From Consumers to Energy Citizens : Finns' Readiness for Demand Response and Prosumerism in Energy Policy Making

F om consume s o ene gy ci izens: Finns’ eadiness o demand esponse and p osume ism in ene gy policy making Ilkka Ruos e saa i Facul y o Managemen and Business, Tampe e Uni e si y, Tampe e, Finland Abs ac Pu pose –The pu pose o his pape is o es he e ec s o ci izens’suppo o wo i al and opposing concep ions o poli ical in ol emen , poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy, on hei a i udes abou demand esponse (flexible consump ion) and p osume ism (sel -p oduc ion) in he con ex o making o Finnish ene gy policy. S eal h democ acy ep esen s an es ablished iew on he ole o ci izens in ene gy policy making: he ene gy sec o has adi ionally been p esen ed as a echnoc a ic domain ese ed o expe s and businessmen. By con as , poli ical consume ism can be seen as an exp ession o “ene gy democ acy”. Design/me hodology/app oach –The da a is based on a pos al su ey and an in e ne su ey ha we e conduc ed in 2016 among a andom sample ep esen ing Finns who we e be ween 18 and 75 yea s. The dependence o he suppo o demand esponse and p osume ism on he endo semen o poli ical consume ismand s eal h democ acy will be es ed s a is ically (Pea sonchi-squa e). Findings –The endo semen o demand esponse mainly depended s a is ically on ci izens’a i udes owa ds poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy. Howe e , compa ing elec ici y p ices and changing elec ici y supplie s did no depend on adhe ence o poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy. Ne e heless, in hese cases, suppo was highe among he suppo e s o poli ical consume ism han among suppo e s o s eal h democ acy. By con as , he endo semen o p osume ism, o ins ance, in e ms o ac o s ha influence ci izens’decisions o in es in elec ici y gene a ion in hei households, depended s a is ically on ci izens’a i udes on poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy. Resea ch limi a ions/implica ions –I migh be ha he a iables used in his s udy o measu e s eal h democ acy a e no specific enough. Mo e gene ally, Finns’willingness o suppo o s eal h democ acy may be based on o a leas encou aged by he misunde s andings o democ a ic poli ics: mo e in o ma ion is needed on he le el o knowledge ha ci izens ha e abou no ma i e p inciples o democ a ic decision-making p ocesses. P ac ical implica ions –The implica ion o his s udy o ene gy policy making is ha he e a e (a leas in Finland) good p econdi ions o de eloping a decen alized ene gy sys em: ci izens a e eady o adop a mo e ac i e ole as ene gy ci izens in e ms o demand esponse and p osume ism –i espec i e o hei © Ilkka Ruos e saa i. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce, dis ibu e, ansla e and c ea e de i a i e wo ks o his a icle ( o bo h comme cial & non-comme cial pu poses), subjec o ull a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o his licence may be seen a h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/legalcode This s udy has been unded by he S a egic Resea ch Council a he Academy o Finland, P ojec “T ansi ion o a esou ce efficien and clima e neu al elec ici y sys em (EL-TRAN)”, G an Numbe 293437. Demand esponse and p osume ism Recei ed 13 No embe 2019 Re ised 30 Janua y 2020 20 Feb ua y 2020 2 Ma ch 2020 Accep ed 25 Ma ch 2020 In e na ional Jou nal o Ene gy Sec o Managemen Eme ald Publishing Limi ed 1750-6220 DOI 10.1108/IJESM-11-2019-0001 The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a : h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /1750-6220.h m a i udes on mac o-le el a i udes on go e nmen al ins i u ions. Democ a iza ion o he ene gy sys em could s eng hen he legi imacy o ene gy policy making. Social implica ions –Ci izens’a i udes indica e ha hei po en ial o in ol emen needs o be s eng hened in he spi i o ene gy democ acy: he idea o ene gy democ acy needs o be seen in e ms o he demand o inc eased accoun abili y and democ a iza ion o he ene gy sec o ha was p e iously no seen as equi ing public in ol emen and was mos o en depoli icized and domina ed by echnoc a s. Howe e , s eng hening ene gy democ acy h ough demand esponse and p osume ism is no wi hou i s p oblems: u iliza ion o hese de ices equi es a ela i ely la ge amoun o esou ces which depend on he indi iduals’ socio-economic posi ion. Thus, ene gy democ acy canno eplace bu complemen elec o al pa icipa ion as a o m o ene gy policy in ol emen . O iginali y/ alue –The con ibu ion o his s udy is o fill a pa o he esea ch gap linking o ongoing ene gy ansi ions. As a socio- echnical ansi ion can ake place only i ci izens suppo and pa icipa e in i , we need o be e unde s and ci izens’a i udes on ene gy consump ion and p oduc ion and ene gy policy in ol emen . Ci izens’a i udes on ene gy p oduc ion and consump ion a e becoming mo e and mo e c i ical o managing he ene gy sec o as a esul o ha he sha e o wind powe and sola powe is inc easing in he ene gy sys em. In a decen alized ene gy sys em, ci izens ha e o be p epa ed o change hei modes o ope a ion. To he bes o he au ho s’knowledge, he o iginali y o his s udy is o es he impac o ci izens’ poli ical a i udes on he endo semen o demand esponse and p osume ism. Keywo ds Ene gy p oduc ion, Renewable ene gies, Demand-side managemen , Powe pu chase ag eemen s Pape ype Resea ch pape In oduc ion Pu pose o he s udy Modes o di ec ci izen in ol emen such as e e endums, ci ic ini ia i es, delibe a i e democ acy, online democ acy and poli ical consume ism (poli ical in ol emen h ough consump ion choices) ha e been in oduced in p ac ice in many coun ies. A common denomina o unde lying hese di ec modes o poli ical in ol emen is a con ic ion ha people would pa icipa e mo e ac i ely i hey we e o e ed mo e e ec i e ways o be poli ically in ol ed. Howe e , his iewpoin has been challenged by he heo y o s eal h democ acy which a gues ha people wan o wi hd aw om poli ics. They do no wan o make poli ical decisions hemsel es, and hey do no wan o p o ide much inpu o hose who a e assigned omake hese decisions (Hibbing and Theiss-Mo se, 2005). The pu pose o his s udy is o es he e ec s o ci izens’suppo o wo i al and opposing concep ions o poli ical in ol emen , poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy, on hei a i udes abou demand esponse (flexible consump ion) and p osume ism (sel -p oduc ion) in he con ex o making o Finnish ene gy policy. S eal h democ acy ep esen s an es ablished iew on he ole o ci izens in ene gy policy making: he ene gy sec o has adi ionally been p esen ed as a echnoc a ic domain ese ed o expe s and businessmen (Szulecki, 2017). By con as , poli ical consume ism can be seen as an exp ession o “ene gy democ acy” ha Szulecki (2017, p. 35) has defined “as an ideal poli ical goal, in which he ci izens a e he ecipien s, s akeholde s (as consume s/p oduce s) and accoun holde s o heen i e ene gy sec o s policy”. This s udy is a con inua ion o ou p e ious s udy ha analysed he e ec o ci izens’ social backg ound on he endo semen o poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy (Ruos e saa i, 2018), now ocusing on ci izens’a i udes on ene gy consump ion and sel - p oduc ion. The da a o he s udy is based on pos al and in e ne su ey conduc ed among Finns whowe e be ween 18 and75 yea s in 2016. The s udy ocuses on ene gy policy, a socie al sec o whe e ci izens’in ol emen was seen o be mo e limi ed han in mos o he policy domains (Chubb, 1983,pp. 258-259). Some IJESM fi ms, especially s a e-owned and mo e gene ally hose ope a ing in he ene gy supply, ha e had p i ileged access o decision-making a enas, which ha e emained mos ly opaque o he ci izens (P on e a, 2009, p. 23). Iden ical findings ha e been epo ed in Finland. The making o ene gy policy has been domina ed by ene gy p oduce s e en hough he oice o la ge ene gy-consuming fi ms has g own. Ci ic associa ions and consume -ci izens ha e had di ficul y gaining access o he decision-making p ocess on ene gy policy (Ruos e saa i, 2010, pp. 291-294). The mo e om a cen alized, mos ly ossil uel-based powe sec o , owa ds a decen alized ene gy sys em ha includes a significan numbe o small and medium powe p oduce s a ec s he ene gy sec o (Szulecki, 2017,p. 22). Ci izens’a i udes on ene gy p oduc ion and consump ion a e becoming mo e and mo e c i ical o managing he ene gy sec o as a esul o ha he sha e o wind powe and sola powe is inc easing in he ene gy sys em. Thus, his ansi ion equi es a new ype o go e nance, ene gy democ acy, ha is cha ac e ized by wide pa icipa ion o in o med, awa e and esponsible poli ical subjec s, in an inclusi e and anspa en decision-making p ocess ela ing o ene gy choices, wi h he public good as i s goal. P osume s –and acco ding o ou in e p e a ion, also he use s o demand esponse –can be seen as idealized ci izens o ene gy democ acy (Sculecki, 2017, p. 35, 32). Ci izens’ iews on he po en ial o ene gy democ acy ha e also been s udied also in Finland wi h ega d o p osume ism (Jä en euna, 2019). Finland is a pa icula ly sui able pla o m o a c i ical es o poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy in he con ex o ene gy consump ion and p oduc ion. Finnish poli ical cul u e is cha ac e ized by an excep ional combina ion o ci izen a i udes in in e na ional compa ison. Fi s , he o e u nou and ci ic e ficacy ( he sense ha one can unde s and poli ical p ocesses and pa icipa e in hem meaning ully) a e low (No is, 2011;Kes ilä- Kekkonen, 2014;Ruch , 1997;Rask, 2008). Second, popula us in poli ical, scien ific and echnological ins i u ions is high (OECD, 2017;Eu os a , 2015;Eu oba ome e , 2013;Science Ba ome e , 2016). This mix u e may ha e c ea ed incen i es in he ci izen y o look o al e na i e means o adi ional poli ical in ol emen , i.e. influencing ene gy policy h ough hei own consump ion choices (poli ical consume ism), o lea ing decision-making o expe s a he han poli icians (s eal h democ acy) (Ruos e saa i, 2018). In ac , Finland is one o he coun ies whose popula suppo o poli ical consume ism is a he highes by in e na ional s anda ds oge he wi h o he No dic coun ies, Swi ze land and Ge many (S olle and Michele i, 2013). Finns’low ci ic e ficacy ouches also ene gy policy making. Mo e han hal he ci izens we e dissa isfied wi h hei po en ial o influence ene gy policy; he p opo ion o he ci izen y who ag eed ( ully o somewha ) wi h he s a emen ha “ci izens’opinions ha e no been hea d su ficien ly enough in ene gy policy decisions”was 71% (mean) in 1983- 1993, 67% in 1994-2000 and 64% in 2001-2007 (Ene gy A i udes, 2007). In sho , he con ibu ion o his s udy is o fill a pa o he esea ch gap linking o ongoing ene gy ansi ions. As a socio- echnical ansi ion can ake place only i ci izens suppo and pa icipa e in i , we need o be e unde s and ci izens’a i udes on ene gy consump ion and p oduc ion and ene gy policy in ol emen . I has been shown ha he Finns a e psychologically eady o engage in he ene gy ansi ion, and hey accep new ac o oles in he ene gy sys em in 2017 (Vainio e al., 2019, p. 607). In a decen alized ene gy sys em, ci izens ha e o be p epa ed o change hei modes o ope a ion. The s udy es s whe he he e is a i udinal eadiness among he Finns o adop a mo e ac i e ole as ene gy Demand esponse and p osume ism consume s and p oduce s o do hey us mo e on ene gy expe s in ene gy policy decision- making. The s udy p oceeds as ollows. Fi s , he concep s o demand esponse and p osume ism a e defined and hei oles in he Finnish ene gy policy making a e ou lined. Second, he da a and esea ch me hod a e desc ibed. Thi d, he heo e ical s a ing poin s dealing wi h poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy a e discussed. The hypo heses ha di ec he empi ical analysis will be de i ed om his heo e ical eflec ion. Fou h, he analysis is composed o wo sec ions in which he e ec s o ci izens’suppo o poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy on hei a i udes on demand esponse and p osume ism a e analysed. Finally, conclusions a e made based on empi ical analysis and he findings a e discussed in ligh o he heo e ical s a ing poin s. Concep s o demand esponse and p osume ism P ime Minis e Juha Sipilä’s Go e nmen P og am (2015-2019) se challenging a ge s o Finland o be eached by 2030: he sha e o enewable ene gy will ise o mo e han 50% o final ene gy consump ion; ene gy sel -su ficiency will inc ease o o e 55%; he use o coal in ene gy p oduc ion will be e mina ed; he use o impo ed oil will be hal ed and he sha e o enewable uels in a fic will ise o 40% (Val ioneu os o, 2017). To achie e hese goals, he Ene gy and Clima e S a egy o he pe iod up o 2030 s i es o p omo e he decen alized p oduc ion o elec ici y and hea based on enewable ene gy. Mos o he po en ial o small-scale elec ici y gene a ion, in pa icula ega ding sola powe , is seen in esiden ial eal es a es. Rega ding small-scale wind powe , he g ow h po en ial is seen pa icula ly o be in a eas loca ed ou side he elec ici y g ids, especially in windy loca ions. Fu he mo e, e o s a e being made o p omo e decen alized ene gy p oduc ion in u al a eas. To encou age decen aliza ion o he Finnish ene gy sys em, he go e nmen is willing o inc ease consume s’pa icipa ion in he planning o ene gy use as well as hei eadiness o demand esponse. Demand esponse co e s a wide ange o ac i i ies such as influencing consume s’ beha iou by indi ec ene gy-p icing mechanisms, di ec s ee ing measu es based on a iable elec ici y p ices and he guidance emana ing om he needs o elec ici y g ids (Jä en aus a e al., 2015). The g owing need o demand esponse is aised especially by he inc easing oles o wind and sola powe in he ene gy sys em because hei gene a ion fluc ua es sha ply a di e en imes o he day and yea which inc eases he elec ici y p ice ola ili y (Ruos e saa i e al.,2018). Acco ding o go e nmen al Ene gy and Clima e S a egy, demand esponse plays a cen al ole in imp o ing ene gy e ficiency o which consume s will be ac i a ed (Val ioneu os o, 2017)[1]. T ansi ion o an inc easingly decen alized powe p oduc ion sys em implies a g owing need o consume -ci izens o become consume -p oduce s, ha is “p osume s”. The concep o p osume is buil om he wo ds “p oduce ”and “consume ”(To fle , 1980). The concep was gene ally linked o he media sec o whe e consume s ha e o a long ime been ac i ely in ol ed in he p oduc ion o con en o online se ices and inno a ion ac i i ies, gene a ing added alue and co-c ea ion (P ahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004;Ko ilainen, 2020). Eu opean Commission e e s o ene gy p osume s as “ac i e consume s”and defines he concep as “a cus ome o g oup o join ly ac ing cus ome s who consume, s o e o sell elec ici y gene a ed on hei p emises, including h ough agg ega o s, o pa icipa e in demand esponse o ene gy e ficiency schemes p o ided ha hese ac i i ies do no cons i u e hei p ima y comme cial o p o essional ac i i y”. Some imes, ene gy p osume s a e called “ene gy ci izens”unde lying hei ole as agen s in he socie y. The ene gy ci izens a e seen as po en ial agen s in suppo ing ene gy democ acy (So acool and Bly h, 2015). IJESM Thus, he defini ion accen ua es he pa icipa o y aspec o he p osume s as p oac i e consume s andci izens (Ko ilainen, 2020;Szulecki, 2017). In ol emen in he demand esponse equi es, a leas o some ex en , a change in consump ion habi s. Howe e , his does no necessi a e, o ins ance, comp omising one’s li ing com o o mo ing a ound. In ac , es ablished powe companies and new se ice p o ide s a e planning ways in which households can be mo i a ed o pa icipa e in demand esponse: o ins ance, he de elopmen o new p icing s uc u es and ma ke -places is a pa o consume ac i a ion (Ruos e saa i e al., 2018). A p osume can also be pa o he demand esponse sys em o powe companies by p o iding esou ces she o he owns ( o ins ance, a wa e hea e o an elec ic ca ba e y) o he use o powe companies o agg ega o s. In his case, he p osume would be bo h “p o ide ”and “consume ”. An agg ega o is a company ha o ms a la ge en i y composed o small consume s and small-scale p oduc ion ha can pa icipa e in he elec ici y ma ke (Fing id, 2018). Howe e , in his s udy, ene gy ci izens and p osume s e e o indi iduals o households, lea ing la ge p osume s and hose o mo e comme cial na u e ou side he defini ion (Ko ilainen, 2020). Da a and me hod Asu ey design was adop ed in his s udy. The da a is based on a pos al su ey and an in e ne su ey ha we e conduc ed in 2016 among a andom sample ep esen ing Finns who we e be ween 18 and 75 yea s. A s a ified sampling p ocedu e ensu es ha he sample co e s all socio-demog aphic g oups and egions o Finland, excluding he p o ince o Aland. Responden s’add ess in o ma ion was pu chased om The Popula ion Regis e Cen e on 1 July 2016. The field wo k, co e ing one eminde ound, was ca ied ou in Augus -Oc obe 2016. The a e o esponse was ela i ely low (33.6%), bu i is qui e ypical o pos al/in e ne su eys (Vainio e al.,2019). The la ge size o he sample (N= 4,000) ensu es ha he da a adequa ely ep esen he Finnish popula ion a la ge; hence, i is adequa e o empi ical analysis and gene aliza ions (Ruos e saa i, 2018). The p elimina y analysis o he da a showed ha he e we e no such deficiencies ha would p e en a eliable analysis o he da a. Howe e , he da a de ia es in mino espec s om he popula ion a la ge. A de ailed loss analysis is p esen ed in Table 1.The gende dis ibu ion o he da a co esponds well o ha among he popula ion bu he younges coho o 18-29-yea -olds is unde ep esen ed, whe eas ci izens aged 45-59 and 60-75yea s a e clea ly o e ep esen ed. Compa ed o he popula ion a la ge, he highly educa ed we e o e ep esen ed, whe eas indi iduals wi h only basic educa ion we e unde ep esen ed in he sample. In e ms o educa ional fields, people om enginee ing and se ice b anches we e somewha unde ep esen ed. Rega ding occupa ional posi ions, lowe unc iona ies we e unde ep esen ed, whe eas manage s and uppe unc iona ies, blue-colla wo ke s and pensione s we e somewha o e ep esen ed. Indi iduals li ing in de ached houses we e clea ly o e ep esen ed, and hose li ing in apa men houses we e unde ep esen ed. In addi ion o he backg ound a iables lis ed in Table 1, people li ing in small municipali ies we e somewha o e ep esen ed, while hose li ing in la ge municipali ies we e unde ep esen ed. Howe e , he esponden s ep esen ed he a ious egions o he coun y (p o inces) wi h an e en dis ibu ion (S a is ics Finland, 2016). The i ems analysed in his s udy a e a pa o a longe su ey ocusing on ci izens’ ene gy a i udes. The analysed esea ch ques ions and he esponse op ions a e specified in he ollowing ex . The esponden s will be di ided in o wo dicho omous g oups Demand esponse and p osume ism (suppo e s/non-suppo e s) based on hei a i udes owa ds i ems o s a emen s (sum a iable) eflec ing poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy. The dependence o he suppo o demand esponse and p osume ism on he endo semen o poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy will be es ed s a is ically (Pea son chi-squa e). This es indica es how likely he dependence is only caused by con ingency in he sample so ha he a iables a e independen o each o he . The es will be ca ied ou by using s anda d SPSS so wa e. Table 1. The esponden s o he su ey compa ed wi h he whole popula ion Responden s in 2016 (n) Responden s in 2016 (%) Popula ion in 2016 (%) Gende Women 657 49.6 50.7 Man 674 50.4 49.3 Coho (yea s) 18-29 143 10.9 14.6 30-44 260 19.7 18.7 45-59 354 27.0 19.6 60-75 556 42.4 19.6 Le el o educa ion Only basic educa ion 245 9.4 29.8 Uppe seconda y 504 40.7 40.5 Te ia y 567 49.9 29.7 Field o educa ion Pedagogics/ eache aining 58 5.0 3.3 Humani ies/a s 50 4.3 5.6 Economics o social science 222 19.0 21.0 Na u al science 36 3.1 2.7 Enginee ing 324 27.8 33.0 Ag icul u e and o es y 49 4.2 4.8 Social and heal h ca e 159 13.6 15.5 Se ice b anch 100 8.6 13.5 O he 169 14.5 0.4 Occupa ional posi ion Manage o uppe unc iona y 202 15.9 13.6 Lowe unc iona y 127 10.0 20.1 En ep eneu 113 8.9 6.3 Blue-colla wo ke 299 23.5 16.5 S uden 60 4.7 6.9 Pensione 404 31.7 25.1 O he 70 5.3 8.2 Size o he home municipali y ( esiden s) Less han 4,000 78 6.0 4.5 4,000-8000 145 11.2 7.5 8,000-30,000 353 27.0 24.4 30,000-80,000 274 21.1 21.8 Mo e han 80,000 456 34.8 41.6 Apa men ype De ached house 657 49.3 39.2 A ached house 238 17.9 13.7 Apa men house 438 32.9 45.2 IJESM Theo e ical amewo k Poli ical consume ism as a mode o poli ical in ol emen Schola s ha e a gued ha dissa is ac ion and us a ion wi h mains eam poli ics does no necessa ily u n in o poli ical apa hy. On he con a y, hey a gue ha ci izens ha e de eloped a mul i ude o ways o engage in poli ics ou side he pa liamen a y a ena ha hey find mo e sui able, esponsible, e ficien and di ec o exp essing hei poli ical in e es and needs. In ac , ci izens’willingness o pa icipa e in poli ics and socie al a ai s is s ill s ong. One o hese o ms o in ol emen ha elies on indi idualized esponsibili y- aking is poli ical consume ism (S olle and Michele i, 2013,p .33,39;S olle and Hooghe, 2006). Poli ical consume ism can be defined as “consume s”use o he ma ke as an a ena o poli ics o change ins i u ional o ma ke p ac ices ound o be e hically, en i onmen ally o poli ically objec ionable is a specific o m o pa icipa ion ha cha ac e izes indi idualized esponsibili y- aking. The concep shows ha wo adi ions o consump ion and ci izenship, which ended o be loca ed in opposing sphe es o p i a e and public, can oday be seen inc easingly as o e lapping domains (S olle and Michele i, 2013,p .39;Follesdahl, 2006). F om p e ious s udies on poli ical pa icipa ion, i can be disce ned wo gene al findings o de elop necessa y heo e ical condi ions o he ealiza ion o indi idualized esponsibili y- aking, ha is poli ical consume ism. Fi s , indi idual mo i a ion is essen ial: ci izens mus be mo i a ed bo h o seek and use sensi izing in o ma ion o de elop alues in line wi h ca ing insigh s and o o mula e p e e ences o an e hical compass ha acili a es he making o easonable choices. Second, ci izens mus eel ha hei ac ions ma e . The e o e, hey mus ha e a sense o empowe men (o ci ic e ficacy) o engage in he choice o p ac ices associa ed wi h indi idualized esponsibili y- aking (S olle and Michele i, 2013, p. 24). Responden s o ou su ey conduc ed in 2016 we e asked how use ul hey pe cei ed a ious de ices we e in influencing ene gy policy. The esponse op ions we e “ e y use ul”, “ ai ly use ul”,“ ai ly useless”,“ o ally useless”and “can’ say”(Table 2). Finns’pe cep ions o hei po en ial o influence ene gy policy h ough consump ion choices we e e y posi i e. The mos use ul de ices we e ins uc ing child en on ene gy issues and choosing ene gy-pinching appliances, which epi omizes so-called discu si e poli ical consume ism (S olle and Michele i, 2013;Michele i, 2003). I is no ewo hy ha ha o ing in elec ions (15 h) and he modes ha a e e med he e as pa icipa o y poli ical consume ism, i.e. con ac s wi h MPs (21s ), ac ing in ci ic associa ions (17 h), con ac s wi h ep esen a i es o ene gy p oducing fi ms (18 h) and con ac s wi h public au ho i ies (22nd), we e anked in 2016 as clea ly less use ul de ices o influencing ene gy policy han o he adi ional o ms o poli ical consume ism (Ruos e saa i, 2018). To figu e whe he he a i udes on poli ical consume ism a ec hose on demand esponse and p osume ism, he esponden s we e di ided in o wo dicho omous g oups based on a i udes owa ds a ious de ices lis ed in Table 2.These g oups we e suppo e s ( esponding wi h “ e y”o “ ai ly use ul”) and non-suppo e s (“ ai ly”o “ o al useless”o “can’ say”) o poli ical consume ism. We cons uc ed a sum a iable comp ising all de ices que ied in 2016 (excluding “ o ing in elec ions”, which ep esen s con en ional poli ical pa icipa ion). Because ealiza ion o poli ical consume ism equi es ha he ci izen y mus be bo h mo i a ed o chance hei consump ion pa e ns and eel ha hei ac ion ma e in e ms o ene gy policy, we hypo hesize he ollowing: Demand esponse and p osume ism H1. Suppo e s o poli ical consume ism a e mo e eady o implemen ac i i ies o demand esponse han a e non-suppo e s. H2. Suppo e s o poli ical consume ism a e mo e eady o implemen ac i i ies o p osume ism han a e non-suppo e s. View o s eal h democ acy on ci izens’poli ical in ol emen The iew o he heo y o s eal h democ acy on ci izens’poli ical in ol emen is e y di e en om ha o poli ical consume ism. While he iew o poli ical consume ism on ci izens’willingness and po en ial o poli ical in ol emen is posi i e, ha o s eal h democ acy is mo e cynical. Hibbing and Theiss-Mo se a gue ha a he han wan ing a mo e ac i e pa icipa o y democ acy, a ema kable sha e o people wan wha hey call “s eal h democ acy”. The concep is de i ed om a ia ion: s eal h ai c a such as B-2 bombe s a e di ficul o see wi h s anda d ada echniques, e en i e e yone knows hey exis s. In he same way, ci izens wan democ a ic p ocedu es o exis bu no o be isible on a ou ine basis. In ac , he las hing ci izens wan is o be mo e in ol ed in poli ical decision-making: hey do no wan o make poli ical decisions hemsel es o p o ide much inpu o hose who a e assigned o make hese decisions bu p e e o spend hei ime in nonpoli ical pu sui s. Ci izens wan o dis ance hem om go e nmen no because o a sys em de ec bu because hey a e a e se o poli ical conflic and belie e ha poli ical conflic s a e unnecessa y and an Table 2. Use ulness ( e y o ai ly use ul) o a ious de ices in influencing he Finnish ene gy policy in 2016 (%) De ice Ins uc ing child en on ene gy issues 88 Choosing scan ly spending/ene gy-pinching appliances 88 Choosing eco- iendly p oduc s 87 Walking o cycling ins ead o d i ing 85 D opping o supe ision o dwelling empe a u e 79 Using he so-called g een elec ici y (p oduced by enewable ene gy) 79 Supe ision o he use o elec ici y in he household 79 Reducing p i a e d i ing by a o ing public anspo 77 Lowe ing pe sonal consump ion le el in gene al 77 Asking o compe i i e ende s om elec ici y companies 74 Reducing hea ing in leisu e esidence 64 Reducing he use o sauna hea ed by elec ici y 62 Reducing ai a els 61 Reducing he use o consume elec onics 58 Vo ing in elec ions 56 Discussion on ene gy issues wi h o he people/ iends 48 Ac ing in ci ic associa ions 30 Con ac s wi h ep esen a i es o ene gy p oducing fi ms 27 W i ing le e s abou ene gy issues o he edi o s o newspape s 24 W i ing abou ene gy issues on In e ne discussion si es 23 Con ac s wi h MPs 23 Con ac s wi h public au ho i ies 20 Pa icipa ion in demons a ions 10 Radical en i onmen al ac i ism 10 N1,308 IJESM indica ion ha some hing is w ong wi h go e nmen al p ocedu es (Hibbing and Theiss- Mo se, 2005, pp. 1-2, 7). The heo y a gues ha ci izens a e qui e conce ned wi h how go e nmen wo ks, no jus wi h wha i p oduces: ci izens’a i udes and beha io s a e mo e a ec ed by he p ocess o go e nmen han by he policies go e nmen enac s, and policy pe o mance explains li le when i comes o public us . In ac , we canno ully unde s and people’s a i udes owa ds go e nmen wi hou aking in o accoun how hey hink go e nmen ough o wo k and how hey hink go e nmen wo ks in p ac ice (Hibbing and Theiss-Mo se, 2005,p. 6, 14, 25, 34, 81; So acool, 2013). The ac ha ci izens ha e p e e ences ega ding policy p ocess has also been shown in Finnish s udies (Beng sson and Ma ila, 2009;Beng sson, 2012). Because o ep esen a i es, ci izens do no need o be cons an ly bo he ing wi h a lo o issues abou which hey do no ca e. Eli es a e no wha he ci izen y ea s bu sel -se ing eli es a e. Because indi iduals a e o en oo unin o med, unmo i a ed o na ow o exe poli ical influence, non-sel -in e es ed decision make s, such as poli icians, expe s and businessmen should make he decisions o hem. These decisions should be made e ficien ly, objec i ely and wi hou commo ion and disag eemen (Hibbing and Theiss- Mo se, 2005, p. 86, 127, 143). To es whe he Finns a e willing o assign he decision-making on ene gy policy o expe s ep esen ing public adminis a ion and business a he han elec ed o ficials, he esponden s we e asked a s uc u ed ques ion as ollows: “How g ea is he impo ance ha you a ach o ollowing p inciples in ene gy policy-making?”The esponse op ions we e “ e y impo an ”,“ ai ly impo an ”,“no eally impo an ”,“no impo an a all”and “can’ say”(Table 3). To es ou hypo heses, we cons uc ed a sum a iable om fi e o he s a emen s lis ed in Table 3. The s a emen s depic he claim o s eal h democ acy as ollows: “expe s should be in cha ge o he d a ing o decisions”,“expe s should be in cha ge o decision-making”,“ ep esen a i es o fi ms should ake pa in decision-making”, “business o ganiza ions should play a cen al ole in he decision-making”and “decisions should be made by consensus as a esul o nego ia ions”. The mean suppo (“ e y”o “somewha impo an ”) o he sum a iable among he ci izen y was 72%, which exceeded suppo o ep esen a i e democ acy (56%), i.e. he s a emen ha “ hose poli ically esponsible o he cons i uency should be in cha ge o decisions”as well as he endo semen o poli ical consume ism (48%) (Ruos e saa i, 2018). Table 3. The p opo ion o he ci izen y who pe cei ed e y o somewha impo an he p inciples conce ning he p ocess o ene gy policy making in 2016 (%) P inciple 2016 Decision should be announced as openly as possible 95 Expe s should be in cha ge o he d a ing o decisions 94 Socie al e ec s o decisions should be aken widely in o accoun 94 Decisions should ake accoun o a ious in e es g oups 69 En i onmen al e ec s o decisions should be aken widely in o accoun 92 Those poli ically esponsible o he cons i uency should be in cha ge o decision-making 56 The d a ing p ocess o decisions should be open 89 Ci izens should be able o influence decisions 75 Expe s should be in cha ge o decision-making 89 Rep esen a i es o fi ms should ake pa in decision-making 66 Business o ganiza ions should play a cen al ole in decision-making 48 Decisions should be made by consensus based on nego ia ions 64 En i onmen al o ganiza ions should play a cen al ole in decision-making 53 Ene gy policy should be de e mined ee o go e nmen al di ec ion 32 N1,349 Demand esponse and p osume ism Discussion Now, i is impo an o ask why he findings dealing wi h he e ec s o s eal h democ acy de ia ed om ou expec a ions. I was shown ha along wi h poli ical consume s, suppo e s o s eal h democ acy who a e in gene al willing o lea e decisions in ene gy issues o expe s and businessmen, a e ac i e consume -ci izens. I seems ha mac o-le el us in socie al ins i u ions and expe knowledge does no unde mine indi idual-le el eadiness o change consump ion pa e ns ega ding ene gy issues. We ha e shown p e iously ha he le el o knowledge and he sense o ci ic e ficacy a e no pa icula ly low among suppo e s o s eal h democ acy. In ac , suppo o s eal h democ acy was highe among ci izens who el ha hey we e knowledgeable on ene gy issues han among hose who we e no . The endo semen o s eal h democ acy (and poli ical consume ism) inc eased ci izens’ci il e ficacy, i.e. us in hei possibili ies o influence ene gy policy making. Suppo e s o s eal h democ acy (and poli ical consume ism) pe cei ed o ing in elec ions as a use ul de ice o influencing ene gy policy mo e gene ally han did non-suppo e s. Howe e , suppo o bo h poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy eflec s c i ical a i ude on ene gy policy making: adhe en s o poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy we e mo e scep ical han we e non-suppo e s ha ci izens’opinions we e hea d in ene gy policy making (Ruos e saa i, 2018). In sho , poli ical consume ism and s eal h democ acy canno be seen mainly as i al and opposi e in e p e a ions o elec o al pa icipa ion bu a he as complemen a y modes. Mo eo e , hey canno be seen as de ached a i udes on poli ical in ol emen : A hal o suppo e s o s eal h democ acy also endo sed poli ical consume ism. Howe e , s eal h democ acy can be seen mo e as a eac ion o people who eel powe less in he ace o he egime, while he suppo e s o poli ical consume ism ha e a highe sense o ci il e ficacy. The ac ha Finns clea ly suppo s eal h democ acy (72%) mo e han poli ical consume ism (48%) can be explained by he cha ac e is ics o he Finnish poli ical cul u e whe e high us , by in e na ional s anda ds, in poli ical and legal sys ems, fi ms and echnology (i.e. expe s) is associa ed wi h low ci ic e ficacy and hal -hea ed app ecia ion o democ acy (a cha ac e is ic o s eal h democ acy). Fo ins ance, acco ding o Wo ld Values Su ey 2005-2007, Finns’confidence in public sec o ins i u ions (pa liamen , poli ical pa ies, he na ional go e nmen , he ci il se ice, jus ice, police and he mili a y) was he highes among 16 olde libe al democ acies ( he second highes in No way and fi h highes in Sweden), while hei o e app o al o he democ a ic poli ical sys em was he lowes , being he highes among Swedes and No wegians (No is, 2011,pp. 88-93). Suppo o demand esponse and p osume ism among adhe en s o s eal h democ acy may be explained by he ac ha hese ac i i ies ha e been p esen ed as impo an goals owa ds e o ming he ene gy sys em by go e nmen al ins i u ions, expe s and businessmen – he ins i u ions us ed by suppo e s o s eal h democ acy. Mo e gene ally, ou findings indica e ha he ci izen y as passi e ac o s in policy making, a hesis p esen ed by he heo y o s eal h democ acy, is an inadequa e asse ion: indi iduals, as well as conscious consume s, who do no wan o pe sonally pa icipa e in policy making can be ac i e consume -ci izens in hei e e yday li es. As a as u he esea ch is conce ned, we need o unde s and mo e p o oundly he easons o ha also he suppo e s o s eal h democ acy, who a e willing o lea e he decision-making in he hands o expe s, a e ac i e ene gy ci izens in hei daily li es. I migh be ha he a iables used in ou s udy o measu e s eal h democ acy a e no specific enough. Mo e gene ally, Finns’willingness o suppo o s eal h democ acy may be based on o a leas encou aged by he misunde s andings o democ a ic poli ics (Hibbing and Theiss-Mo se, 2005,p. 222): we need IJESM mo e in o ma ion on he le el o knowledge ha ci izens ha e abou no ma i e p inciples o democ a ic decision-making p ocesses. The fi s implica ion o his s udy o ene gy policy making is ha he e a e (a leas in Finland) good p econdi ions o de eloping a decen alized ene gy sys em: ci izens a e eady o adop a mo e ac i e ole as ene gy ci izens in e ms o demand esponse and p osume ism –i espec i e o hei a i udes on mac o-le el a i udes on go e nmen al ins i u ions. Second, ci izens’a i udes indica e ha hei po en ial o in ol emen needs o be s eng hened in he spi i o ene gy democ acy: he idea o ene gy democ acy needs o be seen in e ms o he demand o inc eased accoun abili y and democ a iza ion o he ene gy sec o ha was p e iously no seen as equi ing public in ol emen , and was mos o en depoli icized and domina ed by echnoc a s (Szulecki, 2017,p. 32). In ac , ci izens’fi m us on science, echnology and expe s, o ins ance in sol ing en i onmen al p oblems caused by ene gy p oduc ion and consump ion (Ruos e saa i, 2018) may ha e con adic o y e ec s on ene gy democ acy: while he us may weaken ci izens’ac i i y in ene gy policy in ol emen when hey a e p epa ed o gi e expe s a g ea deal o decision-making powe in ene gy policy and who a e us ed o make high-quali y decisions, he in e es in echnology inc eases ci izens’ eadiness o become ac i e ene gy ci izens in hei e e yday li e, o ins ance as p osume s and use s o demand esponse (Jä en euna, 2019, p. 79). This e e yday ac i i y can, in u n, inc ease p epa edness o ene gy policy in ol emen on na ional and e en global le el i he oppo uni y s uc u es c ea e p econdi ions o i . Howe e , s eng hening ene gy democ acy h ough demand esponse and p osume ism is no wi hou i s p oblems: u iliza ion o hese de ices equi es a ela i ely la ge amoun o esou ces which depend on he indi iduals’socio-economic posi ion (Jä en euna, 2019, p. 79). Thus, ene gy democ acy canno eplace bu complemen elec o al pa icipa ion as a o m o ene gy policy in ol emen . The ac ha he e was an age bias in ou sample compa ed o he popula ion may ha e a ec ed he a i udes on demand esponse and p osume ism. Howe e , he bias among ci izens who we e be ween 18 and 29yea s (unde ep esen ed) as well as among 45-59- and 60-75-yea s-old (o e ep esen ed) may ha e balanced he bias due o ha economic esou ces o ac i e ene gy ci izenship a e he sca ces among he younges and he oldes coho s. All in all, democ a iza ion could s eng hen he legi imacy o ene gy policy making: o ins ance, s ill a hal o Finns eel ha hei opinions ha e no been hea d su ficien ly in ene gy policy decisions (Ruos e saa i, 2018). No e 1. Fo he fi s ime in he his o y o he Finnish elec ici y ma ke , he wholesale p ice on Powe exchange (No dpool) was nega i e in he nigh ime on 10 Feb ua y 2020. Howe e , o he household consume s, he p ice was no nega i e, bu o he au ho , o example, i was 0.265 cen /kWh. Re e ences Beng sson, Å. (2012), “Ci izens’pe cep ions o poli ical p ocesses: a c i ical e alua ion o consis ency and su ey i ems”,Re is a In e nacional de Sociología, Vol. 70, pp. 45-60. Beng sson,Å.andMa ila,M.(2009),“Di ec democ acy and i s c i ics: suppo o di ec democ acy and ‘s eal h democ acy’in Finland”,Wes Eu opean Poli ics, Vol. 32 No. 5, pp. 1031-1048. Demand esponse and p osume ism Chubb, J.E. 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