Typology on leadership toward creativity in virtual work
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Volume 12, 2017
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Ci e as: Humala, I. (2017). Typology on leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k. In e disciplina y Jou nal o
In o ma ion, Knowledge, and Managemen , 12, 209-243. Re ie ed om h p://www.in o mingscience.o g/Publica-
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TYPOLOGY ON LEADERSHIP TOWARD CREATIVITY IN
VIRTUAL WORK
I is Humala
Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e,
Finland
Humala.I is.A@s uden .u a. i
ABSTRACT
Aim/Pu pose
This s udy aims o de elop a desc ip i e ypology o be e iden i y leade ship o-
wa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k in di e en ypes o companies.
Backg ound
The s udy empi ically explo es how leade ship owa d c ea i i y occu s in i ual
wo k and uses he heo e ical lenses o c ea i i y-conduci e leade ship and he e a -
chy o gene a e a ypology.
Me hodology
A mul iple quali a i e case s udy design, in e p e i is app oach, and abduc i e
analysis a e applied. Da a is collec ed by in e iewing 21 leade s and employees
ace- o- ace in ou companies in he ICT sec o and one business ad iso com-
pany.
Con ibu ion
The empi ical e idence o his s udy en iches he unde s anding o leade ship o-
wa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k and con ibu es o he limi ed empi ical knowledge
on leade ship ha s imula es a i ual wo k o ce o achie e c ea i i y.
Findings
The ou di e en ypes o companies in he ypology u ilize a ious ansi ions o-
wa d leade ship c ea i i y in i ual wo k. The end in leade ship in he exis ing
i ually ne wo ked business en i onmen is owa d he “collec i e mind” com-
pany, which is cha ac e ized by sha ed alues, meaning ul wo k, collec i e in elli-
gence, conscious e lec ion, anspa ency, coaching, empowe ing leade ship by ex-
ample, e ec i e mul ichannel in e ac ion, and asse i eness. The indings empi i-
cally suppo applying a he e a chy pe spec i e o lead a i ual wo k o ce owa d
c ea i i y and p omo e leade s who a e genuinely in e es ed in people, hei de el-
opmen , collabo a ion, and echnology.
Recommenda ions
o P ac i ione s
The ypology helps p o essionals ealize he need o de elop leade ship, communi-
ca ion, in e ac ion, lea ning, and g ow h o os e c ea i e in e ac ion and imp o e
p oduc i i y and compe i i eness.
Recommenda ion
o Resea che s
This s udy enables esea che s o mo e igo ously and c ea i ely concep ualize he
condi ions and ela ionships in leade ship ha acili a e c ea i i y in i ual wo k.
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
210
Impac on Socie y
The indings highligh humanis ic alues o de eloping leade ship. The s udy
s eng hens he iew ha collec i e c ea i i y in i ual wo k canno eme ge wi h-
ou i ual and physical in e ac ion in app op ia e spaces and ca ing o each o he .
Fu u e Resea ch
Fu u e s udies may ocus on o he ields, indus ies, ne wo ks, oles o ma e iali-
ies, and employees in os e ing c ea i i y and on heo y de elopmen . Longi udinal
s udies a e ad isable.
Keywo ds
i ual wo k, c ea i i y, leade ship, ypology, he e a chy
INTRODUCTION
In he ace o apid change, he complexi y and impo ance o in o ma ion and communica ion ech-
nology (ICT), i uali y, and mobili y as well as he need o enhance inno a ion and p oduc i i y in
oday’s business and wo k, leade s mus be e unde s and he c ea i i y ha occu s when echnology
and human c ea i e p ocesses in e ac (e.g., Gilson, Mayna d, Jones Young, Va iainen, & Hakonen,
2015). The speed o digi al de elopmen makes his e en mo e impo an because new a eas a e be-
coming subjec o au oma ion, and people need o adap o use hei c ea i i y in hese new en i on-
men s in which machines complemen and augmen human capabili ies (B ynjol sson & McA ee,
2014). This si ua ion equi es iden i ica ion o ways o use ICT in leade ship in o de o e icien ly
o ganize in e nal collabo a ion and lea ning and hei ex e nal applica ions (Guo, Dilley, & Gonzales,
2016) and an unde s anding o c ea i i y as a s a egic challenge in he global business en i onmen
o ad ance p o i abili y in business and p oduc i i y and he common good in socie y. Acco ding o
Chamakio is (2014, p. 70), “c ea i i y is pi o al in design, as i is closely linked o he p oblem-sol ing
ac i i y, as well as o he comme cial success o a p oduc .”
Vi ual wo k is ac ualized in dynamic mul i-media ed, massi e, mul i-ac o social ne wo ks (Pan eli,
2009) ha a e no di ec ed om he op down. In his kind o wo k, i is i al o unde s and he c ea-
i i y ha occu s be ween people in o ganiza ions and combine single indi iduals’ c ea i i y wi h
g oups’ collec i e c ea i i y o enable all possibili ies o inno a ion (e.g., Sawye & DeZu e , 2009).
“Vi ual wo k” e e s o he wo k pe o med by people in di e en geog aphical loca ions ha use
ICT o manage business p ocesses and “ i uali y” so ha companies can wo k oge he wi h cus-
ome s, use s, and in e es g oups (Humala, 2015).
P e ious esea ch has ound ha i is impo an o leade s o os e a i ual co-p esence o s a
membe s o p oduce mu ual us o be e in e ac ion and ou comes (Al schulle & Benbunan-Fich,
2010), gene a e pa icipa ion and suppo i eness in i ual wo k, and main ain mo i a ion (Jens e &
S eile , 2011). Howe e , ew s udies ha e ocused on he eal-wo ld applica ions o leade ship owa d
c ea i i y in i ual wo k. Few empi ical s udies ha e examined o ganiza ional c ea i i y as a collec i e
phenomenon, which equi es esea che s o s udy c ea i i y in ongoing o ganiza ions (i.e., in o gani-
za ions ha g ow) (Guo e al., 2016). Addi ionally, mo e empi ical e idence is needed o apply a he -
e a chical pe spec i e o i ual wo k and o unde s and he connec ions be ween s imula ing c ea i -
i y and he e a chy in o de o os e be e leade ship o i ual wo k o ces (Humala, 2016). He e a -
chy has oo s in complex adap i e sys em heo y (Holland, 2006) and highligh s he changing powe
ela ions wi hin g oups (Aime, Humph ey, Sco , & Paul, 2014). This s udy ises o hese challenges
by empi ically explo ing how leade ship owa d c ea i i y occu s in i ual wo k and using he heo-
e ical lenses o c ea i i y-conduci e leade ship and he e a chy in leade ship o gene a e a desc ip i e
ypology (Collie , LaPo e, & Seaw igh , 2012) including ou di e en ypes o companies. Acco d-
ing o Bell and Kozlowski (2002), a ypology is especially use ul in new a eas o inqui y ha ha e no
been ex ensi ely explo ed and a e cha ac e ized by a a ie y o di e se bu ela ed phenomena. The
ypology iden i ies leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k in a ious ypes o companies and de-
ines a ious ansi ions owa d c ea i e leade ship in i ual wo k. The ypology se es as an analy i-
cal ool ha helps bo h esea che s and p ac i ione s o unde s and and de elop leade ship owa d
c ea i i y in i ual dispe sed wo k as well as concep ualize he condi ions and ela ionships inhe en
o leade ship. This pape p o ides an elabo a e unde s anding o he ype o leade ship ha inspi es a
Humala
211
i ual wo k o ce o be c ea i e, including i s a ibu es, equi emen s, and socie al signi icance. Fo
p ac i ione s, i helps iden i y he cha ac e is ics ha di e be ween a ious ypes o companies and
p o ide new ways o os e a compe i i e i ual wo k o ce.
This s udy is pa o a esea ch p ojec ha aims o inco po a e business-o ien ed and pedagogical
hinking in leade ship by in es iga ing he p ocesses ha occu a mul iple le els o i ual wo k and
how leade s in luence he unde lying p ocesses and dynamics ha lead o o ganiza ional ou comes
(Dinh e al., 2014). The aim o his mul i ace ed app oach is o help inc ease he success o o ganiza-
ions and hei s a .
The nex sec ion in oduces he heo e ical amewo k o he s udy. The subsequen sec ions de-
sc ibe he me hodology and indings o he s udy. The inal sec ions discuss he esul s and p esen
he conclusion.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This s udy ela es o he ollowing academic discussions: i uali y and i ual wo k, c ea i i y and
collec i e c ea i i y, c ea i i y-conduci e leade ship app oaches o i ual wo k e sus ask- ocused
leade ship, and a he e a chical pe spec i e in leade ship e sus a hie a chical pe spec i e.
VIRTUALITY AND VIRTUAL WORK
Vi uali y, as a mul idimensional concep , is an o ganiza ional se up whe eby ope a ions a e o ga-
nized and dis ibu ed ac oss geog aphical, empo al, cul u al, and o ganiza ional bounda ies (e.g., Pa -
janen, 2012). Vi uali y is pa o a social and concep ual ne wo k ha allows in e ac ion be ween
people wi h he same in e es s and concep ual spaces, and i is suppo ed by ICT and explo a ion
bo h wi hin and beyond o ganiza ions (Pan eli & Chiasson, 2008). Technological and social changes
e ise how we unde s and i uali y, i s ole in o ganiza ions, and i s u u e i uali y-based pe spec-
i es o businesses.
Explo a ions o i uali y ha e expanded om indi idual i ual wo k con ex s o i ual eams, o -
ganiza ions, and ne wo ks and mix ace- o- ace and compu e -media ed in e ac ions. Since echnol-
ogy-media ed in e ac ion complemen s a he han subs i u es ace- o- ace in e ac ion, Dixon and
Pan eli (2010) de ine i uali y based on i ual con inui ies ha eme ge wi hin a eam when bo h
ace- o- ace and echnology-media ed communica ion a e used o mi iga e he pe cei ed e ec s o
bounda ies be ween he wo media.
Vi ual wo k, as shown in his s udy, b oadly includes pe manen , con empo a y, in a- and in e o -
ganiza ional, na ionally, and globally dispe sed wo k (Pan eli, 2004) as well as hyb id wo k, which
combines ace- o- ace and i ual communica ion (G i i h, Sawye , & Neale, 2003). In doing so, i
in ol es speci ic emo e wo k con ex s and i ual eams, o ganiza ions and cus ome s, and use s and
supplie s in ne wo ks. Vi ual wo k is ac ualized in dynamic ne wo ks in complex con ex s wi h mul-
ile el pa e ns and social ela ions (Clippinge , 1999; Weil, 2009), and i includes dynamic s uc u al
a angemen s (Gibson & Gibbs, 2006; Zimme mann, Wi , & Gill, 2008). Vi uali y as a wo k con ex
is a con inuous, dynamic se ies o p ocesses consis ing o ci cles o ci cles wi hin ci cles (each ci cle
o ne wo k consis s o smalle ne wo ks o eams, and each ne wo k wo ks oge he in a as ne -
wo k) (Zoha , 1997).
Vi ual eams include g oups o geog aphically dispe sed indi iduals wo king oge he on a join p o-
jec o common ask whose p ima y communica ion occu s elec onically (e.g., Ja enpaa & Leidne ,
1999). Resea ch has highligh ed he impo ance o us o enabling people o collabo a e in i ual
wo k con ex s and ound ha a lack o ace- o- ace in e ac ion dec eases p oduc i i y in uly i ual
eams (e.g., Pan eli & Chiasson, 2008; Pa janen, 2012).
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
212
Recen ly, schola s ha e ocused on ac o s a ec ing knowledge sha ing and ou comes in i ual o -
ganiza ions. Vi ual con ex s a e also unbounded and nonlinea wi h ee mo emen , enabling lexi-
bili y, luidi y, c ea i i y, and oppo uni ies, which lead o imp o emen s in he inno a ion p ocess
(Gibson & Gibbs, 2006; Pan eli & Chiasson, 2008). Vi ual co-c ea ion in i ual ne wo ks suppo s
he pa icipa ion o p e iously una ailable expe s in o de o a i e a inno a i e solu ions (e.g., Pan-
eli, 2009; Pa janen, 2012). Acco ding o Chumg, Cooke, F y, and Hung (2015), p omo ing social al-
ues based on mu uali y, us , and sha ed goals can imp o e employees’ sense o well-being and
knowledge-sha ing ia ICT, hence imp o ing he o ganiza ion’s compe i i e ad an age. Mo eo e ,
pe cei ed p oximi y – a symbolic ep esen a ion o geog aphically dis an cowo ke s – has been
ound o media e he e ec s o communica ion and iden i ica ion on ela ionship quali y, ein o cing
he hypo hesis ha c i ical aspec s o dis ibu ed wo k a e socially cons uc ed and symbolically laden
(O’Lea y, Wilson, & Me iu, 2014; Wilson, O’Lea y, Me iu, & Je , 2008). Also, mul ili e acy skills
(e.g., Dawson & Siemens, 2014) and an unde s anding o collabo a i e and dis ibu i e pa icipa o y
media li e acy based on sha ing, especially he sha ing o collec i e in elligence (Kupiainen & Sin-
onen, 2010), a e c ucial o i ual collabo a ion and leade ship o i ual wo k.
CREATIVITY AND COLLECTIVE CREATIVITY
He e, c ea i i y is conside ed a join cou se o ac ion aken by e e yone in an o ganiza ion. C ea i i y,
he p ocess o gene a ing some hing no el and use ul, has been connec ed o indi iduals and g oups,
and i is said o o igina e om pe sonal p edisposi ions owa d c ea i i y and a hospi able social con-
ex (Amabile, 1988; Csikszen mihalyi, 1999; Woodman, Sawye , & G i in, 1993). Amabile (1983)
s a es ha c ea i i y a ises when he ollowing h ee componen s a e p esen : (1) domain- ele an
skills and expe ise; (2) c ea i i y- ela ed hinking ela ed o cogni i e and pe sonali y p ocesses ha
a e conduci e o no el hinking; and (3) ask mo i a ion, especially in insic mo i a ion. She ex ended
he heo y o include eams and o ganiza ions (Amabile, 1988) and la e iden i ied he powe o p o-
g ess as he op mo i a o o pe o mance (Amabile & K ame , 2011). In addi ion, c ea i i y is em-
bedded in dynamic in e ac ional ela ionships be ween people and hei cul u al and ma e ial eali ies
(Pou anen, 2016), and i needs ime o a ise (Uusikylä, 2012). C ea i i y can also be unde s ood as di-
e gen hinking – de ising al e na i e solu ions o p oblems – ha p oduces no el and use ul ou -
pu s and demands discipline, skill, ha d wo k, and pa ience (Moe an, 2015; Pen ilä & Hakala, 2016).
S udies on c ea i i y ha e inc easingly s essed sociocul u al and collec i e c ea i i y (e.g., Sawye &
DeZu e , 2009) based on Vygo sky’s (1978) sociocul u al app oach o human lea ning as a social
p ocess. The in e ac ion o indi idual c ea i e skills, eam dynamics, and o ganiza ional solu ions
leads o combined ou pu s (Bissola & Impe a o i, 2011; Ha gadon & Bechky, 2006). Va ious social
esou ces and ools ela ed o collabo a ion can p omo e c ea i i y (Hämäläinen & Vähäsan anen,
2011). Fo example, acco ding o Ha dagon and Bechky (2006), e lec i e e aming se es as he
co e o c ea i ely collec i e momen s because i d aws upon pa icipan s’ p io expe ience and com-
bines i in new ways. The abili y o people o ans o m he ou side wo ld and gain a sense o be-
longing o a communi y by inding c ea i e solu ions o e e yday asks and longe - e m goals ha e
been unde lined as ways in which c ea i i y is meaning ul (Coun le , 2011; Handy, 1995; Zhou &
Shalley, 2008). P e ious esea ch has highligh ed he ole o mic o-le el in e ac ions – ha is, collab-
o a i e momen s and e en s – and p ocesses o gene a e collec i e c ea i i y (Ha dagon & Bechky,
2006; Pou anen, 2016).
O ganiza ional c ea i i y e e s o he c ea ion o a new aluable and use ul p oduc , se ice, idea,
p ocedu e, o p ocess by people wo king wi hin a complex social sys em (Woodman e al., 1993).
This ype o c ea i i y is ela ed o g oup c ea i i y and con ex ual in luences (Pa janen, 2012;
Schepe s & an den Be g, 2007). A elaxing en i onmen , suppo o he o ganiza ion's s uc u al
and leade ship solu ions, esou ces, and skills, and a posi i e o ganiza ional cul u e a e essen ial o
o ganiza ional c ea i i y (e.g., Kallio & Kallio, 2011; Ma ens, 2011).
Humala
213
In o de o achie e posi i e ou comes, i is essen ial o o ganiza ions ha connec people om a i-
ous geog aphic loca ions o unde s and collabo a i e c ea i i y and combine i wi h indi idual c ea-
i i y. In online social in e ac ions, especially hose in ol ing p oblem-sol ing, c ea i e cogni ion and
communica ion a e i al o achie e c ea i i y (Amabile, 1998; D azin, Kazanjian, & Glynn, 2008;
Wheele , Wai e, & B om ield, 2002). In i ual wo k con ex s, i is essen ial o leade s o unde s and
he c ea i i y ha occu s among people in o ganiza ions, hi e he igh people o he igh posi ions,
combine indi idual c ea i i y wi h collec i e c ea i i y, and suppo con inui y and us be ween em-
ployees o os e inno a i e collabo a ion (Amabile, Con i, Coon, Lazenby, & He on, 1996; Pan eli
& Chiasson, 2008; Sawye & DeZu e , 2009). Acco ding o Ha dagon and Bechky (2006), selec ing
indi iduals ha pu sue collec i e achie emen o e indi idual achie emen , ewa ding and encou ag-
ing hose indi iduals, and equi ing daily in e ac ion be ween p ojec eams a e i al o os e social
in e ac ions in i ual wo k. Pe cep ions o an o ganiza ional wo k en i onmen can in luence he
le el o c ea i i y in he o ganiza ion (Amabile e al., 1996), e en in i ual wo k en i onmen s
(Co ini & Sca a i, 2011).
CREATIVITY-CONDUCIVE LEADERSHIP APPROACHES
Leade ship is de ined as he p ocess o ac i ely in luencing, mo i a ing, and inspi ing people o dis-
co e new possibili ies, achie e hei po en ial, and comple e goals (e.g., Sea le & Han ahan, 2011).
Good leade ship mus also balance con inuous change, s a egic goals, enewal o business, and peo-
ple’s emo ional s a es and mo i a ion ac o s a wo k p ocesses. C ea i i y-conduci e leade ship o-
cuses on s imula ing people and enabling ela ionships. I aims o os e indi idual and collec i e c e-
a i i y inside an o ganiza ion and ou side o ganiza ional, geog aphical, and echnological bounda ies,
despi e he dynamic and complex na u e o leade – ollowe in e ac ions (Guo e al., 2016).
Leade ship owa d c ea i i y in ol es ocusing on people, unde s anding he powe o di ec ion, and
achie ing meaning ul p og ess owa d excellen ou comes (Amabile & K ame , 2010; Bass & A olio,
1993; Ca mull & Wallace, 2014). De ecskei (2016) emphasizes he esponsibili y o leade s and man-
age s o no only mo i a e and acili a e employees’ c ea i i y bu also ake esponsibili y o hei de-
cisions. Leade s and manage s can enhance hei ollowe s’ in insic ask mo i a ion and cause hem
o ake mo e cogni i e isks, he eby inc easing hei c ea i i y skills (Amabile, 1983). Examples o
such measu es include paying a en ion o wo k en i onmen s, encou aging collabo a ion, mapping
he phases o c ea i e wo k, p o iding pa hs h ough bu eauc acy, and c ea ing ou le s o passion a
wo k (Amabile e al., 1996; Amabile & Khai e, 2008). Mo eo e , exci ing asks, eedom, pe mission
o ail, su icien ime, ewa ds, posi i e a ec , mino successes, and cons uc i e deba es suppo
c ea i i y in wo k communi ies (Amabile, Ba sade, Muelle , & S aw, 2005; Amabile & K ame , 2011;
Uusikylä, 2012). In p e ious esea ch on i uali y and i ual wo k and heo ies o c ea i i y and col-
lec i e c ea i i y, he ollowing key c ea i i y-conduci e leade ship app oaches a e discussed: ans-
o ma ional leade ship, emo ional leade ship, and complexi y leade ship. These app oaches a e con-
nec ed; o example, ans o ma ional leade ship in ol es elemen s o bo h emo ional and complexi y
leade ship. They all ha e a philosophical ounda ion in in e p e i is epis emology (e.g. Ha ch &
Cunli e, 2006) and subjec i is and p ocessual on ology, which ega ds eali y as a social cons uc
and leade ship as con inuous social low (C e ani, Lindg en, & Packendo , 2010).
T ans o ma ional leade ship
T ans o ma ional leade ship is cha ac e ized by a clea ision and mission, inspi a ion, mo i a ion,
in ellec ual s imula ion, and indi idualized conside a ion ocusing on de elopmen o ollowe s’ pe -
sonal g ow h and a en ion o hei indi idual needs (A olio & Bass, 1988; A olio, Waldman, &
Yamma ino, 1991; Wa ick, 2011). This ype o leade ship has been linked o employee c ea i i y
h ough, o ins ance, indi idual c ea i e iden i y (e.g., Hu, Gu, & Chen, 2013; Wang & Zhu, 2011).
In addi ion, i c ea es a con ex o mo e e ec i e o ganiza ional and pe sonal pe o mance (Bass &
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
214
A olio, 1993). A g oup’s c ea i e iden i y media es he e ec o g oup-le el ans o ma ional leade -
ship on indi idual c ea i e iden i y h ough an inno a i e and c ea i e clima e and sha ed c ea i e
no ms and egula ions wi hin he g oup (Wang & Zhu, 2011).
P e ious esea ch has p esen ed di e en iews o he u ili y o ans o ma ional leade ship in i ual
wo k. Ruggie i, Boca, and Ga o (2013) concluded ha ans o ma ional leade ship wi h a cogni i e
o me acogni i e s yle is mo e sa is ying han ansac ional leade ship wi h a mo e pa icipa i e s yle
in online eamwo k. T ans o ma ional leade ship has been ecognized by Schul z (2010), Kahai,
Huang, and Jes ice (2012), and Eisenbeiß and Boe ne (2013) as c ea i i y-conduci e in i ual wo k
en i onmen s despi e empi ical indings ha nega i ely link ans o ma ional leade ship o ollowe
c ea i i y ia ollowe dependency. A s udy by Cas o, Gomes, and de Sousa (2012) indica es ha ol-
lowe s’ c ea i i y ela es o ans o ma ional leade ship and leade s’ emo ional in elligence (e.g., Cole-
man, Boya zis, & McKee, 2004). Howe e , some esea che s a gue ha he ela ionship be ween
ans o ma ional leade ship and c ea i i y is no en i ely unde s ood (Wang & Zhu, 2011).
O he combina ions o leade ship s yles in i ual wo k ha e also been sugges ed, such as a combina-
ion o ans o ma ional and ansac ional leade ship (Zayani, 2008) wi h a isiona y s yle (Whi o d
& Moss, 2009). Mo eo e , Wang and Rode (2010) call o g ea e unde s anding o he oles o ol-
lowe s and o ganiza ional con ex in ans o ma ional leade ship p ocesses. Recen ly, a s udy by Mi -
al and Dha (2015) ocusing on Indian small and medium-sized en e p ises (SMEs) in he IT indus-
y iden i ied he ela ionship be ween he heo y o ans o ma ional leade ship and c ea i e sel -e i-
cacy (CSE), which is he belie ha an indi idual has he abili y o p oduce c ea i e ou comes (Tie -
ney & Fa me , 2002). They ound ha ans o ma ional leade ship has a signi ican and posi i e ela-
ion o CSE and ha CSE media es he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional leade ship and em-
ployee c ea i i y (Mi al & Dha , 2015).
Emo ional leade ship
Emo ions a e essen ial o unde s anding social ela ions while leading and wo king, including in i -
ual en i onmen s. In line wi h psychologis and philosophe John Dewey’s heo y o expe ience,
emo ion e lec s he unde lying dynamics o in e ac ions be ween people (Alexande , 1987). Emo-
ional in elligence (EI) e e s, on he mos gene al le el, o one’s abili y o sel -asse ion, manage-
men o emo ions, social awa eness, and managemen o ela ionships o ecognize and egula e emo-
ions in ou sel es and o he s (Coleman, 2001; Vi anen, 2013). I is ela ed o social in elligence e e -
ing o indi iduals’ social awa eness and skills o e ec i ely ope a e in social en i onmen s (e.g.,
Coleman, 2006) and in e pe sonal in elligence which means skills o unde s and he in en ions, mo i-
a ions and desi es o o he people and in e ac wi h hem (Ga ne , 1983). Emo ional in elligence
has also been de ined as he emo ional, a ec i e, and social skill dimension o gene al in elligence
(F ye, Benne , & Caldwell, 2006; Quisenbe y, 2011) and one’s abili y o egula e emo ions o p o-
mo e emo ional and in ellec ual g ow h (Maye & Salo ey, 1997). Lewis (2010) ound ha social in-
elligence is associa ed wi h he de elopmen o us in leade – ollowe ela ionships in i ual p o-
jec eams, indica ing a s ong link be ween in e pe sonal ela ionship skills, he de elopmen o posi-
i e us ela ions, and in e ac ions in i ual en i onmen s.
The de elopmen o emo ional leade ship is based on EI (Ba -On, 2004; Coleman, 1998; Maye &
Salo ey, 1997). Emo ional leade ship conside s leade ship o be a social p ocess ha in luences peo-
ple’s emo ions (Nokelainen & Ruoho ie, 2006). In wo k- ela ed con ex s, emo ional leade ship is de-
ined as one’s EI-based abili y o ecognize, unde s and, and use emo ional in o ma ion abou one-
sel and o he s in a way ha leads o e iciency and excellen pe o mance a wo k (Boya zis & Sala,
2004; Coleman e al., 2004).
As s a ed by Cas o e al. (2012), ollowe s’ c ea i i y is associa ed wi h leade s’ EI. Acco ding o Hu-
mala (2014), leade s o a dispe sed i ual wo k o ce need EI o unde s and he ole o emo ions in
e ealing social ela ions be ween people and in c ea ing a cul u e o expe imen a ion and passion o
unleashing c ea i i y. Th ough EI and emo ional leade ship, i is possible o inspi e people, which is
Humala
215
especially impo an in si ua ions whe e people a e wo king in geog aphically dispa a e loca ions a
leas pa ly ia compu e -media ed ools (Humala, 2014).
Complexi y leade ship
The i ual wo king p ocess is a sel -o ganizing sys em wi h a non-linea o ganiza ional s uc u e.
Such a complex and dynamic en i onmen se es as a challenge o leade s o i ual wo ke s, who
mus be able o na iga e complex si ua ions. The cha ac e is ics o i ual in e ac ion a e ypical o
complex adap i e sys ems (CAS): open, e olu iona y ne wo ks o communica ion and in e depend-
en agen s wi h a common ou look ha a e capable o c ea i e p oblem sol ing (Uhl-Bien, Ma ion, &
McKel ey, 2007). This makes complexi y leade ship a possible ype o leade ship in i ual wo k
(Lich ens ein, Uhl-Bin, Ma ion, See s, & O on, 2006; Uhl-Bien e al., 2007).
Complexi y leade ship challenges adi ional leade ship heo ies. As an in eg a i e heo e ical ame-
wo k, i ega ds leade ship as a unc ion o in e ac ion, which is a complex in e ac i e dynamic
h ough which adap i e ou comes can eme ge (e.g., Uhl-Bien e al., 2007). Leade s o i ual wo k-
o ces should unde s and he impo ance o i ual ela ionships be ween people and be awa e o
ways o exploi hose ela ionships o achie e posi i e ou comes (Ag i oglio & Me allo, 2011; Zim-
me mann e al., 2008).
Complexi y leade ship elies on ela ionships, complex in e ac ions be ween people. I in luences in-
e pe sonal in e ac ions, and cla i ies he pu pose o each membe o he o ganiza ion (Hazy, 2009).
Such leade s mus p edic and hink h ough complex p oblems, engage g oups in dynamic adap i e
changes, encou age inno a ion, and manage emo ions (Plowman e al., 2007). P e ious esea ch has
highligh ed he need o emphasize complexi y a mul iple le els in o ganiza ions and ne wo ks o
p omo e o ganiza ional c ea i i y (Spel hann & Haunschild, 2011) and o unde s and he ways in
which empo al complexi y in luences people and o ganiza ions (Dekke s, 2009; Plowman e al.,
2007). Gee lo and an Beckho en’s (2016) ecen s udy e ealed ha , in addi ion o i s epheme ali y,
he speci ici y o an o ganiza ional con ex in luences o ganiza ions’ po en ial o sel -o ganiza ion.
Focusing on he in e ac ions be ween people and c ea ing he condi ions o he eme gence o a new
and unde ined solu ion equi es commi men om e e yone in he alue chain; hus, complexi y
leade ship is nei he easy no quick (Golds ein, Hazy, & Lich ens ein, 2010). In i ual wo k con ex s,
he p ocess may be e en mo e challenging. To add ess complexi y, di e si y, and unce ain y in i -
ual wo k con ex s, leade s may also need o su ound hemsel es wi h people o assis hem and
mo e o leade ship posi ions i necessa y (e.g., Do lich, Cai o, & Rhinesmi h, 2008).
TASK-FOCUSED LEADERSHIP
Task- ocused leade ship is he opposi e o leade ship ha inspi es c ea i i y in a i ual wo k o ce.
Task-o ien ed leade s ocus on c ea ing s uc u e and engaging in ansac ional leade ship (De ue,
Nah gang, Wellman, & Humph ey, 2011; Wa ick, 2011; Yukl, Go don, & Tabe , 2002). To c ea e
s uc u e, hese leade s ask g oup membe s o ollow s anda d ules and egula ions, assign hem o
asks and oles, main ain s ic pe o mance s anda ds, and c i icize mis akes (De ue e al., 2011).
T ansac ional leade ship (Bass & A olio, 1993) in ol es cla i ying pe o mance a ge s and hose e-
sponsible o achie ing hese objec i es as well as iden i ying mis akes and de ia ions om pe o -
mance s anda ds (De ue e al., 2011). S uc u e and ou ine a e ypical ways o co ec hose de ia-
ions (Bo gmann, Rowold, & Bo mann, 2016). Task-o ien ed leade s p ima ily u ilize di ec i e leade -
ship. Acco ding o Wa ick (2011), ansac ional leade ship desc ibes he ansac ion ha occu s be-
ween leade s and ollowe s o accomplish he wo k and achie e goals. Leade s de e mine wha needs
o be done, and bo h pa ies ecei e some hing o alue – o example, ewa ds o indi iduals and
g oups and g ea e p oduc i i y o con o mi y o s anda ds o leade s (Hump eys & Eins ein, 2003;
Wa ick, 2011). These objec i es a e ela ed, bu leade ship canno bind he leade and ollowe s o a
con inuous goal and hus canno bind leade s o ollowe s (Bu ns, 1978).
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
216
Task-o ien ed leade s ocus on planning he sho - e m o ganiza ion o job ac i i ies; cla i ying poli-
cies, esponsibili ies, and pe o mance objec i es by communica ing he ac ion plans and miles ones
needed o achie e a goal; de ining he need o esou ces; and moni o ing ope a ions and pe o -
mance (Pina , Zehi , Ki apçı, & Tan ı e dı, 2014; Yukl e al., 2002). Acco ding o Bo gmann e al.
(2016), h ee me a-ca ego ies o leade ship – ela ions-, ask-, and change-o ien ed leade ship, as p o-
posed by Yukl e al. (2002) – a e su icien o explain he leade ship cons uc s o ans o ma ional
and ansac ional leade ship, laissez- ai eism, conside a ion o ollowe s’ needs and abili ies, and he
c ea ion o s uc u e. They a gue ha change-o ien ed leade ship is mos use ul o p edic ing he job
sa is ac ion o ollowe s and ha ask-o ien ed leade ship beha io nega i ely a ec s ollowe s’ job
sa is ac ion (Bo gmann e al., 2016). In con as , ela ions-o ien ed leade ship os e s a ied commi -
men and job pe o mance.
In i ual wo k, echnology and digi al communica ion ools play a c ucial ole in in e ac ion be ween
eam membe s and he e o e mus be conside ed when leading a i ual wo k o ce and elimina ing
ac o s ha inhibi c ea i i y. In gene al, acco ding o Zimme mann e al. (2008, p. 331), “mos ask-
o ien ed leade ship beha io s as well as ela ionship-o ien ed leade ship beha io s a e pe cei ed o
be somewha mo e impo an in i ual communica ion se ings han in ace- o- ace communica ion
se ings.” Pina e al. (2014), who conduc ed a s udy o i ual eams in Tu key, a de eloping coun y,
a gue ha ask-o ien ed leade ship, in which leade s de e mine he s anda ds o business plans, is
essen ial o bo h in e nal and ex e nal lea ning in i ual eams. Acco ding o hem, as ask-o ien ed
leade ship acili a es in o ma ion acquisi ion and sha ing, i allows solu ions o p oblems o be de el-
oped quickly.
Howe e , p e ious esea ch has indica ed ha leade s who ha e a ixed mindse and ocus on ask-
based ac o s a e a ional, no ma i e, and less os e ing o c ea i i y (Ka wowski, 2014; Ruggie i,
2009). Ka wowski (2014) a emp ed o de e mine whe he c ea i i y is ixed o g ow h-based and
demons a ed he inhibi ing e ec s o a ixed mindse on c ea i e p oblem-sol ing. Fu he , powe
ela ions and powe nego ia ions be ween o ganiza ional membe s in luence c ea i i y; o example,
biased powe ela ions and s eep hie a chies may dis up c ea i i y (Pou anen, 2016). Pu ano a and
Bono (2009) main ain ha ela ional leade ship beha io s may su e i ask-o ien ed communica ion
displaces social– ela ional communica ion. Mo eo e , as s a ed by Ocke (2005), he c ea i e pe o -
mance o i ual eams is inhibi ed by dominance, domain knowledge, downwa d no m se ing, a lack
o sha ed unde s anding, ime p essu e, and echnical di icul ies. P e ious s udies ha e shown ha
o ganiza ional c ea i i y is a unc ion o g oup c ea i i y and con ex ual in luences (Schepe s & an
den Be g, 2007; Pa janen, 2012). This indica es ha leade s who ocus on he asks ha mus be done
and who a e unin e es ed in how people wo k and in e ac wi h each o he and he con ex s in which
people a e wo king ha e un a o able mindse s o enhancing o ganiza ional c ea i i y.
HETERARCHY IN LEADERSHIP
This s udy is based on he on ological commi men o leade s in a he e a chy (Spel hann &
Haunschild, 2011). In a he e a chy, o ganiza ion is ega ded as a mul i-laye ed en i y wi h o e lapping
pa s and o ganiza ional slack. Leade ship in a he e a chy is sha ed and enables in e ac ion, meaning-
ul wo k, inspi a ion, and c ea i i y (C umley, 2005; Spel hann & Haunschild, 2011). An on ological
commi men in a knowledge-based sys em, like leade ship in i ual wo k, means ha “an agen com-
mi s o an on ology i i s obse able ac ions a e consis en wi h he de ini ions in he on ology”
(G ube , 1995, pp. 908–909). He e a chy as an on ological commi men is app op ia e o leade ship
owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k as i helps leade s comp ehensi ely unde s and hei ole in i ual
wo k and s imula es discou se and in e ac ion o elease people’s c ea i i y (Humala, 2016).
McCulloch (1945) i s used he concep o he e a chy in ne ous ne s in neu oscience o demon-
s a e ha he human b ain unc ions in a he e a chical way, e- anking alues as ci cums ances
change (C umley, 2005). Ci ing C umley (2005, p. 45), he concep o he e a chy is an app oach “ o
iden i y anked and un anked alues, beha io s, and o ganiza ions as hey shi in ime, space and
Humala
217
cogni i e ame.” He e a chy is also use ul in con lic s o inu ili ies when old app oaches a e inac i e
bu use ul elemen s a e p ese ed o new, c ea i e solu ions (C umley, 2005).
He e a chy is an o ganiza ional o m o dis ibu ed in elligence (S a k, 2009) ocused on collec i e
good (S ephenson, 2009). I e e s o he la e al coo dina ion o co po a e di e si y in bo h o ganiza-
ional s uc u e and en i onmen and o he ela ion o elemen s o one ano he when hey a e un-
anked o anked in di e en ways (C umley, 1995). He e a chy ela es o powe de ined as “ he abil-
i y o ge o he s on boa d wi h en husiasm and zeal” (G an , 2012; S aw, 2016, p. 8). As s a ed by
Aime e al. (2014), he heo e ical co e o he concep o he e a chy in eg a es se e al dis inc bodies
o li e a u e ha highligh he changing powe ela ions wi hin g oups.
In he e a chical s uc u es, powe ac i ely and legi ima ely luc ua es among eam membe s o align
hei capabili ies wi h changing si ua ional demands (Aime e al., 2014; C umley, 2005). He e a chical
o ganiza ions a e ypically segmen a y, polycen ic, and ne wo ked. S ephenson (2009) e e s o a he -
e a chy as a “ i ual o ganiza ion,” s essing he impo ance o us ed he e a chical in e connec ions
ia echnology. He highligh s hidden connec ions ha a e in isible o a hie a chy bu a e essen ial o
managemen and sus ainabili y, a guing ha hidden s a egic connec ions – ha is, signi ican collab-
o a o s – make he pa ne ship wo k and e eal he o ganiza ional o m o he he e a chy.
He e a chies a e also complex adap i e sys ems (CASs) ha in e wea e many p inciples o o ganiza-
ion and in ol e in e dependen ela ions be ween pa icipan s (Gi a d & S a k, 2002; Holland,
2006). Acco ding o Spel hann and Haunschild (2011), he complexi y o a he e a chy need no be
sol ed o explained away. Ins ead, i is one obus a angemen ha acili a es embedded o ganiza-
ional c ea i i y. S a k (2009) sees he e a chies as cogni i e ecologies ha acili a e e lexi e cogni ion.
Dis ibu ed au ho i y wi h e lec ion and discussions a mul iple le els (Gi a d & S a k, 2002) and
ca e ul coo dina ion among inc easingly ee uni s o an o ganiza ion (S a k, 2009) ha e been p o-
posed as ways o achie e he e a chy and cope wi h complex in e dependencies. Gi a d and S a k
(2002) s ess he ele ance and impo ance o o ganiza ional p ope ies such as incong uence, o gani-
za ional slack, s uc u al o e lap, and la ency in analyses o o ganiza ional c ea i i y because hese is-
sues a e ela ed o co po a e and ins i u ional he e a chy, which makes c ea i e o ganiza ions possi-
ble.
HIERARCHICAL LEADERSHIP
In e ms o powe ela ions, hie a chy is in a dialec ical ela ionship wi h he e a chy (C umley, 2005).
A hie a chy uses au ho i y and legi ima e powe o c ea e and coo dina e ho izon al and e ical di i-
sions o labo (Adle , 2001). In o he wo ds, i is a all s uc u e wi h many le els o hie a chy. Hie -
a chy is a p inciple o o ganiza ion o igina ing om F ede ick W. Taylo ’s managemen p inciples,
which we e p oposed in he ea ly 20 h cen u y, and om mili a y and eligious o ganiza ions. One
example o a hie a chy is a bu eauc acy, which de eloped as o ganiza ions sp ead ou la e ally and
wo k was di ided in o specialized depa men s in o de o c ea e a s onge s uc u e wi h he abili y
o g ow and handle mo e complex asks (Lipnack & S amps, 1999).
Hie a chical o ganiza ions ocus on powe , au ho i y, and alue con ol, which means ha leade s
engage in planning, ins uc hei employees on wha o do and how o do i , and closely supe ise
hem. Typical cha ac e is ics o hie a chical o ganiza ions a e ule-based au ho i y, a con ol-based
de ini ion o powe , alue exclusi i y, a s a us quo, clea social dis inc ions, and subs an ial cos s o
secu i y (C umley, 2001). Acco ding o McGui e, Palus, Pasmo e, and Rhodes (2015), in command
and con ol leade ship cul u es, au ho i y and con ol a e p io i ized, and success depends on obedi-
ence and loyal y o au ho i y. The d awbacks o hie a chies a e hei one-way pa hs o in o ma ion,
conse a i e app oach, ulne abili y o change, emphasis on keeping hings unning smoo hly, and a
endency o publicly smoo h o e mis akes (Lipnack & S amps, 1999; McGui e e al., 2015).
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
224
Be e o ien a ions and mo e equen ace- o- ace wo k sessions a e necessa y
o each new emo e employees, i ually b ains o m – especially in cases o o eign
language communica ion – and inc ease employee commi men
The de ailed analysis o “nascen launch pad” companies indica es ha mo ing om a p o o ype o
p ojec leade ship and sha ing esponsibili ies is ega ded as impo an o success. A sha ed inspi ing
ision and business objec i es mo i a e, enable, and equi e con inuous lea ning. Howe e , di icul-
ies a ise ega ding ecogni ion and managemen o communica ion p oblems ahead o ime when
leading people, managing da a and p ojec s, and leading onesel . One o he in e iewees desc ibes
he si ua ion as ollows:
So, he good hing is ha I lea n many new hings because I need o do [ hings] by mysel and no ha e any
men o . Bu i is some imes e y us a ing because I don’ know wha o do, and because o he delay om he
boss, so I jus need o wai abou [ o ins uc ions on] wha I need o do nex . (male employee, abou 20
yea s old)
The ollowing ex ac om one in e iew highligh s he challenge o acili a ing mu ual in e ac ion
and a common wo king cul u e o employees om di e en cul u es:
Ha e you e e alked oge he abou i ual wo k, his way o wo king, cul u e, and p oblems and challenges
you ha e encoun e ed? (in e iewe )
No enough. In ac , no a all. In a way, o ganizing in e ac ion is mo e emphasized [in i ual wo k], so ha
i is no only one-way communica ion bu ha e e yone ies one’s bes in communica ion, so ha communica-
ion is no a sel -e iden ac …you need o do some hing oge he physically, and no only ha “okay, now we
me ”…Now, when we ha e had a g oup in social media o a while o commen ing and discussing…a leas , I
ha e go a eeling ha we a e in some common space when we a e in ha g oup. This si ua ion equi es indi ec
leade ship, and ha e e yone is ac i ely building he communi y spi i . (male leade , abou 30 yea s old)
The unce ain u u e o he business c ea es ec ui ing challenges, and he de elopmen o employ-
ees’ expe ise equi es leade s o ha e mo e know-how. Howe e , he indings o his s udy indica e
ha leade ship owa d c ea i i y may help ec ui he igh people o i ual wo k. O ien a ion and
collabo a ing ace- o- ace a e c ucial o employees o lea n, de elop new solu ions, and inc ease
hei commi men o he p ojec .
Table 2. The composi ion o company ype B, “collec i e mind”
ASPECT OF
BUSINESS
THE COMPOSITION OF TYPE B, “COLLECTIVE MIND”
Leade ship
Value-based as-
se i e leade -
ship by example
and collec i e
in elligence e-
lec an unde -
s anding o i -
uali y as a
whole
Value-based leade ship by example aims a common meaning ul alues, business objec-
i es, and a communal cou se o ac ion; o be success ul, a leade mus be posi i e and
en husias ic
Collec i e in elligence wi h sha ed powe and esponsibili y guide he o ganiza-
ion; challenges, esponsibili ies, and su i al awaken employees’ c ea i i y and passion
o wo k; encou aging di e en iews and expe imen s and pe mi ing ailu e enables
powe and commi men o a ise in he i ual communi y; g oup p essu e con ols be-
ha io
Asse i eness and consis en leade ship wi h clea common ules and expec a ions a e
needed; oo causes o p oblems mus be cla i ied, and solu ions mus be implemen ed;
su icien documen a ion, communica ion, and skill ul p ojec managemen educe
isks
Communica ion
and in e ac ion
Open and ac i e dialogic in e ac ion h ough mul iple up- o-da e communica ion chan-
nels helps a i ual wo k o ce in e nalize alues, b oaden iews abou wo k, and eel se-
cu e enough o ques ion p esen p ac ices and e lec on issues; his equi es egula
Humala
225
ASPECT OF
BUSINESS
THE COMPOSITION OF TYPE B, “COLLECTIVE MIND”
Dis ances can
dec ease di e -
ences, and ac-
i e, up- o-da e
mul ichannel
communica ion
suppo s help ul
in e ac ion
ace- o- ace mee ings be ween manage s and employees, especially in p oblem si ua-
ions, and b oad connec i i y o cus ome s
Physical dis ances can dec ease social p essu e, dec ease cul u al di e ences in commu-
nica ion, and cause people o wo k oge he mo e closely and e icien ly
Sha ing know-how and helping ellow eam membe s equi e social skills such
as small iendly signs, posi i i y, esponsi eness, accep ing people wi h di e en back-
g ounds, and emo ional and social in elligence o pe cei e emo ions; hese a e ea ly in-
dica o s o he quali y o in e ac ions and cou se o he business
The igh ypes o physical wo kspaces suppo mu ual in e ac ion and p ide in wo k
Lea ning and
g ow h
Coaching lead-
e ship wi h pa -
icipa o y lea n-
ing and skill ul
ec ui ing and
o ien a ion im-
p o es bo h
meaning ulness
and business
Face- o- ace and online leade ship and su icien esou ces o i c ea e pe se e ance
and sus ainable business in i ual wo k; leade s a e in e es ed in ge ing o know em-
ployees on a mo e pe sonal le el and ca ing o hem, espec ing and lis ening o hem,
ecei ing eedback om hem, and highligh ing hei success s o ies; pe o mance qual-
i y assessmen and in luen ial pe sonal and g oup compensa ions a e in use
Coaching leade ship encou ages people o b ing o wa d hei pe sonali ies,
s eng hs, know-how, and in e es s; clea a ge s and eedom o make plans, con-
s uc i e eedback and esou ces, and espec o employees’ p i a e li e gene a e lexi-
bili y, commi men , pe sonal sense o success and well-being, and willingness o en-
cou age o he s and sha e and c ea e know-how
Pa icipa o y lea ning o e ole bounda ies in au hen ic wo k asks; accep ing
dissimila i y, c ossing bo de s, an ac i e ollow-up o ends, pa icipa ing in ne wo ks,
and disco e ing new solu ions and esou ces o help e e yday wo k, collabo a e in i -
ual de elopmen p ojec s gene a es and u ilizes de elopmen ideas ac oss hie a chies
and eams, including cus ome s and ne wo ks
New equi emen s in i ual wo k a e speci ied, in oduced, and conside ed in ec ui -
ing and o ien a ion; e.g., leade s need mo e o ches a ion expe ise; speci ic ools in e-
c ui ing can help o ge o know new emo e employees be e
The indings o he de ailed analysis o company ype B, “collec i e mind,” indica e he impo ance
o collec i e in elligence, sha ed esponsibili ies (e.g., Hyypiä & Pa janen, 2013), leade s’ in insic mo-
i a ion, esou ces o leade s o o ches a e collec i e wo k, and asse i eness, as highligh ed in he
ollowing:
[The leade in i ual wo k] mus be in e es ed in people. The e is an eno mous s ain o lead people benea h
he su ace… When you genuinely alk wi h people, us eme ges. Fi s , people ge he cou age o b ing he
p oblems o he able and hen ideas. When hey see ha he ideas come ue and new kinds o doings, new
businesses, igh alignmen s de elop om hem, and hey lea n o see ha he collec i e in elligence genuinely
s ee s his company, no only one o wo pe sons…Finally, i is a ques ion o he ac ha e e yone wan s o be
in such an en i onmen , whe e people ake ca e o you. (male leade A, abou 40 yea s old)
The ole o a leade ’s in insic mo i a ion and leade ship example aligns wi h Toom’s (2016) belie
ha a alen ed indi idual’s ac ions ha e a posi i e in luence on he success o ac ions aken by com-
muni ies. The esul s o his s udy suppo Thow’s (2007), which conce n o ganizing a ound in elli-
gence, and Johnson’s (2015), which conce n inno a ion a ising om he g oup le el in ol ing s uc-
u ed in es men s and equi ing execu i es o know how o ain hei eams o imp o ise. The analy-
sis e eals he impo ance o social no ms and non-hie a chically o ganized social o ces o con ol
beha io in wo k communi ies (Pos , 2001). The da a indica e ha leade s ha a e able o coach em-
ployees ob ained hei skills om p e ious expe ience pa icipa ing in spo s, coaching spo s eams,
o playing in bands.
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
226
Open and ac i e dialogic communica ion and mu ual in e ac ion h ough he skill ul use o mul iple
communica ion channels – including ace- o- ace and social media – as well as sha ing know-how
and helping each o he a e ypical ea u es o “collec i e mind” companies. Re lec ion wi h col-
leagues and membe s o p o essional ne wo ks in ace- o- ace and social media si ua ions allows lead-
e s o main ain hei en husiasm, c ea i i y, and well-being. Below is an example o skill ul communi-
ca ion:
I ha e wo di e en ways o be eachable: one is elec onic isibili y, and he o he is di ec con ac . I am sys em-
a ically isible [on] ce ain elec onic channels, bu you mus make his [a ailable] whe e people a e wo king
[by] hemsel es…i is ac i e wo k all he ime. In his way, I am a and nea a he same ime. The geog aph-
ical dis ances disappea when you communica e wi h people ac i ely. (male business manage , abou 40
yea s old)
Physical dis ances can balance cul u al di e ences, dec ease social p essu e, and suppo knowledge-
sha ing and helping each o he , as highligh ed in he ollowing:
The social p essu e dec eases when he physical dis ance inc eases… In ac , i uali y equalizes cul u al di e -
ences in communica ion in a ce ain way. I c ea es a ce ain hy hm ha is common o all, no cul u e-bound,
and ha may e en help o wo k in global eams. (male leade B, abou 40 yea s old)
Mo eo e , he indings e ealed he impo ance o app op ia e physical wo kspaces o inspi ing c e-
a i i y in i ual wo k.
Empowe ing and coaching people o lea n and g ow equi e unde s anding and compassion o o h-
e s in o ganiza ions (S aw, 2016). As he ollowing example shows, leade s ha coach hei employ-
ees may ha e ob ained skills om hei p e ious expe iences:
I am a o me a hle e and coach mysel . In coaching, I ha e always lea ned ha when we ha e aining, I gi e
ins uc ions o he eam membe s, and in game si ua ions, I only gi e suppo and ad ice and encou age hem,
bu hen, he esponsibili y is on he ield. In p inciple, he si ua ion is he same in business. ( emale business
manage , abou 50 yea s old)
The signi icance o pa icipa o y lea ning compa ed o ole bounda ies in au hen ic wo k asks is em-
phasized:
Ou c ea i i y should ocus on he needs o cus ome s…By b inging people a ound he p oblems o clien s and by
seeking o he solu ions oge he , you own wo k becomes uly meaning ul... This gene a es o ganiza ional c ea-
i i y, which enhances human capi al and inno a i eness. ( emale leade , abou 50 yea s old)
This inding suppo s he iews o Aa nio and Enq is (2016) and Ree es, He ing on, and Oli e
(2002) ega ding he impo ance o au hen ic lea ning asks in lea ning en i onmen s in he digi al
age o awaken indi iduals’ in insic mo i a ion, engage hose indi iduals, and ensu e ha dialogic
know-how is used o achie e success. Dialogue is de ined as collabo a i e hinking based on equal
pa icipa ion and amilia i y wi h an issue o ac i i y (Aa nio & Enq is , 2016).
Table 3. The composi ion o he company ype C, “command cen e ”
ASPECT OF
BUSINESS
THE COMPOSITION OF TYPE C, “COMMAND CENTER”
Leade ship
Decision-making
au ho i y being
en i ely a he
op and non-
anspa ency
us a e people
Py amid-like o ganiza ion wi h a op-down chain o command o ensu e he com-
ple ion o asks; hie a chy da es om he his o y o he company o he indus y and
can c ea e emo ional baggage o people; he mindse o one la ge head o ice o de-
cision-making and smalle b and o ices p e ails
Delays due o he concen a ion o decision-making, complica ing wo k and hinde ing
de elopmen ; unnecessa y checking; ab up occasions o “ igh ing i es” cause delays
Humala
227
ASPECT OF
BUSINESS
THE COMPOSITION OF TYPE C, “COMMAND CENTER”
and us a ion, cons ic ing c ea i i y; manage s do no ge enough suppo and
coaching om leade s
Non- anspa ency; he economic si ua ion is no openly in o med, and decisions a e
no jus i ied and sha ed, so hey can easily be el o be un ai ; his makes he si ua ion
di icul o he middle manage s o pe cei e and weakens he quali y o hei decision-
making and mo i a ion
Cos leade ship; quan i a i e igu es and money assess wo k
Communica ion
and in e ac ion
Insu icien sup-
po o in e nal
coope a ion and
ene gizing leads
o a weakened
communi y spi i
E en hough new echnologies and di e en so wa e solu ions a e success ully ap-
plied in p oduc ion, in e nal communica ion in i ual wo k is no el o be e en-
handed; in e ac ion be ween depa men s, eams and people is weak and i egula ; su-
pe io s seldom isi emo e o ices
Emo ions o employees a e no op imally ecognized, which can make employees
wi hd aw in o hemsel es and no openly in e ac wi h leade s, e.g., when people wo k
alone wi hou colleagues and suppo om an immedia e supe io , o in o ma ion is
no sha ed wi h hem
Technical communica ion p oblems, insu icien esou ces o up- o-da e communica-
ion ools, and IT Helpdesks weaken knowledge-sha ing and communi y spi i
Physical wo k en i onmen s do no suppo i ual dispe sed wo k su icien ly; people
wo k in isola ion om hei own colleagues; he space o in e nal and cus ome in e -
ac ion is insu icien
Lea ning and
g ow h
Di e si y and
ideas a e no e-
in o ced, em-
ployee con i-
dence declines,
and a company’s
p ospec s dim
Silo e ec ; di e si y among he wo k o ce is no u ilized, and knowledge abou di e -
en app oaches and cus ome s is no sha ed o e ole bounda ies; people may no
know who knows wha o da e no sha e in o ma ion o secu e hei supe io i y and
jobs; emo e employees eel ha cos -op imiza ion is un ai o hem o a end com-
mon mee ings and de elop hei expe ise
Failu es a e no spoken o and no lessons a e lea ned om hem; e.g., ailu es can
be men ioned only a e many yea s
The o ien a ion o new employees and eam-building a e inadequa e; employees a e
le alone wi hou pee -suppo
The lack o a business-like cou se o ac ion weakens employee con idence in leade -
ship and he o ganiza ion, and business g ow h s alls; employees’ and leade s’ iews on
he solu ions and si ua ions can di e om each o he ; emo e o ices do no de elop
as planned
Type C, “command cen e ,” ep esen s a py amid-like o ganiza ion in i ual wo k wi h a adi ional
cos -o ien ed leade ship mindse . The cos s o wo king i ually a e assessed by money, no bene i s:
Money alks [a lo ], o ins ance, conce ning [so wa e] licenses and o he issues [essen ial o i ual wo k].
Always, when you s a o speak ha some hing c ea es ex a cos s, i would be wo h [i o measu e] hem a
li le conce ning he bene i you ge om ha . I hink ha money has qui e a signi ican ole in a ce ain way.
( emale employee A, abou 40 yea s old)
This ype o company succeeds in comple ing asks. Some o i s downsides a e op-down powe ha
does no ecognize people’s emo ions can “make o he s speechless” (Tos , Gino, & La ick, 2013),
delays in decision-making and no enough mode n communica ion o he digi al age. The signi i-
cance o emo ions and emo ional consequences a e highligh ed in he ollowing:
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
228
No machine can ansmi eelings...i equi es di e en esou ces om employees. ( emale employee, abou
60 yea s old)
In my opinion, he p oblem also ela ed o he pe son; I can say ha he leade was comple ely na cissis ic.
Then, I expe ienced my ole as a il e , and I ied o build such a wall and be ully ou o he daily necessa y
wo k and only p o ec you own eam membe s, so ha hey could do hei jobs in peace…O e wo yea s, i
was so ha d, […] he e was no sense. I can say qui e hones ly ha in ha si ua ion, I was all ou lea ing, be-
cause you do no ole a e ha endlessly. Tha was no wo h i . (male dis ic manage , abou 60 yea s
old)
Mo eo e , he silo e ec , a lack o o ien a ion, hiding ailu es and a lack o us complica e wo k,
dec easing business g ow h. People do no sha e know-how and p ac ices:
I don’ know i I do my job in he same way as hey do, o ins ance, in he [ci y A] eam, I can easily ha e a
di e en p ac ice o my own, and hey in he [ci y B] eam can ha e hei own as well. I can comple ely di e
om ha which would be an o icial way o do ha job. ( emale employee B, abou 40 yea s old)
Table 4. The composi ion o he company ype D, “leaky boa ”
ASPECT OF
BUSINESS
THE COMPOSITION OF TYPE D, “LEAKY BOAT”
Leade ship
Business objec-
i e and leade -
ship cul u e a e
el o be con-
using
In a iably changing o ganiza ion p inciples and objec i es, wi hou accu a ely de-
e mining he success o he p e ious ones, con uses people
E o s o sha e au ho i y ha e no succeeded, and mic omanagemen in leade ship
p e ails; leade s and manage s ha e unclea esponsibili ies, and hey gi e employees
con adic o y di ec i es and con inuously check issues and in imida e employees; em-
ployees a e no awa e o how o apply common ins uc ions, which complica es wo k
and he building o communal spi i
A en ion o people is illuso y, and key indica o s o leade ship a e igno ed;
leade s do no ca e abou hei employees’ emo ions, keep p omises o hem, o sup-
po hem ace- o- ace in hei wo k- ela ed p oblems; nobody in e e es in dis u bing
o w ong beha io ; hese ci cums ances dilu e employees’ mo i a ion, con idence, and
commi men
Unwo kable incen i es and compensa ions; e.g., mone a y incen i es do no wo k o
g oups no commi ed o eaching a common objec i e
Communica ion
and in e ac ion
Communica ion
in i ual wo k
is backwa d and
does no sup-
po in e de-
penden in e ac-
ion
Sense o aliena ion and a lack o con idence in o he s’ compe ence o in e ac ; none
o ew ace- o- ace in e ac ions and in o mal mee ings can make employees eel alien-
a ed and unmo i a ed; hey do no ge o know hei manage s and colleagues and do
no ecei e enough help om hei manage s o know who could help hem
S anda d codes o conduc a e no unc ioning o a e lacking; people do no discuss
a ious iews and a i udes oge he ; leade s epe i i ely eschedule ag eed mee ings
wi h hei employees; employees do no know how o he s do hei wo k, and he e o e
hey canno de e mine whe he o no hei ea men is ai
De icien in es men s in ace- o- ace mee ings and up- o-da e digi al communi-
ca ion ools and hei use; con inuous echnical p oblems i i a e people
Lea ning and
g ow h
Cul u e o in-
compe ence and
hidden know-
Incompe en leade ship hampe s g ow h; leade s may be egocen ic, pass o e hei
supe io s, a o iends, ha e unna u al oles, o ha e no in e es in de eloping employ-
ees’ expe ise and ca ee s; leade s a e unable o make decisions, keep hei wo d, o del-
ega e asks; hey mus guide hei employees con inuously because hey do no demand
enough om hem
Humala
229
how kill mean-
ing ulness and
c ea i i y a
wo k
Hidden know-how and blaming o he s dilu e en husiasm owa d new wo k s uc u es
and me hods he knowledge and ideas o he pe sonnel a e no u ilized and de eloped;
ideas and p oposals a e ejec ed, killing employees’ ini ia i e; he oo s o p oblems
canno be ound; ailu es a e expe ienced as disg ace ul; issues a e exagge a ed o hid-
den; his si ua ion can lead o unce ain y abou he u u e employmen and o con-
lic s, esigna ions, s ess, and bu nou in bo h leade s and employees
Rec ui ing and o ien a ion do no suppo compe ence de elopmen in i ual
wo k; e.g., compe en expe s may be hi ed in o leade ship posi ions, whe e hey a e no
longe compe en ; skill equi emen s in i ual dispe sed wo k a e no speci ied; o ien-
a ion is neglec ed
In ype D, “leaky boa ,” leade s ha e a ask-o ien ed mindse , wi hou a clea common objec i e, and
wi h illuso y a en ion o people. Fu he , people ind mic omanagemen p ac ices con using. Incom-
pe ence among leade s and manage s, especially du ing ec ui ing and o ien a ion, and sec e
knowledge make he business shaky. The ollowing ex ac highligh s he cul u e o incompe ence:
We ha e a cul u e o incompe ence in his o ganiza ion… he p oblem in leade ship is ha we ha e a cul u e,
whe e a igh expe , a good employee, is ypically p omo ed o a supe io posi ion. I wo ks only o a ce ain
poin …When you build an o ganiza ion, you mus be e y ca e ul ha a pe son does no all o a le el o in-
compe ence. Leade ship and HR should hink abou hese issues in ad ance and ha e he cou age o ask he
indi iduals in ques ion i hey wan o be a supe io and i hey a e eady o ha . (male leade , abou 55
yea s old)
Digi al communica ion know-how and ools a e no esou ced enough, and people eel aliena ed, as
desc ibed in he ollowing:
I will quickly say goodbye soon. I ha e wo ked he e [alone o ] wo yea s, and his abso bs so much, ha i
seems ha a whole o he li e has aken second place. I am always so i ed a home ha I don' eel up o doing
any hing…E e y hing goes o wo king ha d, which does no gi e any hing, so you jus do and do ou o neces-
si y…I you jus go some eedback and such, i would p obably b ing you e o and cope. Bu I belie e ha I
ha e eached he end o he oad. ( emale employee C, abou 40 yea s old)
Nex , he inal ypology o leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k is demons a ed.
TYPOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP IN FOUR TYPES OF COMPANIES
The main indings o his s udy a e illus a ed in a desc ip i e ypology on leade ship owa d c ea i -
i y in i ual wo k (Figu e 2). The ou ypes o companies in he ypology a e named as ype A, “nas-
cen launch pad,” ype B, “collec i e mind,” ype C, “command cen e ,” and ype D, “leaky boa .”
To help compa e di e en company ypes wi h each o he in he ypology, each company ype is ca -
ego ized unde h ee c i ical business sec ions in ela ion o c ea i i y and he e a chy in leading a i -
ual wo k o ce: (a) leade ship as an expe ience ou come, (b) communica ion and in e ac ion as key
ools in leade ship, and (c) lea ning and g ow h as key objec i es in leade ship. The e ical axis o
he ypology ep esen s leade ship s imula ing c ea i i y in a i ual wo k o ce e sus leade ship wi h
a ask-based mindse , and he ho izon al axis ep esen s he e a chical in eg a i e leade ship e sus
hie a chical, au ho i a ian leade ship. Leade ship encou aging c ea i i y in i ual wo k in he e ical
axis can also be in e p e ed o e lec compe i i e ma ke s as in o ganiza ional o m, whe e c ea i i y
is necessa y o success and eedom is essen ial o c ea i i y. I is no ewo hy ha none o he case
companies can unambiguously be posi ioned in a single company ype in he ypology. The di e en
ypes o companies speci ied in he ypology a e no necessa ily ep esen ed as pu ely in eali y. These
a ious ypes may also be simul aneously ac i e in eal-li e companies (c . Seeck & Kan ola, 2009).
Type A, “nascen launch pad,” ep esen s a company ype in which leade s aim o enhance he c ea-
i i y o a i ual wo k o ce by implemen ing a hie a chic leade ship. This ype is mos ypical in
ea ly-s age companies, which ha e s ong know-how and an inspi ing ision, bu whe e leade ship
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
230
and managemen a e in p og ess and mos ly adi ional. Ins ead, ype B, “collec i e mind,” has al-
eady passed i s in ancy and has es uc u ed i s o ganiza ion and leade ship owa d he e a chical in-
eg a i e leade ship while highligh ing and os e ing he impo ance o c ea i i y in a i ual wo k-
o ce. Value-based leade ship by example, e ec i e mu ual in e ac ion, collec i e in elligence, asse -
i eness, and empowe ing leade ship a e ypical cha ac e is ics o his company ype. The bo om o
he ypology highligh s leade ship wi h a ask-based mindse . Type C, “command cen e ,” in he
lowe le co ne ep esen s a adi ional company ype, which implemen s hie a chic leade ship. De-
cision-making au ho i y being a he op, join communica ion being compa a i ely sligh and closed,
and he silo e ec cha ac e ize his company ype. In eg a ion h ough he e a chy wi hou paying a -
en ion o people and hei e ec i e in e ac ion esul s in unsus ainable success. Ins ead, people eel
con used abou he business and do no us hei leade s and colleagues.
Leade ship inspi ing c ea i i y in a i ual wo k o ce
Leade ship wi h a ask-based mindse
Figu e 2. Typology on leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k
The nex sec ion discusses he indings o he s udy.
Type A: Nascen launch
pad
Leade ship Common objec i es a e
inspi ing, and a i ual leade ship
mindse and o ganizing p inciples
a e de eloping
Communica ion and in e ac ion
Communica ion and in e ac ion
a e no anspa en and suppo i e
enough o ully ene gize people
Lea ning and g ow h Rec ui ing
and commi ing he igh
p o essionals and de eloping hei
know-how a e key issues o
achie ing meaning ul g ow h
Type B: Collec i e mind
Leade ship Value-based asse i e
leade ship by example and collec i e
in elligence e lec an unde s anding
o i uali y as a whole
Communica ion and in e ac ion
Dis ances can dec ease di e ences,
and ac i e, up- o-da e mul ichannel
communica ion suppo s help ul
in e ac ion
Lea ning and g ow h Coaching
leade ship wi h pa icipa o y
lea ning and skill ul ec ui ing and
o ien a ion imp o es bo h
meaning ulness and business
Type C: Command cen e
Leade ship Decision-making
au ho i y being en i ely a he op
and non- anspa ency us a es
people
Communica ion and in e ac ion
Insu icien suppo o coope a ion
and ene gizing leads o a weakened
communi y spi i
Lea ning and g ow h Di e si y and
ideas a e no ein o ced, employee
con idence declines, and a
company’s p ospec s dim
Type D: Leaky boa
Leade ship Business objec i e and
leade ship cul u e a e el o be
con using
Communica ion and in e ac ion
Communica ion in i ual wo k is
backwa d and does no suppo
in e dependen in e ac ion
Lea ning and g ow h Cul u e o
incompe ence and hidden know-
how kill meaning ulness and
c ea i i y a wo k
Hie a chical au ho i a ian leade ship
He e a chial in eg a i e leade ship
Humala
231
DISCUSSION
This s udy aimed a de eloping a desc ip i e ypology o iden i y and desc ibe leade ship owa d c e-
a i i y in i ual wo k. Based on he empi ical in e iew da a, he s udy analyzed he ypical aspec s
ega ding wha , how, and why leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k is comp ised in each com-
pany ype and speci ied he composi ion o each ype in de ail. The di e en ypes o companies de-
ine al e na i e ajec o ies in he ansi ion owa d leade ship c ea i i y in i ual wo k. This ypology
ex ends he leade ship ypologies o Dubé e al. (2006) and Ha a, Shacha , and S oe ge (2009).
The main con ibu ions o his s udy a e discussed below.
EMPIRICAL ENRICHMENT FOR UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP TOWARD CREATIV-
ITY IN VIRTUAL WORK
The ypology based on empi ical da a om mul iple cases en iches he unde s anding o leade ship
ha os e s c ea i i y in i ual wo k and con ibu es o applying he he e a chy pe spec i e o such
leade ship. As an analy ical ool, i helps esea che s d aw ou unde lying dimensions ha in luence
leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k and mo e igo ously and c ea i ely unde s and and con-
cep ualize he condi ions and ela ionships in leade ship ha a e ela ed o each o he . The ca ego ies
o he ypology can also be used o he classi ica ion o companies and leade s.
Type B, “collec i e mind,” is o pa icula conce n, as i mos comple ely ep esen s bo h leade ship
inspi ing c ea i i y in a i ual wo k o ce and de eloping a i ual business in line wi h he e a chy and
collec i e in elligence. I suppo s he p e ious esea ch indings (Humala, 2016) abou he app op i-
a eness o he e a chical on ological commi men o leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k. The
empi ical e idence in his s udy a i ms ha leade s s imula ing c ea i i y in a i ual wo k o ce need
o unde s and i uali y as a ne wo ked con ex and apply dis ibu ed au ho i y o o ches a e wo k.
The inding o asse i eness in ype B, “collec i e mind,” s eng hens he iew abou combining di -
e en o ganizing p inciples o os e c ea i i y in i ual wo k and hence suppo s he he e a chical
c i e ia o he combina ion o o ganizing p inciples (AH1). I suppo s he p e ious esul s o Hoch
and Kozlowski (2014) ega ding i uali y enhancing he ela ionship be ween s uc u al suppo s and
pe o mance as well as hose o Humala (2015) in a s a -up con ex . Fu he , ull connec i i y o cus-
ome s and egula pe sonal ace- o- ace mee ings in communica ion, coaching leade ship wi h pa -
icipa o y lea ning o e ole bounda ies, and skill ul ec ui ing and o ien a ion sugges ha ene gizing
people (LC1) is also an impo an ac o in leading a i ual wo k o ce owa d c ea i i y.
LEADERSHIP TOWARD CREATIVITY IN VIRTUAL WORK ACTUALIZES IN A COLLEC-
TIVE-MIND COMPANY
The desc ip i e ypology s eng hens he iew ha in he p esen business cha ac e ized by globally
ope a ing ne wo ks and mo e echnologically ad anced con ex s, he end in leade ship is owa d
ha in ype B, “collec i e mind.” O ganiza ional leade ship needs o be upda ed owa d a i ual
leade ship cul u e o os e collec i e c ea i i y. The cha ac e is ics o a i ual leade ship cul u e a e
collec i e in elligence, an open and communal way o wo king oge he , and sha ed esponsibili y o
each a common objec i e. This cul u e echoes Pou anen’s (2016) iew on a cul u e o wo king o-
ge he , unde s anding he p ocess, emb acing a ia ion and con ex , encou aging eme gen p ac ices,
iden i ying le els o c ea i i y, app ecia ing subjec i i y, and de eloping communica ion o enhance
collec i e c ea i i y. The indings sugges ha he c ea i i y o a i ual wo k o ce is bes os e ed and
supe io business ou comes a e eached in ype B, “collec i e mind,” whe e bo h leade ship owa d
c ea i i y and he e a chical in eg a i e leade ship a e applied. Type B, “collec i e mind,” ope a es ia
a i ual mindse . I s cha ac e is ics include sha ed alues wi h an impo an objec i e, collec i e in-
elligence, ac i e and asse i e leade ship by example, anspa ency, sha ed powe and esponsibili y,
a helping cul u e, and empowe ing and coaching leade ship. As leade ship in his ype enables powe
Typology on Leade ship owa d C ea i i y in Vi ual Wo k
232
and commi men o a ise om he communi y, i esembles eme gen (Chamakio is, 2014) o ad hoc
leade ship (Ha a e al., 2009) ha enables ansien leade ship oppo uni ies o people. A leade who
has a i ual mindse and unde s ands i uali y as a ne wo ked con ex in e nalizes he concep ha
leade ship and con ex a e in ica ely in e wined (Osbo n, Uhl-Bien, & Milose ic, 2014). Based on
his s udy, leade ship owa d c ea i i y in i ual wo k equi es leade s who a e genuinely in e es ed
bo h in people, hei de elopmen , and collabo a ion wi h hem, as well as in he echnologies. In
ype B, “collec i e mind,” in insically mo i a ed people wo k oge he owa d a common objec i e
in a pa icipa o y cul u e, whe e people help each o he , sha e knowledge (P asad, 2014) h ough
mul ichannel communica ion, and e lec on ma e s and phenomena o lea n o enhance business.
F om a c i ical poin o iew, since people a e he ocus he e, conside a ion mus be gi en o such
eme ging issues as he limi a ions in human ene gy and esou ces wi h ega d o con inually wo king
owa d c ea i i y and inno a ions, and in ime and space o enable concen a ion on pa icula assign-
men s. Fu he , ca e ul easoning is necessa y ega ding how o a oid he phenomenon o collec i e
misbelie as well as o eadjus a e he sudden b eakdowns ha a e ine i able in complex en i on-
men s. Because o ganiza ions di e om each o he , ype B, “collec i e mind,” can appea di e -
en ly in a ious o ganiza ions and pa s o hem. To ensu e he con inuous de elopmen o e-
sou ces, indi iduals in i ual wo k may be able o wo k in ype B “collec i e mind” o ganiza ions
only occasionally; meanwhile, he wo k equi es o ganizing in a new way, and people mus do di e -
en wo k. This may also mean inding new business models. These kinds o conside a ions cause he
ole o conscious e lec ion o become inc easingly impo an in i ual wo k – bo h inside o ganiza-
ions and oge he in in e es g oups – so ha bo h people and businesses can na iga e in he i ual
business en i onmen as op imally as possible. As he e a chy emphasizes, sha ed leade ship and
changing oles in i ual ne wo ked wo k a e c ucial; his can also enable human beings o calm down
and edisco e hei in insic mo i a ion and c ea i i y.
In ype A, “nascen launch pad,” bo h he de elopmen o company leade ship p ac ices and he o -
ganiza ion o mu ual in e ac ion a e in p og ess. This company ype has en husiasm owa d de elop-
ing new ideas and p ac ices bu i is s ill s uggling wi h i s de elopmen . Type C, “command cen e ,”
is led by hie a chy, which gene a es a lack o con idence among people and leads o di icul ies in
managing a business in he i ual en i onmen . In ype D, “leaky boa ,” he o e all cul u e o in-
compe ence does no allow ei he he i ual wo k o ce o he business o lou ish. The indings in
i ual con ex s suppo Amabile (1998), who highligh ed ha when c ea i i y is killed, an o ganiza-
ion loses a po en compe i i e weapon ha enables i o c ea e new ideas, and i can also lose he en-
e gy and commi men o i s employees
LEADERSHIP TOWARD CREATIVITY REQUIRES APPROPRIATE VIRTUAL AND PHYSI-
CAL SPACES AND TOOLS FOR MULTICHANNEL COMMUNICATION
Th ough communica ion, people exchange in o ma ion and cons uc indi idual and con ex ually
sha ed ames o e e ence (Pou anen, 2016). App op ia e knowledge-p ocessing and communica ion
ha os e s he c i icali y and e lexi i y o bo h indi iduals’ own and o he s’ ideas a e impo an in
he c ea i e p ocess (Mononen, Tynjälä, & Kallio, 2016; Pou anen, 2016). This si ua ion makes he
ole o communica ion, a help ul and iendly communica ion s yle, and communica ion spaces and
ools c i ical in leading a i ual wo k o ce owa d c ea i i y. The indings suppo Chamakio is
(2014) no ion o he c ucial ole o good communica ion and o ganiza ional skills in c ea i i y.
Based on he esul s, leade s need o u ilize ongoing mul ichannel communica ion, be isible o hei
employees and collabo a o s, and wo k ac i ely o hei g oups o people in o de o succeed in dis-
pe sed i ual wo k. Fos e ing collec i e c ea i i y in he i ual con ex equi es he de elopmen o
social bonds be ween o ganiza ional membe s, who can eely oice c i icism when necessa y o
each a common meaning ul a ge . This de elopmen o social ela ionships demands no only in-
hibi ing people’s de ense sys ems bu also enabling people o mee each o he ace- o- ace and wo k
physically close oge he (Po ges, 2011). The s udy indica es ha bo h unc ional i ual and physical
Humala
233
spaces a e necessa y o genuine mu ual in e ac ion and collec i e c ea i i y o de elop. The indings
o his s udy challenge he design o u u e physical wo king spaces o os e indi idual and collec i e
c ea i i y by espec ing di e en ways o wo king and by enabling p ac ical solu ions o mu ual in-
e ac ion, p i a e discussions, and in ense concen a ion – in o ices, hubs, homes, o mobile wo k
se ings. The s udy s eng hens he iew ha collec i e c ea i i y in i ual wo k equi es physical in-
e ac ions in sui able physical spaces and he eme gence o ca ing o each o he .
As ou lined p e iously, i ual leade ship closely ela es o ma e iali ies such as i ual communica-
ion ools. Leade s need o mee hei i ual wo k o ces ace- o- ace egula ly and use mode n com-
munica ion ools, such as social media, o de elop social bonds wi h he i ual wo k o ce and o e-
lec issues inside he company and wi h cus ome s and o he s akeholde s. Leade s who inspi e c ea-
i i y in i ual wo k end o be mo e open-minded abou ying and using al e na i e and mul iple
ools in leading people, making he ob ious dubious (B inkmann, 2012) in he p esen business con-
ex s, and ac i a ing people owa d a collec i e in elligence.
To imp o e he quali y o i ual communica ion, leade s mus communica e and in e ac ho izon-
ally be ween people, which is also sugges ed by he he e a chical pe spec i e. This equi emen chal-
lenges leade s o de elop he ho izon al capabili y o people o consciously and app op ia ely de elop
hei hinking, unde s and eali y om mul iple pe spec i es, and change hei space o consciousness
acco ding o he si ua ion (Jakonen & Kamppinen, 2016).
The esul s sugges ha dis ances in i ual wo k can equalize cul u al di e ences, dec ease social
p essu e, and suppo people in wo king oge he mo e closely and e icien ly. This inding is encou -
aging o de eloping leade ship in echnologically ad anced dispe sed con ex s o piggyback di e si y
and di e en know-how o inspi e a i ual wo k o ce owa d c ea i i y and inno a ions in collabo a-
ion. In a sense, people in i ual se ings ope a e in no-man’s land, which enables leade s, oge he
wi h hei collabo a o s, o c ea e simila wo king cul u es o hei own and le collec i e in elligence
lead he o ganiza ion owa d common success. Howe e , his kind o collec i e mind o ganiza ion
emphasizes he demand o emo ional in elligence, sensi i i y, and anspa ency on he pa o lead-
e s, who mus also ecei e bad news in business and unde s and he in e linea hin s om hei peo-
ple in o ches a ing he collabo a i e wo k. Fu he , de eloping cul u es o collec i e in elligence c e-
a es b oade social o esigh and e lexi i y, allowing o ganiza ions o ma ch science and echnology
and espond o he eme ging nea - e m u u e con ex (Jakonen & Kamppinen, 2015). These ci cum-
s ances signi y sha ed powe and esponsibili y in i ual wo k.
SUPPORTING PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AND KNOW-HOW ENHANCES COLLECTIVE
CREATIVITY AND SUSTAINABILITY IN VIRTUAL WORK SETTINGS
In gene al, he indings highligh de eloping leade ship in i ual labo and he physical and i ual
spaces in acco dance wi h humanis ic alues o ca e o and empowe people and suppo hei p o-
essional g ow h, sel - egula ion, and meaning ulness a wo k, which will in u n os e collec i e c e-
a i i y, u ilize know-how, and p omo e he common good in socie y.
This kind o leade ship enhances sus ainabili y bo h o people and o business. The indings sup-
po he ecen discussions on eme ging pedagogies (G os, 2016) and meaning ul wo k (Lips-
Wie sma & W igh , 2012) wi h clea challenges, anspa ency, using di e en o ms o knowledge,
and in eg a ing he use o echnology as a mindse o c ea i i y, collabo a ion, and mul imedia
p oduc i i y. This posi ion ela es o a de elopmen cul u e in company ype B, “collec i e mind,”
which ad ances empowe ing and in eg a ing he e a chical leade ship.
Echoing p e ious esea ch (Amabile e al., 1996; Nie & Kosaka, 2014), his s udy empi ically sup-
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hance c ea i i y in a i ual wo k o ce and o make i ual wo k success ul. The pe son–job– i and
he ec ui men o mo e skilled pe sons o he leade ship posi ions ha e been ound o be impo an
o inc easing mo i a ion and enhancing c ea i i y and i s u iliza ion (O’Conno , 2016; S aw, 2016).
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BIOGRAPHY
I is Humala is a Doc o al candida e in he Facul y o Educa ion,
Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland. She has a PhD deg ee in Economics and
Business Adminis a ion om Uni e si y o Vaasa, Finland. She has a
b oad expe ience in p og am and p ojec managemen , esea ch
managemen and consul ing. He cu en esea ch in e es s a e in he
a eas o leade ship in i ual wo k and business ne wo ks. Now she is
wo king in I is Consul ing ky as en ep eneu and coach.