Academic Integration of Mainland Chinese Students in Germany

Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803) 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 DOI: 10.17645/si. 5i1.824 A icle Academic In eg a ion o Mainland Chinese S uden s in Ge many Hanwei Li 1,2 1Facul y o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Tampe e, 33100 Tampe e, Finland; E-Mail: hanwei.li@s a .u a. i 2Biele eld G adua e School in His o y and Sociology, Uni e si y o Biele eld, 33615 Biele eld, Ge many Submi ed: 15 No embe 2016 | Accep ed: 27 Feb ua y 2017 | Published: 28 Ma ch 2017 Abs ac This a icle p esen s an analysis o he academic in eg a ion expe iences o mainland Chinese e ia y-le el s uden s in Ge many. Using Tin o’s model, he a icle explo es he challenges ha Chinese s uden s ace du ing hei academic in eg a- ion, he s a egies hey employ, and he ela ionship be ween academic and social in eg a ion. The da a we e collec ed in sp ing 2016 by in e iewing 26 mainland Chinese s uden s s udying ei he in Ge man uni e si ies o uni e si ies o applied sciences. Fou majo challenges we e iden i ied and analyzed: language ba ie , knowledge gap, pedagogical di e ences, and cul u al di e ences. An impo an ou come o he s udy p esen ed is ha social in eg a ion se es as a acili a o o enhancing academic in eg a ion, bu is no a p e equisi e o academic success. G oup lea ning wi h pee s was ound o enhance lea ning ou comes. O e all, Chinese s uden s ha e exploi ed hei own ad an ages in academic in eg a ion by explo ing easible s a egies and bene i ing om hei pas lea ning expe iences. I is sugges ed ha academic in eg a ion as a long and challenging p ocess o in e na ional s uden s should be acknowledged by he Ge man HEIs, and ha mo e ins i u ional suppo and guidance a e needed. Keywo ds academic in eg a ion; Chinese s uden ; Ge many; highe educa ion; social in eg a ion Issue This a icle is pa o he issue “In e na ional Mig a ion and E hnic In eg a ion”, edi ed by Yaojun Li (Uni e si y o Manch- es e , UK) and An hony Hea h (Uni e si y o Ox o d, UK). © 2017 by he au ho ; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu- ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY). 1. In oduc ion While he mig a ion s udies li e a u e gene ally ocuses on he in eg a ion o labo mig an s, amily mig an s, and asylum seeke s, he e is less esea ch ocusing on he in- eg a ion o in e na ional s uden s. This is pa ly because in e na ional s uden mobili y is o en seen as ‘ empo- a y’, and in e na ional s uden s cons i u e a ‘less p ob- lema ic’ g oup o o eign a i als. Howe e , he numbe o s uden s pu suing s udies ab oad con inues o su ge as highe educa ion ins i u ions a ound he wo ld com- pe e o he mos alen ed s uden s, and uni e si y en- olmen con inues o inc ease wo ldwide. In e na ional s uden s ha e become he key a ge o many coun ies’ ba le ields o global compe i ion o b igh es and bes . Canada, o example, has ecen ly changed i s elec onic immig a ion selec ion sys em o make i easie o in e - na ional s uden s o become ci izens. I coun s hal o s uden s’ ime spen s udying in Canada owa d he pe- iod o esidence equi ed o ci izenship (Smi h, 2017). Meanwhile, many Eu opean coun ies, such as Ge many, F ance, he Ne he lands, and Finland, ha e also pu sued a policy o allowing in e na ional uni e si y g adua es an ex ension o hei esidence pe mi s o job seeking a e g adua ion. In e na ional s uden s a e no longe classed as ‘ empo a y mig an s’, a he i is hoped ha hei s ay in he hos coun y will inc ease mo i a ion o long- e m se lemen , and ha hei empo a y mo emen could be pa o a delibe a e s a egy o pe manen mig a- ion (T emblay, 2005). Thus, in eg a ion o in e na ional s uden s has become opical and dese es mo e schol- a ly a en ion. Ne e heless, in e na ional s uden s s ill only cons i- u e a mino i y o he o al e ia y s uden popula ion. Chinese s uden s a e he mos nume ous o he in e na- ional e ia y-le el s uden s (UNESCO Ins i u e o S a is- Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 80 ics, 2016). In 2013, o e 4.1 million Chinese we e s udy- ing ab oad, ep esen ing 1.8 pe cen o all e ia y en ol- men s globally (UNESCO Ins i u e o S a is ics, 2016). Be- ween he in oduc ion o Deng Xiaoping’s opening pol- icy in he 1970s and 2015, a ound ou million Chinese s uden s wen ab oad o s udy, and his igu e inc eases by app oxima ely 19 pe cen annually. In 2016, abou 520,000 Chinese s uden s mo ed o s udy ab oad (Min- is y o Educa ion o P. R. o China, 2016). Chinese s uden mig a ion mos ly aims a he English- speaking coun ies (Chen & Ross, 2015; Gu & Schweis- u h, 2006; Kajanus, 2016), while Ge many is he mos popula des ina ion among he non-English-speaking coun ies. Acco ding o he Ins i u e o In e na ional Ed- uca ion, abou 30,511 Chinese s uden s we e s udying in Ge many in 2015, making hem he second la ges g oup o in e na ional s uden s in Ge many (a e Tu k- ish s uden s). The sha e o Chinese s uden s o he in- e na ional s uden popula ion in Ge many is a ound en pe cen (Wissenscha Wel o en, 2016). Al hough mos deg ee p og ams a e s ill o e ed in Ge man lan- guage (Bessey, 2012), Ge many has become an inc eas- ingly popula choice o highe educa ion among Chi- nese s uden s. Ge many is a popula des ina ion among Chinese s uden s o se e al easons. Fi s , i is one o he ew coun ies o o e all na ionali ies high quali y highe educa ion ee o cha ge o o modes ui ion ees, which is a majo a ac i e ac o o in e na ional s u- den s. Bo h English- and Ge man- augh p og ams a e p o ided o in e na ional s uden s. Unlike many non- English-speaking coun ies ha a e ec ui ing in e na- ional s uden s o English- augh p og ams, mos in- e na ional s uden s s udy on Ge man- augh p og ams alongside na i e Ge man s uden s. Ge man language is augh in uni e si ies ac oss he globe and language in- s i u es such as he Goe he Ins i u . Ge many also a - anges es ablished s anda dized Ge man language es s (DSH and Tes DaF) in many coun ies in he wo ld, whe e s uden s can ob ain a language ce i ica e in suppo o hei applica ions o s udies in Ge many. Fo hose s u- den s who canno each he equi emen o begin hei academic s udies in Ge many, i is possible o s a he s udies in he S udienkollegs (S udienkolleg ü ausländis- che S udie ende) a Ge man colleges and uni e si ies. These s udies unc ion as a ‘b idge’ o help in e na ional s uden s enhance hei Ge man language skills, and be- come acquain ed wi h Ge man academic cul u e. Fu - he , Ge many has an o ganiza ion specialized in p omo - ing academic mobili y be ween Ge many and o he coun- ies. The Ge man Academic Exchange Se ice DAAD (Deu sche Akademische Aus auschdiens ) o e s in o - ma ion on s udying in Ge many, on selec ing a uni e si y, on admission c i e ia, and on p epa ing o emba k on s udies in Ge many. I also o e s a ious ypes o schol- a ships o s uden s ac oss he globe o exchange, s udy- ing Ge man language, o s udying on deg ee p og ams. The DAAD has o ices in many coun ies o he wo ld, in- cluding China, ha ac i ely o e in o ma ion on how o apply o s udy in Ge many, and on academic collabo a- ion and mobili y. Fo example, in China he DAAD has i s own social ne wo k accoun s on WeCha and Weibo ha ou inely dis ibu e in o ma ion on he applica ion p o- cess o s udying in Ge many, p esen s in oduc ions o speci ic Ge man uni e si ies and ci ies, and ep oduces es imonials om cu en s uden s. In addi ion, Ge many is one o he i s coun ies in he EU o ac i ely seek o imp o e in e na ional s uden s’ access o he labo ma ke . In he con ex o he ecen poli ical deba e, in e na ional s uden s we e iden i ied as u u e skilled wo ke s. The aim was o make access o he labo ma ke easie o hem, especially in he in o - ma ion echnology sec o . In e na ional g adua es hold- ing a deg ee om a Ge man uni e si y a e in a a o able posi ion o ge ing job o e s. Mo eo e , due o hei linguis ic skills and in e cul u al communica ion skills, in- e na ional s uden s can se e as ‘connec o s’ be ween hei coun ies o o igin and des ina ion. The la e ac o is pa icula ly ele an o he expo -o ien ed Ge man economy (Aksakal & Schmid -Ve ke k, 2014). Gi en his policy con ex , he e has been g owing conce n o e he ex en o which Ge man highe edu- ca ion ins i u ions (HEIs) manage o p o ide app op ia e and esponsi e academic and pe sonal suppo o he in- eg a ion o in e na ional s uden s. While nume ous su - eys ha e examined he mac o-le el ends in s uden mobili y and he quali y o Ge man HEIs, less a en ion has been paid o he expe iences o indi idual in e na- ional s uden s. The pu pose o his pape is o in es iga e how Chi- nese s uden s in eg a e in o Ge man academic en i on- men s, wha challenges hey encoun e while s udying in Ge many, and wha coping s a egies hey adop o such challenges. The ollowing esea ch ques ions guided he s udy p esen ed he e: (1) wha challenges do mainland Chinese s uden s encoun e while s udying and li ing in Ge many? (2) Wha s a egies do Chinese s uden s use o o e come challenges in hei academic in eg a ion? and (3) Is he e a connec ion be ween academic and social in- eg a ion among Chinese s uden s s udying in Ge many? 2. In eg a ion o In e na ional S uden s: The Resea ch Con ex In ea lie esea ch on he academic and social in eg a- ion and s udy p og ess o in e na ional s uden s in a o eign academic se ing, he e ms ‘in eg a ion’, ‘adap- a ion’, and ‘accul u a ion’ ha e been used in e change- ably in di e en se ings, ca ying la gely simila conno- a ions. This a icle chooses o use he e m ‘in eg a ion’ because in eg a ion can be seen bo h as a goal and a p ocess. When i comes o social ela ions, he goal o he Ge man in eg a ion policy is ha o eign newcom- e s will es ablish a ela i ely obus ela ionship wi h he hos communi y, while no abandoning hei home e h- nic communi y and e hnic iden i y (Süssmu h, 2009). As Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 81 a goal in eg a ion e e s a si ua ion in which newcome s ha e a ained a leas a mode a e le el o language and cul u al compe ence wi hin he coun y o se lemen ha ensu es hei abili y o h i e. I also implies ha mi- g an s ac i ely y o become a pa o he su ounding socie y (Budy a-Budzyńska, 2011). I can be said ha a success ul adap a ion p esupposes ha newcome s in e- g a e in o hei new li ing en i onmen s, which in u n is usually a esul o a success ul accul u a ion p ocess. 2.1. Academic and Social In eg a ion Tin o (1975, 1997) de eloped a model o s uden a i- ion ha laid a heo e ical ounda ion o s udying e - ia y s uden e en ion. In his model, Tin o es ablished he app oxima e pa i y be ween social and academic in- eg a ion in hei e ec s on d opou . The cen al concep p oposed in Tin o’s model is ha a s uden ’s in eg a ion in o he social and academic sys ems o he highe educa- ion ins i u ion is wha ul ima ely esul s in pe se e ance o d opou . The highe he deg ee o in eg a ion o he s uden s in o he college sys em, he less likely hey a e o ail o ul ill a commi men and achie e goals leading o he comple ion o hei deg ee p og ams. A pe son’s aca- demic in eg a ion can be measu ed in e ms o he g ade pe o mance and in ellec ual de elopmen achie ed du - ing s udies. While in e na ional s uden s en e uni e si y wi h a ious backg ounds and mo i a ions, hei in eg a- ion in o he highe educa ion sys em will ul ima ely de- e mine hei pe se e ance o d opou . Tin o desc ibes wo impe a i e condi ions o success ul e en ion: (1) in- s i u ional expe iences (in ol ing he educa ion sys em); and (2) academic and social in eg a ion. Those who eel a home, pa icipa e ac i ely in ex a-cu icula ac i i ies, and eel connec ed wi h ellow s uden s and eache s a e mo e likely o pe se e e in hei s udies. The p edic i e alidi y o Tin o’s model was es ed in a ious se ings. One s udy sugges ed ha s uden s’ academic in eg a ion, oge he wi h educa ional objec- i es, p edic s hei pe sis ence in he HEIs (Be s & Smi h, 1991). In addi ion o o mal s udies, in o mal in- e ac ion wi h acul y membe s plays a i al ole in he s uden s’ academic in eg a ion (Te enzini & Pasca ella, 1977). Howe e , Tin o’s model does no speci y he p o- cess by which ins i u ional expe iences a ec s uden lea ning. While s uden cha ac e is ics p io o en y may a ec hei academic in eg a ion, he ins i u ional expe- ience esul s in a ce ain s udy e o and ul ima ely in s uden pe sis ence. A s udy by Se e iens and Schmid (2009) examining ins i u ional expe iences o s uden lea ning, ound a di ec posi i e e ec o he lea ning en i onmen on in e na ional s uden s’ p og ess in hei s udies. A p oblem-based lea ning en i onmen , mo e han con en ional p og ams, helped s uden s o de elop hei cogni i e skills and s imula ed hem o acqui e new knowledge. P oblem-based lea ning also appea ed o be success ul in s imula ing s uden s o ob ain c edi s, and achie e a highe le el o social and academic in eg a ion. One o he key hemes among he s udies using Tin o’s model is he ela ionship be ween academic and social in eg a ion. The indings o Mannan (2007) show ha academic and social in eg a ion complemen each o he among unde g adua es. Howe e , Rien ies, Beausae , G ohne , Nieman s e d ie and Komme s (2012), who examined he alidi y o educa o s’ imp es- sions, ound ha in e na ional s uden s a e insu icien ly adjus ed o highe educa ion in hei hos coun ies, bo h academically and socially, and ha he ex en o hei academic success is mul i ace ed. In e na ional s uden s wi h a (mixed) wes e n backg ound we e be e academi- cally and socially in eg a ed, and achie ed a highe s udy pe o mance han did domes ic s uden s. By con as , in e na ional s uden s wi h a non-wes e n backg ound we e less socially in eg a ed, bu s ill achie ed a simila s udy pe o mance. The social adjus men o s uden s was nega i ely ela ed o hei s udy pe o mance. These indings sugges ha he ela ionship be ween academic and social in eg a ion p ocesses is complex in na u e and me i s u he in es iga ion. Resea ch on he social in eg a ion o in e na ional s u- den s has pa icula ly emphasized he posi i e e ec o es ablishing social ne wo ks wi h hos na ionals (Bochne , McLeod, & Lin, 1977a; Coles & Swami, 2012). Resea ch has also shown ha in e na ional s uden s epo less homesickness, less loneliness, and g ea e sa is ac ion i hey ha e mo e hos -na ional iends (Chu ch, 1982; Hen- d ickson, Rosen, & Aune, 2011). Con ac s wi h hos na- ionals ha e also been shown o enable in e na ional s u- den s o de elop local ne wo ks, a ain a be e unde - s anding o local cul u es, and acqui e he necessa y so- cial skills (Li & Gasse , 2005). Ye in p ac ice i may be di icul o make con ac s wi h hos -na ionals. I is ela- i ely easy o in e na ional s uden s o o m iendship ne wo ks wi h co-na ional s uden s (Bochne , McLeod, & Lin, 1977b; Fu nham & Alibhai, 1985; Hend ickson e al., 2011). While con ac wi h co-na ionals can play a i al ole in he in e na ional s uden s’ social ne wo ks, engage- men wi h co-na ionals may inhibi hem om o ming iendship ne wo ks wi h ep esen a i es o he hos soci- e y (Chu ch, 1982), and om acqui ing o imp o ing skills in he hos language (Maundeni, 2001), which impedes in e cul u al lea ning p ocesses (Kim, 2000). Acco dingly, Kim (2000) a gues ha co-na ional con ac s only o e sho - e m suppo , while con ac s and iendships wi h hos -na ionals a e mo e impo an o social in eg a ion. 2.2. Chinese Lea ne s in Wes e n Highe Educa ion S udies ocusing on he academic in eg a ion o Chinese s uden s in wes e n HEIs ha e p oduced mixed and some- imes con adic o y esul s. Kennedy (2002) ound ha Chinese cul u e has an in luence on Chinese s uden s’ lea ning s yles: Chinese s uden s a e low in indi idual- ism and high in collec i ism, and exhibi a s ong sense o belonging o a social g oup and a p e e ence o wo k oge he o sol e p oblems (Kennedy, 2002; Nield, 2009; Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 82 Saye s & F anklin, 2008) Some s udies ha e ound ha s uden s om a Con ucian cul u al backg ound ha e mo e di icul ies in adjus ing o he wes e n eaching s yle han do hei wes e n pee s. They may adop a less ac i e lea ning s a egy, and be hesi an abou oic- ing hei own opinions in he class oom, while wes e n s uden s a e mo e used o pa icipa ing ac i ely in class (Auyeung & Sands, 1996; Duanmu, Li, & Chen, 2009; S ohschneide & Guss, 1999; Vi a, 2001; Yuen & Lee, 1994). In addi ion, Co azzi and Jin (1997) ha e shown ha Chinese and B i ish s uden s a e likely o ha e di e - en expec a ions ega ding s uden s’ and eache s’ oles. The Chinese s uden s expec a eache o be a ‘knowl- edge model’ who gi es s uden s clea guidance o hem o ollow, while B i ish eache s ac mo e as acili a o s o s uden s’ lea ning by encou aging he lea ne s’ own c ea i i y and independence. Howe e , he e a e o he s udies which con a- dic hese indings, sugges ing ha , con a y o he Chinese s uden s e eo ype, Chinese lea ne s ha e a s onge p e e ence o high-le el, meaning–based lea n- ing s a egies and p e e o a oid o e lea ning. Kennedy (2002) ound ha Chinese s uden s can adop new lea n- ing s yles when he lea ning con ex changes and new lea ning app oaches a e needed. Thus, mo e ac i e and communica i e modes o lea ning may be p e e ed o a adi ional eache -cen e ed s yle. Acco ding o Du kin (2008), Chinese s uden s app oach hei lea ning asks by adop ing a s a egic a i ude o lea ning. She ound ha mos Eas Asian mas e ’s s uden s op ed o a middle way which syne gizes hei own cul u al app oach o c i ical hinking wi h wes e n-s yle c i ical hinking and deba e ha a e cul u ally accep able o hem. In his way in e - na ional s uden s, wi hou being ully accul u a ed, be- come ‘empa he ic inside s’, who unde s and and alue he new p ac ices, pe cei ing hem as oppo uni ies o g ow h and de elopmen . Zhang (2013) also ound ha some Chinese s uden s would choose a middle way o im- p o e hei linguis ic compe ence o be e academic in- eg a ion. Ins ead o app oaching na i e speake s, some Chinese s uden s ied o make iends wi h o he non- Chinese s uden s o p ac ice hei English and hus gain mo e con idence in in e cul u al communica ion. 2.3. Chinese S uden s in Ge many Gi en he ela i ely la ge numbe o Chinese s uden s in Ge man HEIs, li le esea ch has so a been conduc ed on his g oup. The exis ing li e a u e sugges s ha Chi- nese s uden s s udying in Ge many sha e some p oblems wi h hose in o he coun ies, such as language issues, i- nancial s ess, loneliness, and di icul ies in academic in- eg a ion. Zhu (2012, 2016) explo ed Chinese s uden s’ academic adjus men in ou phases: p e-depa u e, ini- ial, de eloping, and inal phase. She ound ha Chi- nese s uden s’ insu icien p epa a ion (language p o- iciency and knowledge abou Ge man uni e si ies) in he p e-depa u e phase led o di icul ies in he ini ial phase. The s uden s o en desc ibed hei ini ial expe i- ences as a ‘ca as ophe’, as hey we e no a all amil- ia wi h he academic sys em in Ge many. In he de el- oping phase, Chinese s uden s epo ed p og ess in Ge - man language and knowledge abou Ge man uni e si- ies, which acili a ed hei u he de elopmen . One majo challenge in he de eloping phase was o nego- ia e he di e ence in academic expec a ions be ween home and hos uni e si ies. In he inal phase, Chinese s uden s showed unde s anding and app ecia ion o he expec a ions a Ge man uni e si ies. Ge man language p o iciency, academic suppo , and pe sonal e o o- ge he in luenced he Chinese s uden s’ academic adjus - men a Ge man uni e si ies. Mo eo e , Chinese s uden s s udying in Ge many wi h Ge man as he language o ins uc ion epo ed g ea e challenges in hei academic and social in eg a- ion (Zhou, 2009). The s udy by Mao (2011) showed ha only hal o he in e na ional s uden s had s udied Ge - man be o e a i ing in Ge many, while he es began lea ning Ge man only on a i ing in he coun y. Conse- quen ly, less han one hi d o Chinese s uden s aking pa in he s udy could epo ha hei p o iciency in Ge - man was ‘good’ o ‘ e y good’, e en hough hei s udies in a Ge man uni e si y had al eady begun (Mao, 2011). By examining a g oup o Ge man and a g oup o Chi- nese s uden s, Luo and Kück (2011) examined he sim- ila i ies and di e ences be ween hese s uden s’ lea n- ing beha io s and s yles. They ound ha he lea ning s yles o he wo g oups we e amazingly close, as bo h g oups we e o ien ed owa ds imp o ing hei compe- ence and being c ea i e h ough sel -mo i a ion. In ad- di ion, hey used simila lea ning me hods, such as sel - lea ning and asking ques ions, and iewed he lec u e s as p o essional and mo al examples in academic se ings. This demons a es ha cul u al di e ences do no neces- sa ily a ec he lea ning app oaches o Ge man and Chi- nese s uden s. Guan (2007) compa ed Chinese and Ge man s uden s’ adjus men a he Uni e si y o B emen and he Uni e - si y o Gö ingen. His esea ch a he Uni e si y o B emen he o me esea ch sugges ed ha he concep o sel played an impo an ole in he adjus men o Chinese s u- den s; while a he Uni e si y o Gö ingen he ound ha when acing di icul ies Chinese s uden s used di e en esou ces om hei Ge man coun e pa s o deal wi h he p oblem. Mos Chinese s uden s p e e ed o u n o books and media ins ead o alking wi h na i e Ge mans. In sum, much o he li e a u e on he academic and social in eg a ion o in e na ional s uden s adop s a cul- u al pe spec i e ocusing on he ensions caused by a - emp s o cope wi h cul u al di e ences in a new en i on- men . The esea ch p esen ed in his a icle was con ex u- alized in di e en li e a u es conce ning he na u e o in- e na ional s uden s’ in e cul u al communica ion and in- e cul u al expe ience. Ye he emphasis was no placed on cul u al di e ence as such, bu encompassed a ious challenges acing he s uden s a ising om cul u al, peda- Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 83 gogical, linguis ic, and ins i u ional pe spec i es ha a e also due o he s ess o in eg a ing in o he la ge soci- e al con ex in addi ion o he academic con ex . Meanwhile, while much a en ion has been paid o ‘cul u al di e ence’, less has been paid o he p ocesses o lea ning, which may be iden ical ac oss di e en cul- u al and academic se ings. As he o egoing li e a u e e iew shows, lea ning s yles may be simila among s u- den s om di e en cul u al backg ounds. S a egies o he academic in eg a ion o in e na ional s uden s may p o e o be jus as use ul when implemen ed in a b and new academic se ing. Fo he pu poses o he esea ch p esen ed he e, he lis o ele an ques ions conce ned how s uden s cope wi h pedagogical and cul u al di e ences, pa icipa e in class oom and g oup lea ning, in e ac wi h eache s and classma es inside and ou side class, and how hey suc- ceed in hei assessmen s. Social in eg a ion e e s o a p ocess o s a e whe e s uden s es ablish ela i ely o- bus ela ionships wi h hos -na ional indi iduals o com- muni ies and ake pa in di e se social ac i i ies. Since he ocus o his a icle is on he academic in eg a ion o Chinese s uden s, he examina ion o hei social in e- g a ion is limi ed o whe he hei social in eg a ion acil- i a es hei academic in eg a ion. 3. Da a and Me hods Da a collec ed h ough semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e used o explo e he challenges and coping s a egies o academic in eg a ion among Chinese s uden s in Ge - many. The au ho in e iewed 26 mainland Chinese e ia y-le el deg ee s uden s in wo Ge man uni e si ies du ing sp ing and summe 2016. Mos o he in e iew ques ions (excep hose elici ing demog aphic in o ma- ion) we e open-ended ques ions enabling s uden s o alk eely and in dep h wi hin he ange o he esea ch ques ions, while also allowing lexibili y o del e in o op- ics which we e no expec ed a he beginning o he s udy. All in e iews we e conduc ed by he au ho in Manda in Chinese o lowe he po en ial ba ie o cul u al and lin- guis ic di e ence, while allowing he s uden s o del e deepe in o he subjec o in e es . Mos o he in e - iews we e conduc ed a wo Ge man uni e si ies. Bo h uni e si ies a e la ge esea ch and eaching HEIs o e ing ins uc ion in he main academic disciplines. Mul iple me hods we e used o ec ui in e iewees. Fi s , he au ho asked he in e na ional o ices o he wo pa icipa ing uni e si ies o send in i a ions o all mainland Chinese s uden s egis e ed in hese uni e si- ies o pa icipa e in he esea ch. The s uden s who ol- un ee ed o pa icipa e in he esea ch we e con ac ed by email, ins an message, o elephone. Second, snow- ball sampling was used. The esea ch pa icipan s we e encou aged o in i e hei iends and o he mainland Chinese s uden s who migh be in e es ed in joining he esea ch. Thi d, a esea ch assis an helped o dis ibu e he in i a ion o in e iews h ough he local Chinese s u- den s’ associa ion ne wo k. Among he in e iewees, 16 we e emale and 12 male s uden s. All pa icipan s we e in hei wen ies wi h an a e age age o 24 yea s o e- male and 26 o male s uden s. The in e iewees came om a ious academic backg ounds: i e we e s udy- ing na u al sciences, ou social sciences, h ee mechani- cal enginee ing, h ee medicine, h ee compu e science, h ee spo s managemen , wo a s and humani ies, wo Ge man linguis ics, one English li e a u e. Mos o he in e iewees came om u ban middle and uppe middle class amily backg ounds in China. The g oup o in e iewees included s uden s who had jus come o s udy in Ge many o one semes e , and hose who had come o Ge many o mo e han i e yea s. As he ime in e al and in eg a ion phases o he in e ie- wees we e di e se, he au ho was able o explo e which ea u es o academic in eg a ion mani es in di e en phases. S uden s who had mo ed o Ge many ecen ly had esh expe ience o ‘cul u e shock’, while he senio s uden s ga e li ely accoun s o how hey had managed o o e come academic in eg a ion p oblems in di e en s ages and on hei de elopmen ajec o ies. The in e - iews las ed om one o h ee hou s. The sha ed lan- guage and cul u al backg ound acili a ed communica- ion be ween he in e iewe and he in e iewees. All in e iews we e eco ded and ansc ibed. The in e iew da a we e analyzed using in e p e a i e con en analysis; pa icula ly in e es ing insigh s we e w i en down du - ing he in e iew, bu mos o he analyses we e ca ied ou on he basis o he in e iew ansc ip s. In he ollowing sec ion, he challenges and coping s a egies o Chinese s uden s’ academic in eg a ion in o Ge many will be discussed in de ail. In p esen ing he indings, no such pe sonal da a is e ealed ha would make he in e iewees ecognizable. The anonymi y o esponden s is p o ec ed, and no eal name is disclosed in he a icle. In he quo a ions, gende and majo sub- jec will se e o cha ac e ize he esponden s. Ci a- ions om he in e iews conduc ed in manda in Chi- nese we e ansla ed in o English by he au ho . 4. Findings 4.1. Challenges in Academic In eg a ion Mos o he Chinese s uden s in Ge many we e s udy- ing ab oad o he i s ime in hei li es. The challenges hey encoun e ed du ing hei academic in eg a ion can be ca ego ized in o he ollowing hemes: language ba - ie , knowledge gap, cul u al di e ence, and pedagogi- cal di e ence. 4.1.1. Language Ba ie All Chinese s uden s in e iewed s essed he impo - ance o Ge man linguis ic p o iciency in hei s udies. In- deed, many in e iewees had come o s udy in Ge many speci ically because hey wan ed o be luen in Ge man. Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 84 Some men ioned ha hey wan ed o be luen in Ge - man because hey we e in luenced by Ge man cul u e and i s speci ics, such as oo ball o au omobiles. Some in e iewees es ima ed ha , in addi ion o achie ing aca- demic success in hei majo subjec s, luency in Ge man was a g ea added alue o hei u u e ca ee s, as he quo a ion below shows: I is e y common o my gene a ion o go o s udy in he UK, he cos is highe bu you can g adua e wi h you M.A. in one yea (a e comple ing he bachelo ’s deg ee). Howe e , I chose o s udy in Ge many be- cause he e a e ela i ely ewe people speaking Ge - man compa ed o English. When I g adua e, I would no only ha e a diploma om a coun y wi h a good epu a ion o highe educa ion, bu also speak wo o eign languages. (Female, Medicine) The language ba ie has been men ioned epea edly in many ea lie s udies as a majo challenge o he in eg a- ion o in e na ional s uden s. Howe e , he ex en and se e i y o he language p oblems among Chinese s u- den s a e g ea e in Ge many han in English-speaking coun ies o h ee easons as ollows: Fi s , Ge man is he second o hi d o eign language o mos o he Chi- nese s uden s. While he e a e in e na ional high schools ha each Ge man as a o eign language in China, mos o he s uden s s udy Ge man o one o wo yea s in China o in Ge many, and hen ake he Ge man lan- guage es DSH o Tes Da in o de o be en olled in a Ge - man HEI. Howe e , e en i hey succeed in ob aining he language ce i ica e, hei linguis ic capaci y is o en a om su icien o accomplish hei academic asks. The ollowing quo a ions show ha s udying in Ge man is no easy o Chinese s uden s: I hink he mos di icul challenge in s udying he e is he language. You don’ know wha he eache is alk- ing abou , don’ know wha you classma es a e alk- ing abou , and when you ead he book you wan o ea he book apa ….You know ha when we we e in China, we s udied English o many yea s om p ima y school o uni e si y and when we go ab oad i is s ill di icul o use English. No o e en men ion mas e ing Ge man in he sho e m. E en i we had passed he language es , and had s udied he language o wo yea s, when we en e ed he class oom, we s ill ound ou sel es a behind. I hink i is necessa y o he Ge - man uni e si ies o e o m he DSH es because mos o eign s uden s who passed he es a e s ill no lu- en enough in Ge man. (Male, Media S udies) Al hough I had passed he DSH exam, I s ill had di i- cul y adap ing o using Ge man language in daily li e as well as in academic se ings. I ound ha he Ge - man language ha people used in daily li e was o- ally di e en om wha we s udied in class back in China. The use o ocabula y is di e en , and people om di e en egions ha e di e en accen s. They also end o speak as e han he lis ening ma e ial we lea ned om in ou classes. I ook me abou one o wo semes e s o ge used o using Ge man in my daily li e. (Male, Spo s Managemen ) Second, he Ge man language augh in China was no he same as he Ge man ha he s uden s used in hei academic and daily li es. E en o he s uden s o Ge - man linguis ics i ook some ime o ge used o his: A e coming he e (Ge many), I ound ha he hings we lea ned in China we e jus on pape . I only ealized a e li ing in Ge many ha he (Ge man) language is no spoken in ha way ( ha we lea ned in China). The casse es ha we lis ened o in class we e e y slow, while in eali y hey speak much as e . When I lis ened o he Ge man eache explaining in Ge man, i s ill ook some ime be o e I could uly adap ….I hink i ook a ound wo mon hs. (Female, Ge man Linguis ics) Fo some o he s uden s no in ol ed in s udying Ge - man linguis ics, i migh ake up o wo yea s o ge used o s udying in Ge many. Thi d, he s uden s who passed he Ge man language es s we e adequa e in communica ing in daily li e in Ge - man, bu hei academic ocabula y o hei majo sub- jec s was s ill limi ed. Howe e , in he Ge man- augh classes, Ge man and in e na ional s uden s s udied o- ge he as he eache s did no ake hem and hei spe- cial demands in o accoun . This caused p oblems o some in e iewees: The eache s will each acco ding o he empo o Ge - man s uden s, wi hou aking in o conside a ion he di icul y o o eigne s o ollow he class in hei sec- ond o hi d o eign language. The pace o he class is o en eally as , and he e is some ocabula y o e en eache s’ w i ing on he blackboa d ha a e in- comp ehensible o us. (Male, Elec ical Enginee ing) Howe e , hose s uden s who had pa icipa ed in he S u- dienkollege be o e hey began hei bachelo ’s s udies in Ge many, gene ally had be e linguis ic p o iciency han hose who had only aken language classes be o e en e - ing Ge man uni e si ies. By con as , Chinese s uden s on English- augh in e - na ional mas e ’s p og ams seemed o encoun e ewe p oblems. Al hough hey s ill needed o expand hei o- cabula y and imp o e hei p o iciency in spoken English, he language alone was less o an issue o hem com- pa ed o hose who s udied in Ge man. 4.1.2. Knowledge Gap No ably, Chinese s uden s s udying hei majo subjec s in ei he Ge man o in English epo ed di icul ies in un- de s anding he con en s o eaching: Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 85 A he beginning o my s udies I could unde s and a mos 30 o 40 pe cen o he eaching. Fo some classes ha we e di icul , my unde s anding was e en less han 30 o 40 pe cen , because e en i I had aken he class in Chinese I wouldn’ ha e been able o unde s and e e y hing. I eel I was no as good as my ellow classma es. (Male, Elec ical Enginee ing) The di icul y o unde s anding he con en o eaching was o en due o gaps in he Chinese s uden s’ knowledge backg ound due o di e ences in cu iculum con en and s uc u e be ween Ge man and Chinese uni e si ies. E en o he s uden s coming o s udy in Ge many unde bila - e al ag eemen s he cou ses hey had aken in China we e no en i ely compa ible wi h he Ge man cou ses: Wha we lea n he e is e y di icul , combined wi h he abs use language, i is eally o u e o unde - s and wha he book is ying o say. The classes in which we ha e backg ound knowledge om classes we ook in China we e a bi be e . Bu i we hadn’ lea ned some hing be o e, we needed o s a om he beginning, and his he mos di icul pa ….Once we we e equi ed o unde s and he mechanism o a machine. In China, we had ne e s udied he mech- anism behind his machine be o e. The e we e a leas wo o h ee classes o knowledge gap be ween ou cu en knowledge ese e and he knowledge e- qui ed o accomplish his ask. We had o wo k o en days om 9 a.m. o 11 p.m. in he lib a y wi h help om o he s o sol e ha . I almos d o e us c azy. (Male, Machine Mechanics) The cu icula and he ocus o s udies in China may be so comple ely di e en om hose in Ge many ha some s uden s had o s udy hose cou ses o e again. Failing a cou se was a us a ing expe ience o many: Media s udies in China gene ally ocuses on p ac i- cal issues, like how o do an in e iew and how o p oduce TV p og ams. Bu he cou ses we ook he e we e mo e ocused on he heo e ical side. We ha e cou ses in sociology, his o y, philosophy, li e a u e, e c. I makes me us a ed….I was o en ha a e one semes e , I s ill had no clue wha some cou ses we e abou . I ha e ne e ailed classes be o e, bu ailing classes he e became so common ha I be- came numb…many hings I know in Chinese. Bu I don’ know how o exp ess mysel in Ge man. Thus, al hough I ha e abundan knowledge in my head, I couldn’ ell i o o he s. (Male, Media S udies) In he i s semes e , I could unde s and mos o he basic cou ses. Bu o some classes ha equi ed con en -speci ic backg ound knowledge, such as one class ha called Al hochdeu sch (Old High Ge man OHG), I basically could no unde s and e e y hing. (Fe- male, Ge man Linguis ics) Su p isingly, ailing a lo o classes was a common heme men ioned by se e al in e iewees. Many o hem men- ioned ha hey had ne e ailed a class in China, bu a - e hey came o Ge many, he combined challenge o s udying a igo ous module in a o eign language caused hem o ail classes mo e o en han be o e. Acco ding o he ules in Ge many, i a s uden ails class h ee imes, he o she will no longe be allowed o s udy ha majo in any Ge man uni e si y. This inc eased he s ess he Chinese s uden s we e endu ing. 4.1.3. Cul u al Di e ence Some o he in e iewees men ioned ha hei di icul- ies in academic in eg a ion we e caused by di e ences in cul u al p ac ices. This was especially e iden among s uden s o humani ies and social sciences. In mos cases, he s uden s we e no able o speci y wha hey mean by ‘cul u e’. This is unde s andable as cul u al phenomena a e o en immanen , and hidden cul u e ea u ing aci cul u al knowledge (such as alues and no m sys ems) is di icul o ecognize. The si ua ion was di e en wi h isible cul u al cha ac e is ics. Cul u al di e ences we e ob ious in cul u al s udies, o ins ance in lea ning expe- iences which equi ed he s uden s o ead li e a u e o e iew ilms. One o he in e iewees said: Some imes in he class, he eache men ioned a ce - ain au ho , ilm di ec o o elemen o a gen e o ilm and my classma es immedia ely esponded. Howe e , I migh no ha e any clue o wha hey we e e e ing o, o a leas I would no know how o exp ess i in Ge man. Also, he same elemen , such as a po ai o a d agon in a ilm, is also qui e di e en in a Ge man ilm and in a Chinese ilm. Such cul u al di e ences o en cause di icul y o me o ollow in class. I ound he same di icul y unde s anding a Chinese ilm when i was shown in my class. (Female, Film S udies) In some cases cul u al di e ences we e e lec ed in di - e en ways o hinking and app oaching knowledge. One o he senio s uden s compa ed he Ge man adi ion o analy ical hinking and deba e cul u e wi h Chinese adi- ions as ollows: I hink in eg a ion is a e y bloody wo d, ha a e you become in eg a ed, he uncom o able eeling will al- ways accompany you ha on he su ace you look like a Ge man, bu in ac i is a bu den you ha e o ca y wi h you. Take he c i ical hinking and deba e cul u e in Ge many o example, hey like o hink his is a cons uc i e way o sol ing p oblems.….Ge mans like o ea he whole hing apa , and analyze whe e a p oblem is, hen hey will ind he solu ion, and ell you poin by poin hey a e igh . This kind o ana- ly ical hinking and deba e cul u e is o ally di e en om he humane way o dealing wi h con lic as low key as possible in China. I con lic s wi h he humane Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 86 ouch o Chinese socie y whe e unnecessa y con lic s a e usually a oided. (Male, Highe Educa ion) 4.1.4. Pedagogical Di e ences While he classes in China o en ook he o m o eache - cen e ed lec u ing, he lea ning me hods used in Ge - man class ooms may be mo e di e se, including g oup assignmen s, class oom discussion, and so on. Ha ing been p o ided wi h answe s o many yea s and ha ing being augh o espec he iews o au ho i y, some Chinese s uden s ound ques ioning and challeng- ing pee s and lec u e s engende ed acu e discom o (Wu, 2015). Mos o he Chinese s uden s in e iewed e- po ed ha hey would no join in he class oom discus- sion. The language ba ie was he main issue p e en - ing hem om ac i e engagemen in class. The ollowing s uden s, who had al eady s udied in Ge man HEIs o ou yea s, epo ed s ill ha ing p oblems in aking pa in class oom discussions: Un il now I can basically know wha he eache was alking abou in class, because he eache mus be alk- ing a ound he main opic. Bu I ha e no way o p edic wha he classma es we e abou o say. My esponse e lex is s ill much slowe han he na i e speake s, and i is no possible o he o he s uden s o epea he con en again. Tha is why I couldn’ join in he class- oom discussion so well, because I could unde s and wha he eache s we e alking abou because hei ex- p essions a e p edic able, bu ollowing wha he class- ma es we e saying is s ill di icul . (Male, Sociology) Many o he easons also con ibu ed o a pe cei ed lack o pa icipa ion o Chinese s uden s in class: Fi s , ac- cus omed o he Chinese eaching and lea ning en i on- men , some Chinese s uden s el hey we e expec ed o gi e he ‘ igh answe ’ o he eache s’ ques ions. They would be eluc an o a icula e wha came in o hei minds in class. Second, hei silence in class migh also be linked o indi idual pe sonali y ai s, such as shyness and modes y. They we e no accus omed o he wes e n deba e cul u e in class, and would p e e o say no hing. Las ly, a numbe o s uden s el a need o know mo e abou he eaching con en o p o ide hei own eed- back in class, as seen in he ollowing ema k: In he beginning, I would no pa icipa e in he class- oom discussion because I was eally a aid ha I would make a mis ake i I spoke up in class, and ha would make me eel ashamed. So I was basically an- swe ing he eache ’s ques ions by hea by mysel . E en i some imes I ound he answe s om my class- ma es we e w ong, I would s ill no co ec hem. (Fe- male, Compu e Enginee ing) Mo eo e , examina ions in Ge man HEIs ake di e en o ms om hose in China. While in China mos exams a e w i en exams, he Ge man exams may also be o al. This o m o examina ion could be qui e in imida ing o Chinese s uden s, since hey had ne e encoun e ed an o al exam be o e. Besides di e en o ms o exams, he inal ma k usu- ally en ails se e al pieces o essay w i ing. The s uden s in e iewed we e s ill s uggling o use Ge man language o , lacking expe ience in essay w i ing, migh ail o de- li e wha hei eache s we e looking o in hei wo k. In addi ion, he s uden s s udying humani ies and so- cial sciences we e o en equi ed o w i e se e al essays h oughou he whole semes e , which could be a daun - ing and demanding ask o he Chinese s uden s. As one o he s uden s said: The e we e ou modules in ou majo o each semes e . Fo each o he modules one essay o a ound 30 pages was equi ed. Toge he we needed o w i e abou 120 pages o one semes e . I ook me abou one semes e o adap o such in ensi y o ead- ing and w i ing. (Female, English Linguis ics) Some o he exams migh also be g oup p ojec s in which he s uden s needed o collabo a e o de elop a busi- ness p ojec o indus ial model by hemsel es. Some o he s uden s in e iewed s a ed ha his was he mos di icul o m o assessmen since hei knowledge de ici was s ill oo big o ul ill he demand o comple - ing he p ojec by hemsel es. Coupled wi h he p essu e om wo king wi h classma es om o he cul u al back- g ounds his c ea ed acu e s ess o hem o cope wi h. Howe e , i was also a pe ec oppo uni y o hem o lea n om hei pee s while doing a g oup p ojec on hei own. 5. Chinese S uden s’ Academic In eg a ion S a egies 5.1. Social In eg a ion and Academic In eg a ion The esea ch indings imply ha social in eg a ion could acili a e Chinese s uden s’ academic in eg a ion, bu hose s uden s who we e no socially in eg a ed s ill managed o achie e hei academic goals. This esul is simila o he indings o he s udy by Rien ies e al. (2012), bu addi ional explana ions and nuances can be p esen ed in ligh o he p esen s udy. Based on he in e iew da a, i can be said ha so- cial in eg a ion acili a es academic in eg a ion mainly h ough enhancing he s uden s’ p o iciency in Ge man language and hei unde s anding o Ge man cul u e. The in e iewees explained hei expe iences as ollows: I in en ionally chose o li e in a WG (sha ed do mi- o y) wi h i e Ge man la ma es. They a e e y pa- ien in helping me imp o e my Ge man, and always speak mo e slowly when alking o me. One o my la ma es said o me, “Why you s ill say i he w ong way? You ha e o lis en ca e ully how we say i .” I ollowed Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 87 he ad ice and now my Ge man is much be e han be o e. (Female, English Linguis ics) Spoken Ge man canno be lea ned only h ough ak- ing classes. You ha e o ge in o con ac wi h peo- ple. Because di e en people ha e di e en habi s o speaking, and use di e en exp essions. Some speak as , slow, clea , o unclea . You ha e o ge used o di e en speaking habi s o di e en people. (Female, Compu e Science) While some s uden s we e us a ed by hei ini ial ail- u e and communica ion p oblems, and would p e e o socialize wi h only Chinese s uden s, hose who man- aged o s ep ou om he co-na ional ne wo k had ben- e i ed om hei e o s, which had acili a ed hei aca- demic in eg a ion and en iched hei pe sonal li es: I hink one o he majo losses o many Chinese a e coming he e is ha hey seemed o ha e los he ca- paci y o communica e wi h o he people like hey did in China. Tha hey we e all hiding a home, do no ge in ouch wi h he socie y o he people. I hink a social ne wo k is no some hing ha you only es ab- lish when you need i . Like some o he assignmen s I need o do o my class, I go help om a iend o a iend. An es ablished ne wo k will also help you gain mo e us when you a e looking o a job. (Female, Mass Media S udies) Howe e , he s uden s s udying e y demanding subjec s exp essed hei us a ion wi h he hea y bu den o s udy assignmen s so ha hey could no a o d o spend as much ime on social ac i i ies as local o exchange s uden s. Fo hem, social in eg a ion migh impede aca- demic in eg a ion since hei s udy asks we e so bu den- some ha he s uden s needed o concen a e and de- o e all hei ime o hei s udies. To acili a e be e aca- demic in eg a ion, he s uden s managed o achie e hei s udy goals by u ilizing hei social ne wo ks wi h o he Chinese s uden s, especially senio ones, and elying on he p o essionals ha hey could ind in he in e ne : We o en ha e g oup u o sessions wi h senio Chi- nese s uden s. They do no necessa ily unde s and e e y hing, bu i is ne e heless help ul o us. (Fe- male, Chemis y) The indings show ha , no ma e whe he wi h hos - na ional, in e na ional o co-na ional s uden s, eaching and lea ning om o he s g ea ly acili a es lea ning. As one o he Chinese s uden s desc ibed his expe ience: I o en discuss wi h my classma es. Some knowledge I can ead o a day wi hou unde s anding any hing. Bu discussing wi h o he s o one hou can be mo e e icien han s udying by mysel o many days. Some knowledge you don’ unde s and bu o he s migh ha e comp ehended e y well. Jus a ew examples and you will ge he clue….Mos o us a e helping each o he . Nobody can say ha I unde s and e e y hing in his class ha I don’ need o discuss wi h o he s. (Male, Elec onics) Fu he , he Chinese s uden s ely on online ne wo ks wi h o he Chinese o acili a e hei be e academic in- eg a ion in Ge many. The e a e a ious online discus- sion o ums, social media, o websi es such as Zhihu1 (simila o Quo a) ha a e dedica ed o helping ne izens sol e di icul issues. As in he example men ioned abo e, one o he s uden s had a p essing ask so ha i was only wi h he help o p o essionals ha he s uden s ound online h ough a Chinese websi e ha hey managed o comple e he assignmen . I can he e o e be s a ed in summa y ha social in e- g a ion is help ul o Chinese s uden s’ be e academic in eg a ion, since i enhances hei linguis ic p o iciency in Ge man and enligh ens hem abou Ge man cul u e, en iches hei pe sonal li es, and helps hem open doo s o new oppo uni ies. Howe e , e en wi hou a hos - na ional ne wo k, mos Chinese s uden s s ill managed o achie e hei academic goals since hey elied on hei Chinese pee s and senio s uden s, as well as on p o- essionals ha hey ound online. Teaching and lea ning om o he s o in a eam ha e p o en o be an e ec i e means o achie e be e academic in eg a ion, no ma - e i he o he s a e co-na ional, hos -na ional, o in e - na ional s uden s. 5.2. C i ical Thinking and Deba e Cul u e The Chinese s uden s gene ally had o go h ough a phase o gaining a clea e unde s anding o he lea n- ing con en , and hen o he nex s age o c i ical hink- ing. The mos academically success ul s uden s gene ally de eloped hei capabili y o c i ical hinking h ough hei s udies. Thei be e unde s anding o lea ning con- en gene ally buil upon hei imp o ed Ge man/English language skills. To compensa e o he di icul ies in ol- lowing eaching in class, hey would gene ally in es ex- a hou s a home o diges he ma e ial be o e and a - e class. A e hei unde s anding o he lea ning ma- e ial imp o ed h ough in ensi e eading, he s uden s would g adually de elop c i ical hinking skills so ha hey began o o m hei own judgmen s abou he lea n- ing ma e ial and exp ess hese in hei academic wo k and in class: Mos o he educa ion in China s opped a he phase o unde s anding. Howe e , hey didn’ each he s u- den s o ask ‘so wha ?’ a e hey ha e acqui ed he knowledge. I hink he main di e ence in Ge man highe educa ion is ha hey will gi e a b oad pe spec- i e o he ield by asking you o ead di e en a icles 1Zhihu is an online pla o m o ask ques ions and connec wi h people who con ibu e unique insigh s and quali y answe s. Social Inclusion, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 1, Pages 80–92 88