earthquake, Ecuador from GPS data. In AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts; American Geophysical Union: Washington, WA, USA, 2016; p. T51E-2980. 54. Tsang, L.L.; Vergnolle, M.; Twardzik, C.; Sladen, A.; Nocquet, J.M.; Rolandone, F.; Mothes, P. Imaging rapid early afterslip of the 2016 Pedernales earthquake, Ecuador. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2019,524, 115724. [CrossRef] 55. Marinière, J.; Nocquet, J.M.; Beauval, C.; Champenois, J.; Audin, L.; Alvarado, A.; Socquet, A. Geodetic evidence for shallow creep along the Quito fault, Ecuador. Geophys. J. Int. 2020,220, 2039–2055. [CrossRef] 56. King, R.W.; Bock, Y. Documentation for the MIT GPS Analysis Software GAMIT; Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1991. 57. Egüez, A.; Alvarado, A.; Yepes, H.; Machette, M.; Costa, C.; Dart, R. Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Ecuador and Its Offshore Regions; A Project of the International Lithosphere Program Task Group II-2, Major Active Faults of the World, Open-File Report 03-289; USGS: Reston, VA, USA, 2003.