The Story of Journalist Organizations in Czechoslovakia

Media and Communica ion (ISSN: 2183–2439) 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 DOI: 10.17645/mac. 5i3.1042 A icle The S o y o Jou nalis O ganiza ions in Czechoslo akia Ma ké a Še číko á 1,* and Kaa le No dens eng 2 1Independen Resea che , P ague, Czech Republic; E-Mail: se ciko a.m@pos .cz 2Facul y o Communica ion Sciences, Uni e si y o Tampe e, 33014 Tampe e, Finland; E-Mail: kaa le.no dens eng@u a. i * Co esponding au ho Submi ed: 15 May 2017 | Accep ed: 23 Augus 2017 | Published: 27 Sep embe 2017 Abs ac This a icle e iews he poli ical his o y o Czechoslo akia as a i al pa o he So ie -domina ed “Communis bloc” and i s epe cussions o he jou nalis associa ions based in he coun y. Following an e en ul his o y since 1918, Czechoslo akia changed in 1948 om a libe al democ acy in o a Communis egime. This had signi ican consequences o jou nalis s and hei na ional union and also o he In e na ional O ganiza ion o Jou nalis s (IOJ), which had jus es ablished i s head- qua e s in P ague. The second his o ical e en o shake he poli ical sys em was he “P ague Sp ing” o 1968 and i s a e ma h among jou nalis s and hei unions. The hi d landma k was he “Vel e Re olu ion” o 1989, which played a signi ican pa in he all o Communism in Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope and led o he closing o he old Union o Jou nalis s in 1990, ollowed by he ounding o a new Syndica e which e used o se e as he hos o he IOJ. This led o a g adual disin eg a ion and he closing down o wha in he 1980s was he wo ld’s la ges non-go e nmen al o ganiza ion in he media ield. Keywo ds Cold Wa ; communism; Czechoslo akia; In e na ional O ganiza ion o Jou nalis s; jou nalism; union o jou nalis s Issue This a icle is pa o he issue “His o ies o Collabo a ion and Dissen :Jou nalis s’ Associa ions Squeezed by Poli ical Sys em Changes”, edi ed by Epp Lauk (Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland) and Kaa le No dens eng (Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland). © 2017 by he au ho s; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu- ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY). 1. In oduc ion The s a ing poin o his a icle is a s o y abou he ise and all o he IOJ—an in e na ional non-go e nmen al o ganiza ion o jou nalis s based in Czechoslo akia, which had become an icon o he changing poli ical land- scape o he wo ld since 1946. The same s o y has been old in an an hology o he his o y o he in e na ional mo emen o jou nalis s (No de ns eng, Bjö k, Beye s- do , Høye , & Lauk, 2016) and also in a monog aph on he IOJ (No dens eng, in p ess), bu his was done wi h- ou co e ing he b oade con ex o he poli ical his o y o Czechoslo akia. The p esen e iew aims o ill he gap by i s desc ibing he key poli ical u ns in he his o y o Czechoslo akia since Wo ld Wa I (Emme , 2012). 2. Poli ical His o y o Czechoslo akia om 1918 o he 1990s 2.1. Fou Pe iods be ween 1918 and 1948 I we wish o unde s and he e en s which ook place in pos -wa Czechoslo akia, pa icula ly in Feb ua y 1948, when he Communis Pa y ook o e poli ical powe in he coun y, we need o go back ano he hi y yea s. Czechoslo ak his o y di ides he pe iod be ween 1918 and 1948 in o ou main phases: he Fi s Republic, he Second Republic, he P o ec o a e o Bohemia and Mo a ia and he Thi d Republic. The pe iod o he Fi s Republic is de ined by wo da es: 28 Oc obe 1918 (bi h o independen Czechoslo- Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 95 akia) and 30 Sep embe 1938 (signing o he Munich Ag eemen ). In 1918 Czechoslo akia ceased o be pa o he Aus o–Hunga ian Empi e and became an indepen- den epublic wi h a democ a ic poli y based on he Con- s i u ion. The coun y consis ed o Bohemia, Mo a ia, Silesia, Slo akia and Subca pa hian Ru henia. The Repub- lic was cha ac e is ically mul i-e hnic and he e we e ini- ially la ge social, cul u al and economic di e ences be- ween i s indi idual egions. The in e nal uni y o he new s a e was challenged by he Ge man e hnic mino - i y li ing in he bo de egions and wishing o become pa o Ge many, and he le is labou mo emen , which ounded he Communis Pa y o Czechoslo akia (hence- o wa d he CPC) in May 1924. In he sho e m, how- e e , Czechoslo akia became a ma u e democ a ic e- public wi h a b oad spec um o poli ical pa ies, and he epublic ad anced in leaps and bounds in he ields o indus y, ade, educa ion and li es yle. An ex ensi e p in media de eloped, he p ess being p ima ily pa i- san, wi h a mino i y non-pa y p ess, abloids and mag- azines, and he new media o adio and ilm we e e ol - ing. Pa ial censo ship exis ed and was ca ied ou by he Minis y o In e io . Publishe s had o submi manda o y copies o dis ic au ho i ies o police headqua e s, who had he igh o wi hhold p in s p io o hei elease, o allow he issue only a e a change o dele ion o he ex o e en con isca e he p ess (Končelík, Večeřa, & O ság, 2010). Ne e heless, cul u al openness and ole - ance p e ailed. The nex pe iod o he Second Republic began wi h he signing o he Munich Ag eemen and he c ea ion o he P o ec o a e o Bohemia and Mo a ia on 30 Sep em- be 1938, las ing only un il 15 Ma ch 1939. In his sho pe iod, Czechoslo akia los ex ensi e bo de e i o ies, Slo akia, and Subca pa hian Ru henia. Poli ically, he coun y was sub e ed and he democ a ic p inciples o he Fi s Republic, o ganiza ion and eedom we e de- s oyed. The Pa y o Na ional Uni y and he Na ional Labou Pa y became he only wo poli ical pa ies.1 Czechoslo ak socie y pe cei ed he Munich Ag eemen as a de ea which h ew i in o disillusion and mo al c isis. These ac s we e also e lec ed in he media, wi h he dis- appea ance o many pe iodicals and he in ensi ica ion o censo ship. The hi d pe iod be ween 16 Ma ch 1939 and 8 May 1945 is known as he P o ec o a e o Bohemia and Mo a ia. The e i o y o he P o ec o a e included p ac- ically all o he p esen -day Czech Republic, so Nazi Ge - many e ec i ely occupied he en i e coun y. The Czech p esiden o mally emained Head o he P o ec o a e, along wi h he P o ec o a e’s Czech go e nmen . Ne e - heless, he eal powe —wi h a b u al and o ali a ian Nazi egime—was held by a Reichsp o ek o , who was hand-picked by Adol Hi le . This means ha he Ge - mans had he Czech economy, indus ial and ag icul u al p oduc ion, anspo , educa ion and cul u e ully unde hei con ol. The media we e con olled by a Nazi in o - ma ion monopoly and subjec ed o se e e censo ship. In addi ion o he o icial media, illegal and media in-exile we e quickly es ablished. The Czech popula ion was sub- jec ed o a p og amme o Ge manisa ion. Ci izens o Jew- ish o igin we e dep i ed o hei ci il igh s, pe secu ed in a ious ways, including he con isca ion o p ope y, and, s a ing in he au umn o 1941, we e g adually phys- ically elimina ed. Unde s andably, he Czech people did no accep he occupa ion and esis ance o i soon eme ged. These ac i i ies culmina ed in he assassina ion o he Reich- sp o ek o . Meanwhile, he go e nmen -in-exile, led by Ed a d Beneš, was es ablished in London. Any exp es- sions o an i-Nazi eeling we e b u ally supp essed by he occupie s—punished by dea h, imp isonmen o de en- ion in a concen a ion camp. Ne e heless, a numbe o Czechs coope a ed—collabo a ed—wi h he occupy- ing egime du ing he P o ec o a e. Howe e , he majo - i y o he popula ion con inued o oppose he Ge mans (Emme , 2012) and, on 5 May 1945, esis ance o he occupa ion de eloped in o an a med P ague up ising,2 which ended on 8 May 1945 wi h he de ea o Ge many. Finally, he ou h pe iod om he May 1945 o Feb u- a y 1948 is called he Thi d Republic. The basic documen es ablishing he di ec ion o Czechoslo akia a e Wo ld Wa II was he Košice Go e nmen P og amme,3which in oduced he i s pos -wa Czechoslo ak Go e nmen hea ily in luenced by he USSR— he winne o he wa . I was d awn up by he Moscow-based leade ship o he CPC and p oclaimed he con isca ion o p ope y belong- ing o Ge mans, Hunga ians and Czech collabo a o s, he punishmen o collabo a o s, an equal ela ionship be- ween Czechs and Slo aks, he es ablishmen o Na ional Commi ees4and undamen al changes in he economic and social sphe es, as well as he banning o he ac i i- ies o igh -wing poli ical pa ies. Acco dingly, i no only deal wi h he punishmen o wa c iminals, ai o s and collabo a o s, bu also led o he ejec ion o he Fi s Republic’s poli ical and economic sys em. Some Czech 1The poli ical sys em o he Second Republic was simpli ied and he e we e only wo main poli ical pa ies: (1) an “o icial” igh -wing Pa y o Na- ional Uni y (S ana ná odní jedno y) ga he ing oge he he Republican Pa y o Fa me s and Peasan s, Czechoslo ak T ade s’ Pa y, Na ional Fascis Communi y, Czechoslo ak Ch is ian Social Pa y, Na ional People’s Pa y, and (2) in “loyal” opposi ion, he le -wing Na ional Labou Pa y (Ná odní s ana p áce). 2The P ague up ising was an a emp by he Czech esis ance o libe a e he ci y o P ague om Ge man occupying o ces. I las ed om 5 May un il 8 May 1945, ending in a cease i e be ween he Czech esis ance and he Ge man a my, which decided o lea e P ague on he same day. Nex mo ning, he Red A my en e ed he nea ly libe a ed ci y. 3See an educa ional po al o eache s, s uden s and pupils a ailable on he in e ne h p://www.mode ni-dejiny.cz/clanek/kosicky- ladni-p og am-5- 4-1945 4The Na ional Commi ee (1945–1990; NC) was a pa o he Czechoslo ak s a e adminis a ion wi h o mally elec ed bodies. The NC was di ided ac- co ding o he place o ope a ion— om he op le el o he coun y, wi hin egions, dis ic s and owns o municipali ies. I pe o med as an “ex ended a m” o he CPC o he economy and whole socie y. Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 96 his o ians iew his pa o Czechoslo ak his o y in wo ways: ei he as a sho pe iod o eedom squeezed in be- ween wo dic a o ships (Nazi and Communis ) o as he appings o democ acy leading o he Communis sna e. (D ápala, 2000) In May 1946 Czechoslo akia held i s i s pos -wa pa liamen a y elec ions. A limi ed numbe o pa ies pa - icipa ed in he elec ion. While he CPC won in he Czech lands wi h mo e han 40% o he o e, he Democ a ic Pa y won in Slo akia wi h 60% o he o e. In June 1946, he p e-wa leade Ed a d Beneš was con i med as P esi- den o he Republic, and he appoin ed a go e nmen led by CPC chai man Klemen Go wald. In Oc obe 1946, he Czechoslo ak Na ional Assembly app o ed an economic plan o he econs uc ion o pos -wa Czechoslo akia. In 1947 he USSR began o c ea e he Eas e n bloc by a angemen s such as a peace ea y concluded wi h Hunga y and a iendship and mu ual assis ance ea y concluded wi h Poland. A his ime Czechoslo akia ol- lowed Moscow’s “ad ice” o wi hd aw om he Ma shall Plan and o sign a ade ag eemen wi h he USSR. In he pos -wa a mosphe e he libe alism and hu- manism which cha ac e ized he Fi s Republic we e pe - cei ed by he majo i y o socie y as he oo o all e il, which was o blame o he ha dships o wa , human deg ada ion and he o al collapse o mode n socie y. The cen al heme o he ime was socialism, which was also complemen ed by na ionalism and Sla onic pa io- ism. In May 1945 he Minis y o In o ma ion issued a Dec ee o bidding he publica ion o any p in ed ma e- ial, wi h he excep ion o selec ed dailies issued by Na- ional F on pa ies. Fu he pe mission o publish was only g an ed o hose o ganisa ions which could p o e ha his was in he public in e es . In he Thi d Republic immedia ely a e he wa , he Czechoslo ak p ess was made up o h ee ideological- poli ical ypes: (1) he Communis p ess and pe iodi- cals wi h Communis sympa hies, (2) a democ a ic le - wing p ess and (3) he non-Socialis p ess. Censo ship was no exe cised, al hough he p ess laws da ing back o he Fi s Republic p o ided o i . Bu he si ua ion changed in au umn 1947, when he Communis s began o pe cei e censo ship as an indispensable ins umen o powe . In Decembe 1947 he Minis y o In o ma- ion c ea ed he Su eillance Depa men , which aimed o moni o objec ionable ex s dealing wi h he na ional economic plan, inci emen agains he Sla onic peoples as well as de ia ion om he basic line in domes ic and o eign policy and ma e s connec ed o he de ence o he s a e (Kaplan & Tomášek, 1994). 2.2. The Communis Takeo e o 1948 A d ama ic go e nmen c isis s a ed in P ague on 13 Feb ua y 1948 when pe sonnel changes in a ou o he Communis s we e made in he Na ional Secu i y Co ps. The esponse o he e e -inc easing in luence o he CPC was he esigna ion o he non-Communis minis e s, 12 membe s o a 26-membe go e nmen , on 20 Feb ua y 1948. The CPC and g oups sympa he ic o i wi hin indi- idual pa ies began o es ablish he Na ional F on Ac- ion Commi ees (NFAC), whose aim was o “cleanse” he go e nmen and public li e o all non-Communis poli i- cal o ces. Two days la e , he People’s Mili ia also came in o being, a med uni s consis ing mos ly o wo ke s di- ec ly con olled by he CPC. Thei main aim was he de ence o indus ial en e p ises and he in imida ion o hei poli ical (an i-Socialis ) opponen s. The con lic con inued on 24 Feb ua y 1948 wi h an hou -long gen- e al s ike in suppo o he CPC’s equi emen s, and es- cala ed on 25 Feb ua y, when P esiden Ed a d Beneš ag eed o make changes in he go e nmen as sugges ed by Klemen Go wald. This is how Communis s came o powe in Czechoslo- akia—widely known as he “Communis coup”. In ea ly May, a new Cons i u ion was app o ed, and he de ini- i e in luence o he CPC in he coun y was o mally con- i med on 30 May 1948 by he pa liamen a y elec ions. All he pa ies s ood on a single lis o candida es led by he CPC and 89% o he elec o a e o ed o hem. 70% o membe s o he Na ional Assembly we e Communis s, and he emaining membe s om o he pa ies we e p o- Communis . Finally, in June 1948, Klemen Go wald be- came he new P esiden . A his s age he CPC b ough socie y unde o ali- a ian con ol. The economy was based on he p inci- ple o cen al planning, and companies wi h mo e han 50 employees we e na ionalised. Unde p essu e om Moscow, he CPC’s Cen al Commi ee began o ake a ha d line agains any c i icism o he Communis sys em o in a ou o libe al hinking. The e we e a numbe o ab ica ed poli ical ials, o ced labou camps we e c e- a ed and he s ic supe ision o he censo co e ed no only he ield o cul u e, including he p ess, bu also he li e o he Chu ch. A coun e - eac ion o he si ua ion was a wa e o emig a ion, du ing which a la ge communi y o pos -Feb ua y 1948 emig an s ounded publica ions in exile. May 1951 saw he launch o Radio F ee Eu ope wi h egula b oadcas s om Munich. A e Feb ua y 1948 he CPC began o in oduce cen- so ship which would apply no only o he pe iodical and non-pe iodical p ess, adio, ilm and he ea ly days o TV, bu also o exhibi ions, lib a ies, local eco ds, pos e s, ad e ising lea le s, badges, labels and he like. In his way, he media became closely in e wined wi h he sys- em o poli ical powe , while he limi s o jou nalis ic eedom we e de ined by he Na ional F on and sel - censo ship (Končelík e al., 2010). The sys em o censo - ship policed he low o in o ma ion bo h a home and ab oad. The e was a ban on impo ing o eign newspa- pe s and magazines, p ess agencies we e shu down, as we e cul u al cen es and in o ma ion o ices wi h hei headqua e s in he Wes . The s a e secu i y ou inely moni o ed co espondence sen om and o capi alis coun ies and so on. In he coming yea s, e e y hing ha did no sui he o icial ideas o he socialis p ess g ad- Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 97 ually disappea ed om he newspape s, while he cen- so in e ened no only in ma e s o con en , bu also o o m, and ied o in luence p oduc ion, p in un and scope. In his way, he Communis egime gained a o al in o ma ion monopoly. Howe e , in he ea ly 1950s, a mo e mode a e cul- u al policy was p omo ed. The eason o his was no only he ac he So ie ideas o socialis a had p o ed p oblema ic, bu i was also a esponse o he g owing con lic wi hin he CPC i sel (Knapík, 2006). The concep o he “new cou se”5opened up he possibili y o libe al- isa ion in Czechoslo akia’s cul u al sphe e be ween 1953 and 1956. A e he dea h o Jose S alin in 1953 and he c i icism by Niki a Kh ushche in 1956, he egime began o look mo e kindly on some s ill- ejec ed pe son- ali ies, less s ic aes he ic c i e ia appea ed, and e en some channels o con ac wi h he Wes we e in o- duced. A new a is ic gene a ion began o ake shape ha did no eel i sel as bound o he dogma ic doc ines o he la e 1940s and ea ly 1950s. While he Cold Wa con inued as an o e all ame, i was possible o hope o he p omo ion o libe alis ic endencies. The p essu e o e o ms in he CPC and o he as- pec s o e e yday li e inc eased a e he mid-1960s. As he e o m suppo e s became inc easingly ecognized in he CPC and public li e, he libe al o ien a ion in he coun y and in he CPC g adually won he suppo o he majo i y o a e ised o m o Communism. 2.3. The P ague Sp ing o 1968 In 1968 he wo ld was in u moil, wi h he wa in Vie - nam, he ci il igh s mo emen in he USA and s uden un es h oughou Eu ope, especially in F ance. I was a unique yea in pos -wa his o y, as 1848 had been a hun- d ed yea s ea lie . And he “P ague Sp ing” became i s ocal poin . Fo a sho pe iod, om Janua y o Augus 1968, he e was a huge de elopmen among poli icians, in- ellec uals, s uden s and o dina y public li e sphe es in Czechoslo akia. The social and poli ical c i icism o he sys em had been g adual and undamen al and was e- lec ed in economy, cen al managemen , cul u e and media. A he end o 1967 a c isis in he CPC i sel deepened and he pa y spli in o wo g oups: (1) con- se a i es, ep esen ed by An onín No o ný, Czechoslo- ak p esiden and CPC i s sec e a y, and (2) e o m Communis s, who wan ed o democ a ize he old poli- ics. In Janua y 1968 he big b eak happened, when An- onín No o ný was emo ed as i s sec e a y o he CPC and eplaced by Alexande Dubček, a e o m Communis om Slo akia. The mo o o Dubček´s new poli ical p og amme6 was “Socialism wi h a human ace”. Al hough he Cze- choslo ak economy should s ill be based on s a e o co-ope a i e owne ship, non-Communis pa ies, b oad public communi y and ee elec ions should also be in- ol ed in poli ical powe . Admission o leading posi ions and uni e si ies should no longe be con ingen upon CPC membe ship. The e o ms also abolished censo ship and an in o mal alliance de eloped be ween Dubček´s leade ship and jou nalis s. Indeed, he media played a c ucial ole in he P ague Sp ing (Končelík e al., 2010). F eedom o speech lou ished and di e en associa ions like he scou mo emen we e es o ed. The P ague Sp ing changes we e suppo ed h oughou socie y and had a conside able in e na ional esponse. Howe e , he So ie Communis Pa y, oge he wi h i s sis e pa ies in o he Socialis coun ies, we e a aid o his e i al p ocess, and his ea led o he occupa- ion o Czechoslo akia by Wa saw Pac mili a y o ces on 21 Augus 1968. F om Sep embe 1968 he so-called Moscow P o ocol was implemen ed in Czechoslo akia. The Czechoslo ak popula ion o cou se p o es ed agains he occupa ion. The mos adical ac agains he es o a- ion o he Communis dic a o ship was ha o Jan Palach, a s uden o he Cha les Uni e si y, who bu ned himsel o dea h on 16 Janua y 1969 a he P ague’s Wenceslas Squa e. In Ap il 1969 Gus á Husák became he i s sec e a y o he Communis Pa y. Alexande Dubček and his closes associa es we e soon emo ed om public li e and eplaced by So ie puppe s. E e y- one who pa icipa ed in he P ague Sp ing o disag eed wi h he occupa ion was punished. Censo ship was ein- s a ed and housands o books and ilms we e banned. Many Czechs and Slo aks le he coun y. The P ague Sp ing was consequen ly b ough o a d as ic end and eplaced by a sweeping poli ical p o- cess called “No maliza ion” las ing o 20 yea s. O icially Czechoslo akia was a ai h ul membe o he Eas e n bloc, and he CPC bu eauc a ic appa a us was se e ely con olling all aspec s o li e. Ye unde he su ace he e exis ed an unde g ound cul u e, in ellec ual dis- sen , samizda and an exile li e a u e. The CPC bu eau- c a ic appa a us could no longe e ec i ely con ol all a eas o socie y. The mos signi ican mani es a ion o he an i-Communis esis ance was he publica ion o Cha e 77 wi h i s ci il mo emen es ablished in Janua y 1977, led by w i e and la e Czechoslo ak P esiden Vá- cla Ha el and he uni e si y p o esso Jan Pa očka. 5The “new cou se” (no ý ku s) was p oclaimed by he leade ship o he CPC a e he dea hs o S alin and Go wald in 1953. I s esul was a mo e be- nign app oach o he middle classes; o ced collec i isa ion in illages was empo a ily hal ed, auxilia y echnical ba alions we e disbanded, poli ical ials we e discon inued and he p ocess o e ising hei ou comes began, e c. See h p://www.edejiny.cz/obdobi-des alinizace- -ceskoslo ensku-1953- %E2%80%93-1960 6The e we e wo main documen s de e mining he P ague Sp ing: (1) Dubček´s CPC Ac ion p og amme pos ed on 5 Ap il 1968, ela ed o he poli ics and e o m s eps o CPC, and (2) he “Two housand wo ds” documen w i en by Lud ík Vaculík oge he wi h leading Czech scien is s, published on 27 July 1968. I was abou he ac i a ion o he Czechoslo ak public agains he e e -e iden p essu e o he So ie leade ship agains he e o ms in he coun y. The mani es o was signed by hund eds o public igu es and mo e han 120,000 ci izens, which led o he pe secu ion o many people in he pe iod o no maliza ion in he 1970s. Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 98 2.4. The Vel e Re olu ion o 1989 The esis ance o he Communis egime began o in- c ease in he la e 1980s, in connec ion wi h Mikhail Go - bache ’s ise o powe in he USSR and policy o pe - es oika and glasnos . The CPC claimed o ag ee wi h his So ie e o m policy, bu his was a he lip se ice. Demons a ions o disag eemen wi h he o ali a ian egime p oli e a ed, bu we e also se e ely supp essed by he secu i y o ces. The mos impo an ac ions ook place on (1) 28 Oc- obe 1988, he 70 h anni e sa y o he ounding o he Czechoslo ak Republic, (2) 16 Janua y 1989, he 20 h an- ni e sa y o Jan Palach’s suicide, and (3) 29 June 1989, he publica ion o “A Few Sen ences”, a call by dissiden leade s o he elease o poli ical p isone s, open and ee discussion, including ho ny his o ical issues, and he end o censo ship.7The c ucial e en which p ecip- i a ed he Vel e Re olu ion, happened on 17 No em- be 1989 in he cen e o P ague, when secu i y po- lice blocked and iolen ly b oke up a s uden p ocession o commemo a e he 50 h anni e sa y o he In e na- ional Day o S uden s. The undamen al esponse o his a med in e en ion was he ounding o he Ci ic Fo um, headed by Václa Ha el, o begin a dialogue wi h he Communis leade s. Massi e demons a ions ook place h oughou Czechoslo akia in suppo o he Ci ic Fo um, and uni e si y s uden s wen on s ike. On 24 No embe 1989, he CPC’s sec e a y gen- e al Ladisla Adamec and his en i e cen al commi - ee wi hd ew. The name o he s a e was changed o Czecho-Slo ak Fede a i e Republic and he head o he Fede al assembly became P ague Sp ing leade Alexan- de Dubček. On 29 Decembe 1989 Václa Ha el was elec ed as he new P esiden . Du ing 1990 Czechoslo- akia became a ede al epublic and he ans o ma ion o Czechoslo ak socie y and i s economic, social and poli ical li e om Communis o ali a ianism o libe al democ acy could begin a e long 40 yea s. 3. The Jou nalis s and Thei Union 1946–1990 A e Wo ld Wa II, he e we e na u ally signi ican changes in jou nalism as a p o ession. Be o e 1946 jou - nalis s we e ep esen ed by he p o ec o a e Na ional Union o Jou nalis s (NUJ; see mo e on his in Cebe, 2017, in his issue). The Czech Jou nalis s’ Union (hence o - wa d he CJU)8came in o being a a gene al mee ing in Ma ch 1946. On ha occasion i was also ag eed ha p o- essional ma e s should in u u e all unde he emi o he Re olu iona y T ade Union Mo emen .9The CJU ep- esen ed a communi y o al oge he abou 800 jou nal- is s (Cebe, 2012). In 1947, ollowing he Ac on he S a us o Edi o s and Jou nalis s’ Unions, wo jou nalis s’ unions we e o med, he Czech union ( o me ly CJU) and he Slo- ak union, while abo e hem an umb ella o ganiza ion was es ablished, he Cen al Union o Czechoslo ak Jou - nalis s (CUCSJ). In May 1947 he go e nmen passed he Ac on he S a us o Edi o s and Jou nalis s’ Unions.10 In ac , he CJU and CUCSJ we e mo e a ool o he egime han a p o ide o bene i s o jou nalis s. On his basis, he p ac ice o jou nalism was ied o compulso y membe ship o he CJU, which had di e consequences o many jou nalis s in he pos -Feb ua y cleansing. A e Feb ua y 1948, he e we e dynamic po- li ical and social changes. E en in he CJU ac ion com- mi ees we e ounded and only hose jou nalis s who we e willing o wo k wi h he newly-es ablished egime emained membe s o he Union. The o he s we e ex- cluded om hei p o essional o ganiza ion and he eby los all chances o wo king in he media. The NFAC o ced mo e han one hund ed expe ienced jou nalis s o lea e and consequen ly a ec ed he Czechoslo ak media o decades. (Cebe, 2012) The new Communis Cons i u ion o May 1948 had wo main consequences o jou nalis s and hei union. Fi s ly, al hough he new Cons i u ion gua an eed ee- dom o exp ession and p ohibi ed censo ship, he CPC consis en ly moni o ed all media p oduc ion, making in- dependen media in p ac ice impossible. The jou nalis became a me e ins umen lacking any au onomy, p o- iding in o ma ion on only poli ically-app o ed in e p e- a ions o e en s. The economy was only o be po ayed as lou ishing, accompanied by he people’s e o s o build i up. In he same way, bo h spo s and scien i ic achie emen s we e o be asc ibed o he me i s o he new Communis egime. The mos signi ican ins umen o con olling he media was, o cou se, he s a ing pol- icy, meaning ha jou nalis s we e in cons an ea o los- ing hei jobs. (Končelík e al., 2010) Secondly, a new, in eg a ed Union o Czechoslo ak Jou nalis s (UCSJ; 1948–1972), headqua e ed in P ague, was ounded and, wi hin i , he Na ional Union o Slo ak Jou nalis s, headqua e ed in B a isla a. The s a e, a he han he UCSJ, made he decisions ega ding i s ocus, o ganiza ional s uc u e o he exe cise o he jou nal- 7Fo mo e, see h p://old.us c .cz/en/miles ones-in- ecen -czech-his o y-1938-1989 8The succession o changing union o ma ions om 1946 o 1990: 1946–1947: Czech Jou nalis s Union (CJU); 1947–1948: Czech Jou nalis s Union (CJU), Slo ak Jou nalis s Union (SJU), Cen al Union o Czechoslo ak Jou nalis s (CUCSJ); 1948–1968: Na ional Union o Czechoslo ak Jou nalis s (UCSJ), Union o Slo ak Jou nalis s (USJ); 1968–1972: Unions o Czech (UCJ) and Slo ak (USJ) Jou nalis s, Headqua e s; 1972–1990: Czech Union o Jou nalis s (CUJ), Slo ak Union o Jou nalis s (SUJ), Na ional Czechoslo ak Union o Jou nalis s (NCSUJ), 1990: The Syndica e o Jou nalis s o he Czech Republic. (Še číko á, 2015). 9The Re olu iona y T ade Union Mo emen Ac was passed on 16 May 1946. In 1947, he decision was aken ha he CJU should also ul il he unc ion o a ade union. Di isional membe ship was olun a y; howe e , he CJU poin ed ou o i s membe s ha he CJU would no ep esen hem in p o es- sional issues i hey we e no membe s o he Re olu iona y T ade Union Mo emen . F om 1 Janua y 1948, he Ag eemen on he En y o Jou nalis s in o he Re olu iona y T ade Union Mo emen came in o o ce and a e ha da e, he majo i y o jou nalis s joined a ade union. 10 Ac No. 101/1974 Coll. I s ipula ed, among o he hings, who could become an edi o , laid down he igh s and esponsibili ies o edi o s, including he igh o he Union o ake disciplina y ac ion agains i s membe s. Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 99 ism as a p o ession and membe ship, meaning ha he o ganiza ion oed he Communis pa y line h oughou i s exis ence. F om 1948, he CJU and UCSJ also se ed as he ga e- way o in e na ional o ganiza ions, abo e all o he IOJ. In July 1968, ollowing he e en s o he P ague Sp ing, he UCSJ held a landma k cong ess. A new s a u e and se - e al esolu ions we e adop ed in suppo o a new model o Socialism (“wi h a human ace”), democ acy and ee- dom o he p ess, speech and in o ma ion. The o me UCSJ was abolished and new Unions o Czech (UCJ, 1968– 1972) and Slo ak (USJ, 1968–1972) Jou nalis s, includ- ing an umb ella o ganiza ion (Headqua e s, 1968–1972) we e o med. The new o ganiza ional model con inued un il Au- gus 1968. Bo h he Headqua e s and UCJ we e unde he con ol o he Commission o he P epa a ion o he II Cong ess o he UCJ, which soon o e u ned all he de- cisions o he p e ious leade ship and se up a cleansing commission on he basis o which 479 jou nalis s we e excluded om he Union and he e o e also om hei p o ession be ween Sep embe 1968 o Ma ch 1970, ol- lowed in 1972 by ano he 800 jou nalis s. As o 1971 he whole union had a comple e o e haul in he line o no maliza ion. In May 1972 a cong ess was con ened a which he Czech Union o Jou nalis s (CUJ, 1972–1990), he Slo ak Union o Jou nalis s (SUJ, 1972– 1990) and he Na ional Czechoslo ak Union o Jou nalis s (NCSUJ, 1972–1990) we e es ablished. The big b eakup o he NCSUJ ook place a he u n o 1989 and 1990, due o he poli ical e en s o he Vel- e Re olu ion and he end o he Communis egime. Im- media ely a e 17 No embe 1989, a new managemen o he CUJ, including he Bu eau and i s sec e a ia , was elec ed. A he same ime, he new Bu eau o he CUJ con ened a gene al mee ing on 16 Decembe 1989, a which i was decided o c ea e a new jou nalis o ganiza- ion, wi h he o m o a syndica e. The old Union (CUJ) was dissol ed a he ex ao dina y cong ess o he CUJ on 6 Janua y 1990, and he successo o ganiza ion be- came he Syndica e o Jou nalis s o he Czech Republic, as a olun a y, independen , non-poli ical, p o essionally uni ed union o Czech and Mo a ian jou nalis s. (P ouza, 1990) The new Syndica e e used o join he IOJ and in- s ead became membe o he IFJ. 4. The IOJ om 1946 o he 1990s 4.1. Founding and Spli The IOJ was ounded a he In e na ional Cong ess o Jou nalis s in June 1946 in Copenhagen, he capi al o Denma k, which had only ecen ly been libe a ed om Nazi occupa ion. The cong ess was a ended by 165 dele- ga es11 om 21 coun ies. The pos -wa a mosphe e was one o joy and op imism. In Czechoslo akia, his came jus a e he pos -wa pa liamen a y elec ions, which b ough he Communis s o powe as he leading poli - ical o ce ( o de ails o he i s IOJ cong esses, see No - dens eng & Kubka, 1988). The p o isional cons i u ion was inalised and ap- p o ed a he second IOJ cong ess held in P ague in June 1947 and a ended by 208 delega es om 21 coun ies, he UN and UNESCO. The CJU, led by Jiří H onek, was e- sponsible o o ganizing he cong ess and i s pa on was P esiden Ed a d Beneš, who spoke a he opening ce e- mony, as did Jan Masa yk (Czechoslo ak Minis e o Fo - eign A ai s) and Klemen Go wald (P ime Minis e and CPC Chai man). The same posi i e a mosphe e p e ailed a he sec- ond cong ess in P ague as one yea ea lie in Copen- hagen, al hough some ension abou he impending di- ision o he wo ld could al eady be sensed. While he hos union was in he middle o s uc u al and poli i- cal changes, he cong ess wen smoo hly in imp essi e se ings. The cons i u ional s a u es and p incipal eso- lu ions we e app o ed unanimously, likewise he leade - ship elec ed, wi h A chibald Kenyon o he UK con inuing as P esiden and Vice P esiden s coming om he USA, USSR, F ance and Denma k. H onek was unanimously elec ed o he combined o ice o Sec e a y Gene al and T easu e . Bu he si e o he headqua e s had o be pu o a o e, he majo i y suppo ing P ague, while a mino - i y led by B i ish and Ame icans o ed o London. In less han a yea a e he P ague cong ess, by ea ly 1948, he Cold Wa had b oken ou and a wa e o po- li ical sys em changes in Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope led o a di ision o Eu ope in o Eas and Wes , sepa a ed by he “i on cu ain”. The IOJ was pa o his ba leg ound, becoming emb oiled in Cold-Wa poli ics (No dens eng e al., 2016). The pos -wa uni y o p o essional jou nal- is s was quickly eplaced by dis us and an agonism be- ween he capi alis Wes and he socialis Eas , exac- e ba ed by poli ical mobiliza ion in bo h camps. E o s by he Czech Sec e a y Gene al H onek and he B i ish P esiden Kenyon o hold he IOJ oge he we e o e - uled by o de s om Cold-Wa s a egis s in London and Washing on, on he one hand, and he So ie Communis Pa y ha dline s in Moscow, on he o he (No dens eng, in p ess). The IOJ headqua e s in P ague chose he So ie side o he poli ical di ide as swi ly as he Czechoslo ak Union was mo ed o he Socialis camp. These wo p o- cesses we e pa allel and ob iously e lec ions o a com- mon o e all shi in global ela ions o powe . In 1948–1949 he IOJ los i s Wes Eu opean and No h Ame ican membe s, excep o le -leaning g oups o jou nalis s he e (mainly in F ance and Finland). The hi d IOJ cong ess in Helsinki in 1950 con i med he change by changing he s a u es in line wi h he Commu- nis app oach, he bulk o he membe ship in he Social- is coun ies o Cen al–Eas e n Eu ope and newly inde- 11 The Czechoslo ak delega ion o he Cong ess was ep esen ed by CJU Chai man O aka Wünsch, Jiří H onek, K. F. Zie is (CJU sec e a y) and Emil Š e an (USJ). Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 100 penden coun ies o he Thi d Wo ld, including Commu- nis China. The IOJ had become one o he “democ a ic in e - na ional o ganiza ions” closely associa ed wi h he USSR. The Wes e n jou nalis s’ associa ions es ablished a new In e na ional Fede a ion o Jou nalis s (IFJ) in B ussels in 1952—as pa o he “F ee Wes ” coun e ing he “Com- munis Eas ”. The Cold Wa poli ics led o he loss o he IOJ’s a ilia ion wi h he UN and UNESCO, bu i gained new membe s in he de eloping coun ies o A ica, Asia and La in Ame ica. In 1966, i s membe ship amoun ed o 130,000 jou nalis s in 108 coun ies, while he IFJ had 55,000 membe s in 31 coun ies. 4.2. The P ague Sp ing The IOJ con inued o g ow despi e u moil in i s poli ical en i onmen caused by he P ague Sp ing in 1968 and i s a e ma h. The IOJ had i s p emises in he building o he Czechoslo ak Union UCSJ, and in Augus 1968 he whole building was occupied by Wa saw pac o ces. Howe e , he IOJ was soon allowed o e u n o i s p emises and con inued mo e o less as be o e, while he e o mis Czechoslo ak Union was e ec i ely eplaced by a new CJU (see abo e). Unlike in 1948, he IOJ did no d ama ically ollow he sys em change implemen ed in he na ional union. Ac u- ally he IOJ ac i i ies, including he mon hly publica ion The Democ a ic Jou nalis , had since he 1950s emained qui e ue o he “Moscow line”, wi h no symp oms o he P ague Sp ing. By he 1970s he IOJ was i mly con- solida ed on he basis es ablished in he la e 1940s, now inc easingly domina ed by an “an i-impe ialis ” o ien a- ion e lec ing he conce ns o he de eloping coun ies and mee ing he So ie in e es s. The changing clima e o in e na ional ela ions was also ins umen al o ein- s a ing IOJ’s a ilia ion wi h he UN and UNESCO. Financial suppo o mo e and mo e ac i i ies a ound he wo ld came no only om he nominal mem- be ship ees bu om public “solida i y lo e ies” in Eas Eu opean Socialis coun ies. Mo eo e , a peculia sou ce o inancing was in en ed by new Sec e a y Gen- e al Jiří Kubka oge he wi h he Hunga ian T easu e No be Siklósi: he IOJ was pe mi ed, wi h he blessing o he Communis Pa y, o es ablish comme cial com- panies in ansla ion and con e ence se ices, publish- ing, e c. This p i ilege made he IOJ qui e ich, acili- a ing a la ge sec e a ia wi h a publishing house, ain- ing schools in Eu opean Socialis coun ies, egional cen- es on all de eloping con inen s and la ge con e ences a ound he wo ld. The heyday o he IOJ was in he la e 1980s, when i s membe ship eached 300,000. By his ime i s poli - ical line had become much mo e open and b oad, pa - icula ly by i s ac i e engagemen in Eas –Wes dé en e om 1973 on, leading g adually o con ac s and e en coope a ion wi h he IFJ in he 1980s (No dens eng e al., 2016). 4.3. The Vel e Re olu ion The Cold Wa wo ld o de began o c umble in la e 1989, when i s he Be lin Wall ell and hen P ague was shaken by he Vel e Re olu ion, ollowed by he all o Communism in Eas e n Eu ope. Global geopoli ics was suddenly changed and he IOJ was challenged: i s head- qua e s and ope a ions in P ague came unde sha p a - ack om he ising poli ical o ces in Czechoslo akia, and i s local membe Union— he legal base o i s sea in P ague—was closed down and eplaced by a new Syn- dica e which did no wan o a ilia e wi h he IOJ bu joined he IFJ. Mo eo e , o he s ong membe unions in o me Socialis coun ies, no ably he USSR, began o lose poli ical and ma e ial g ound. The IOJ’s inancial e- sou ces we e apidly dwindling and ac i i ies in aining, publica ion, e c. we e g adually discon inued. Ne e heless, in 1991 he IOJ held i s 11 h cong ess in Ha a e in ai ly good shape, bu by i s 12 h cong ess in Amman in 1995 i was c ippled by sh inking inances and qua elling leade ship. A e his, membe unions one a - e ano he decided o join he IFJ, while mos o hem also emained nominal membe s o he IOJ. By he end o he 1990s he IOJ had in ac disappea ed om he scene, whe eas he IFJ had g own in o an o ganiza ion also ep esen ing he bulk o he ea lie IOJ membe ship. Finally, in 2016, he las wo IOJ p esiden s p onounced he IOJ e ec i ely dead (No dens eng, in p ess). 5. Conclusion In summa y: (1) he sys em change in 1948 om lib- e al democ acy o Communism in Czechoslo akia imme- dia ely in ol ed jou nalis s wi h hei na ional associa- ion, and he IOJ ollowed sui d i en by he same de el- opmen s among all he So ie -domina ed Eas e n Eu o- pean membe associa ions, while he Wes e n membe s wi hd ew wi hou an o ganiza ional igh ; (2) he sys em ins abili y o 1968 wi h an a emp o libe alize Commu- nism hi he na ional associa ion ha d bu did no ex end o he IOJ, which con inued la gely unchanged; (3) he sys em change in 1989 caused an immedia e uphea al in he na ional associa ion and he g adual disin eg a ion o he IOJ, again as a esul o changes h oughou he So ie block—a e e se p ocess o 1948. The s o y o Czechoslo ak jou nalis o ganiza ions and he IOJ adds u he e idence o he o e all lesson p esen ed in No dens eng e al. (2016, p. 180): in e - na ional jou nalis s’ associa ions a e in a iably bound by hei poli ical en i onmen s and o belie e ha jou nal- is s and hei associa ions can e e be comple ely apoli - ical is a naï e illusion. Howe e , he in e na ional mo e- men is no de e minis ically d i en by poli ics alone; i is also d i en by p o essional in e es s wi h mo e o less au onomy. This a icle has mos ly conce ned he poli ical his o y o Czechoslo akia, which al eady sugges s ano he gen- e al conclusion: in o de o unde s and he ela ionship Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 101 which he media and jou nalis s, including hei associa- ions, ha e o poli ical sys em changes, i is i al o ha e a p o ound knowledge o he his o y o he coun y in ques ion. All oo o en a e changes in media and jou nal- is s s udied wi h a supe icial unde s anding o he his- o ical con ex . Acknowledgmen s The au ho s wish o hank Isabel S ainsby and Vi ginia Ma ila o hei assis ance in checking he English o his a icle. Con lic o In e es s The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s. Re e ences Cebe, J. (2012). No inářská o ganizace le ech 1945– 1948 [Jou nalis s o ganiza ion 1945–1948] (Unpub- lished Doc o al disse a ion). Cha les Uni e si y, P ague, Czech Republic. Cebe, J. (2017). Cleansing among Czech jou nalis s a e Wo ld Wa II and a compa ison wi h he si ua ion in F ance and he Ne he lands. Media and Communica- ion,5(3), 70–78. D ápala, M. (2000). Na z acené a ě Západu: an olo- gie české nesocialis ické publicis iky z le 1945–1948 [The los gua d o he Wes : An an hology o Czech non-Socialis jou nalism om 1945–1948]. P ague: P os o . Emme , F. (2012). P ů odce českými dějinami 20. s ole í [A guide o Czech his o y o he 20 h cen u y]. B no: Clio. Kaplan, K., & Tomášek, D. (1994). O cenzuře Českoslo ensku le ech 1945–1956: s udie [A s udy o censo ship in Czechoslo akia, 1945–1956]. P ague: Ins i u e o Con empo a y His o y o he Academy o Sciences o he Czech Republic. Knapík, J. (2006). V zaje í moci: kul u ní poli ika, její sys ém a ak éři 1948–1956 [In cap u e o powe : Cul u al policy, i s sys em and ac o s 1948–1956]. P ague: Lib i. Končelík, J., Večeřa, P., & O ság, P. (2010). Dějiny českých médií 20. s ole í [A his o y o he Czech media o he 20 h cen u y]. P ague: Po ál. No dens eng, K. (in p ess). The ise and all o he In e na ional O ganiza ion o Jou nalis s based in Czechoslo akia. Use ul ecollec ions pa III. P ague: Ka olinum. No dens eng, K., Bjö k, U. J., Beye sdo , F., Høye , S., & Lauk, E. (2016). A his o y o he In e na ional Mo e- men o Jou nalis s: P o essionalism e sus poli ics. Houndmills: Palg a e Macmillan. No dens eng, K., & Kubka, J. (1988). Use ul ecollec- ions. Excu sion in o he his o y o he In e na- ional Mo emen o Jou nalis s. Pa II. P ague: IOJ. Re ie ed om h ps://books.google. i/books?id=Bq 3SAwAAQBAJ& edi _esc=y P ouza, J. (1990). Mimořádný sjezd Českého s azu no - inářů, P aha 6. ledna 1990, Palác kul u y e 13 hod. S enog a ický záznam [Ex ao dina y Cong ess o he CUJ, P ague, 6 Janua y 1990, Palace o Cul u e, 1 P.M., s enog aphic eco d] P aha: ČSN. Še číko á, M. (2015). Meziná odní o ganizace no inářů (1946–1995) [In e na ional O ganiza ion o Jou - nalis s (1946–1995)] (Unpublished Doc o al Thesis). Cha les Uni e si y, P ague, Czech Republic. Abou he Au ho s Ma ké a Še číko á is an independen esea che in he ield o media his o y om P ague, Czech Re- public. He esea ch ocuses mainly on Czechoslo ak jou nalis s and he In e na ional O ganiza ion o Jou nalis s. She s udied a he Cha les Uni e si y, Facul y o Humani ies and Facul y o Social Sci- ences. She has wo ked as a media analys , eelance edi o and a PR specialis in comme cial and non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions. Kaa le No dens eng is P o esso Eme i us o Jou nalism and Mass Communica ion a he Uni e - si y o Tampe e, Finland. He wo ked as a eelance jou nalis s a ing in he mid-1950s and se ed as head o esea ch in he Finnish B oadcas ing Company in he la e 1960s. His esea ch has ocused on heo ies o communica ion and global media. He has been Vice P esiden o he In e na ional As- socia ion o Mass Communica ion Resea ch (IAMCR, 1972–1988) and P esiden o he In e na ional O ganiza ion o Jou nalis s (IOJ, 1976–1990). Fo mo e, see h p://www.u a. i/cm /en/con ac /s a / kaa leno dens eng/index.h ml Media and Communica ion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 3, Pages 95–102 102