Zen and the art of everything : Governing spirituality in entrepreneurship education

he au ho (s) 2016 ISSN 1473-2866 (Online) ISSN 2052-1499 (P in ) www.epheme ajou nal.o g olume 16(4): 99-119 a icle | 99 Zen and he a o e e y hing: Go e ning spi i uali y in en ep eneu ship educa ion An i Saa i and Esko Ha ni abs ac In ecen discou ses on adul educa ion i has become a commonplace o no e ha adul lea ning and p o essional de elopmen should ouch he ‘deepe ’ o ‘highe ’ ecesses o human exis ence ins ead o mainly ocusing on lea ning echnical skills o a aining p ese s anda ds. These highe aspec s a e o en depic ed as spi i ual expe iences. In pa icula , mind ulness medi a ion which d aws om Zen Buddhism, among o he wisdom adi ions, is oday equen ly used o p o ide concep ual and p ac ical ools o go e ning spi i ual expe iences in adul educa ion. By analysing he uses o Zen expe ience in en ep eneu ial adul educa ion and coaching, we ad ance wo key poin s. Fi s , we analyse spi i ual expe ience as an indica o o he inhe en ensions in a so- called gene al economy in which he highes o ms o human exis ence a e used as a means o p oducing p o i . Second, we a gue ha whe eas he no ion o spi i ual expe ience can be used as a sp ingboa d o c i icizing capi alism, i is also assimila ed in o he managemen o p oduc i e wo k by he sweeping logic o capi alism. In oduc ion Schola s ac oss di e en le els and opics o adul educa ion ha e ecen ly called o add essing spi i ual expe iences in lea ning. As lea ning has become a li elong ask in pos -indus ial socie ies, he means o managing lea ning should allegedly be human-cen ed, ha is, con o m o he human capaci ies o lea ning o lea n and he abili y o ind meaning and ul ilmen in daily lea ning expe iences. I has he e o e become a commonplace o no e ha adul lea ning and p o essional de elopmen should ouch he ‘deepe ’ o ‘highe ’ ecesses o human exis ence ins ead o mainly lea ning echnical skills o a aining p e-gi en epheme a: heo y & poli ics in o ganiza ion 16(4): 99-119 100 | a icle s anda ds (see e.g. English, Fenwick and Pa sons, 2003; In a o and Kunzman, 2006; Vella, 2000; Vogel, 2000; Zajonc, 2006). In he con empo a y uses o he e m ‘spi i ual expe ience’, he ‘spi i ual’ is an index o a celeb a ion o au hen ici y, and sel - ealiza ion, whe eas ‘expe ience’ con eys a no ion o subjec i e, p i a e men al phenomena ha can be psychologically disce ned ac oss cul u al ime-spaces, wi hou adhe ence o any pa icula c eed (Jay, 2005: 78-79; P oud oo , 1985; Sha , 1998). In he discou ses o educa ion ac oss ins i u ional le els, spi i ual expe ience hen indica es a g id o in elligibili y o a holis ic unde s anding o lea ning wi h a special sensi i i y o expe iences ha ep esen he nobles aspec s o all humani y. In he pas decade, mind ulness medi a ion ha is in luenced, among o he wisdom adi ions, by Zen Buddhism, has gained popula i y in sel -help and managemen discou ses and p ac ices. A Wes e nized and psychologized o m o mind ulness highligh s he abili y o pay non-judgmen al a en ion o he p esen momen . This is p ominen in ecen business magazine a icles celeb a ing i s e ec s on concen a ion, c ea i i y and e iciency a wo k (see e.g. Essig, 2013; Schumpe e , 2013). Mo eo e , la ge companies such as Google and Apple now u ilize mind ulness o enhance physical and men al well-being and p oduc i i y among hei employees (Hansen, 2012; Schumpe e , 2013). Mind ulness has also sp ead o aining in public sec o p o essions om he mili a y o social wo k and heal h ca e (Ryan, 2012). In his a icle, we will analyse he uses o mind ulness in ecen en ep eneu ial lea ning discou ses as a case in poin in discussing he ole o spi i ual expe ience in la e pos -indus ial capi alis socie ies. We a gue ha such lea ning discou ses ind esonance in ce ain dynamics o p oduc ion in which he labou o ce has p ima ily become a men al ca ego y and he discou ses o a sel - ul ilmen and lexibili y a e commonplace. We app oach he analysis o mind ulness as a ‘his o y o he p esen ’ (Foucaul , 1978), ha is, by acing how he con empo a y u hs o spi i ual expe ience in Wes e n Zen Buddhism ha e been o med and made amenable o in eg a ion in o en ep eneu ial discou ses o adul educa ion. This enables an unde s anding o he ‘ ac ical poly alence’ (Foucaul , 2001: 100-102) o spi i ual expe ience, i.e., ha i can be used o a mul i ude o pu poses and aims ha may e en be a odds wi h each ano he . We ad ance wo key a gumen s. Fi s , we a gue ha he nexus be ween en ep eneu ial lea ning and spi i ual expe ience in mind ulness can be An i Saa i and Esko Ha ni Zen and he a o e e y hing a icle | 101 unde s ood in he con ex o he inhe en ensions o pos -indus ial capi alism. As p oduc ion ocuses on he highe human acul ies such as spi i uali y as he sou ce o p o i , he empo al and spa ial coo dina es o p oduc ion seem o be anishing. Following Akseli Vi anen (2004; 2006), we call his he dynamics o ‘gene al economy’. Spi i ual expe ience as depic ed in mind ulness discou ses can be seen as an a emp o g apple wi h gene al economy in he condi ions o p oduc i i y. Spi i ual expe ience is loca ed nei he in he body no in he soul, no is he expe ience o mind ulness aceable in con en ional no ions o subjec i i y and ime. Thus i esona es wi h he abs ac quali y in he condi ions o p oduc ion. Second, we see ha he uses o Wes e n Zen Buddhism in en ep eneu ial lea ning illus a e how capi alism wo ks as a ‘sweeping machine’ (Deleuze & Gua a i, 1984), ha con inuously assimila es i s own c i ique and b oadens i s own bounda ies, in his case, by aking o e he ‘emancipa o y’ s a egies o Zen Buddhism and humanis ic psychology. We desc ibe how mind ulness seeks o p o ide a deeply pe sonal and au hen ic, ye a he same ime uni e sal basis o ashioning en ep eneu ial li elong lea ne s. The backg ound mind ulness has in Wes e n Zen Buddhism p o ides a melange o no ions o au hen ici y, indi iduali y and c ea i i y ha ha e been a pa o coun e cul u al mo emen s and a c i icism o he Taylo is managemen o wo k. Gene al economy: Go e ning li e i sel O e he pas ew decades, he e ha e been equen calls o analyse he new capi alis egime wi h ega d o cu en changes in modes o p oduc ion and manage ial echniques o wo k. I has been a gued ha capi alis socie ies ha e expe ienced ans o ma ion om indus ial capi alism o pos -indus ialism and a ec i e and/o cogni i e capi alism (see e.g. Ha d & Neg i, 2000, 2005; Lazza a o, 1996; Vi anen, 2006). Due o his ans o ma ion, i has been a gued ha he ca ego y o labou has become inc easingly de ached om i s de e minable physical and biological aspec s, and become mo e and mo e an abs ac men al and a ec i e ca ego y (see e.g. Ha d & Neg i, 2005: 145; Lazza a o, 1996; Vi anen, 2004; Vähämäki, 2004; c . Senne , 2006). Bol anski and Chiapello (2007) make simila a gumen s, al hough om sligh ly di e en pe spec i e. They a gue ha he ‘new capi alis spi i ’ oday deals wi h he s ong ie be ween indi idual sel - ul ilmen and co po a e p oduc i i y (see also Binkley, 2014; Julkunen, 2008: 126). In o he wo ds, wo k is no longe he simple ‘p oduc ion o necessi ies o li e’ (A end , 1958) bu a he ha pi o poin whe e he sel is cons uc ed (see also Rose, 1998: 160). epheme a: heo y & poli ics in o ganiza ion 16(4): 99-119 102 | a icle Subjec i ica ion o wo k is he e o e a he co e o he con empo a y capi alis egime. Pe sonal, cogni i e and emo ional compe encies and capaci ies ha e become essen ial o he con empo a y wo k e hos (see e.g. Julkunen, 2008; Mäkinen, 2012). In con as o Taylo is managemen o wo k, a wo ke and an adul lea ne as an a ec ual and cogni i e being a e no longe ex e nal in ela ion o wo k p ocess. On he con a y, a pe son’s a ec , sel - egula ion in unce ain condi ions and, o example, he abili y o communica e and o be c ea i e a e p e equisi es in an inc easing numbe o jobs (see e.g. Vi anen, 2004; Ha d and Neg i, 2005: 145). Mo eo e , wo k is no seen as a cons ain o eedom, bu as a ealm in which en ep eneu ial subjec s can exp ess hei au onomy and con i m hei iden i ies (Rose, 1998: 160). In his ega d, in he con empo a y capi alis egime – whe he one chooses o call i a ec i e o cogni i e capi alism – human li e in i sel has become a c ucial elemen in manage ial echniques o o ganiza ion as well as in alue c ea ion. Fo illumina ing his, Vi anen (2006; 2004) uses he concep o ‘gene al economy’. Wi h his concep , he seeks o e hink economy in he same way ha Foucaul (2008) sough o p oblema ize poli ical science and philosophy wi h he no ion o biopoli ics. Wha de ines economy and ou expe ience o i oday is ha he ba e humanness o human beings, ha gene al po en iali y and linguis ic- ela ional abili ies which dis inguish human beings is e ealing i s sel as he essence also o economic p oduc ion. (Vi anen, 2004: 1) Thus he concep o a gene al economy e e s o a s age o capi alism whe e subjec i i y has become capi al and he ba e humanness o human beings e eals i sel as he essence o economic p oduc ion. The e m ba e humanness does no e e o any speci ic o m o human beha io , bu a he he p econdi ions o human hough and ac ion in gene al (Vi anen, 2006). This means ha ‘highe acul ies’ o human exis ence, such as men al esilience, lexibili y and c ea i i y, ha e now become objec s o con empo a y go e nmen o wo k (ibid.). I ollows om he logic o gene al economy ha he modes o p oduc ion and ways o o ganizing wo k canno be unambiguously unde s ood wi hin a ce ain pa icula empo al o spa ial amewo k. Ins ead o being aceable in he s anda dized beha io o a ac o y imespace, wo k is becoming inc easingly imma e ial: spa ially boundless and empo ally endless. I is di icul o make a dis inc ion be ween wo king ime and ee ime. I is also di icul o say whe e o when he ac ual ac o p oduc ion is being ca ied ou , wha is wo k and wha is no , and wha c ea es alue and wha does no (Vi anen, 2004; Vi no, 2006; Lazza a o, 2009; Deleuze, 1992). An i Saa i and Esko Ha ni Zen and he a o e e y hing a icle | 103 In a ce ain sense, he basic p oblem is qui e same as i was be o e: how o con ol and o ganize he labou o ce. Bu how, hen, o o ganize and manage human li e i sel , o hose ‘highes ecesses’ o human exis ence? Acco ding o Vi anen (2004: 54; 2006), go e ning li e i sel e e s o a ‘powe o e mind’ which does no so much c ea e physical, biological o spa ial bounda ies, bu a he moods, sen imen s and men ali ies, ‘insc ip ion habi s’ on he mind: The o ganiza ion o imma e ial p oduc ion is possible only h ough he managemen o he gene al condi ions o human ac ion and communica ion, h ough o ganizing he gene al condi ions o o ganizing. This o ganiza ion o o ganiza ion does no ope a e a he le el o ac ual ac ion o plain in imida ion bu on ha o anxie y and inadequacy; no by con inemen o demanding obedience o he ules and being a aid o hei iola ion, bu by se ing expec a ions, moods, opinion clima es,s anda ds o communica ion and coope a ion. (Vi anen, 2004: 229) In his sense, Vi anen’s no ion o a gene al economy e lec s he ways in which heo is s o a ec i e capi alism ha e p oblema ized ways o unde s anding he o ganiza ion o human beha io as a sou ce o alue in capi alis p oduc ion. The objec s o go e ning wo k a e becoming mo e and mo e gene al, as i we e. As i ocuses less on ‘ac ual ac ion’, i.e. no egula ing wo k in de ail, i seems o gi e mo e and mo e au onomy o wo king subjec s. This leads us o assess, how he c i icism o s anda dized and disciplined wo k in he Taylo is egime has been assimila ed o he cu en e hos o o ganizing wo k in gene al economy. Capi alism as a sweeping machine: Humanis psychology and Buddhis spi i uali y Fo Gilles Deleuze and Félix Gua a i (1984), capi alism is no a closed sys em, bu a machine ha sweeps new o ms o li e unde i s auspices. Capi alism is, he e o e, con inually b oadening i s own each. This means, i s , ha capi alism does no only ep ess people, bu also deals wi h he p oduc ion o he eal: i p oduces lows o desi e, au onomy and eedom which a e no opposi e o indi idual in e es s, bu a he p oduce a angemen s in which ce ain kind o subjec i i y is made possible (see also Ha d and Neg i, 2000). Second, as a p oduc i e machine, capi alism assimila es he e ogeneous elemen s om di e en ields, e.g. eligion, humanis psychology and Wes e n o ms o Zen Buddhism. To illus a e he logic o he capi alis machine, Deleuze and Gua a i (1987) use he e ms de e i o ializa ion and e e i o ializa ion. De e i o ializa ion unc ions as a wi hd awal o expansion om he cu en sys em. Re e i o ializa ion unc ions in he opposi e way. Whe e de e i o ializa ion epheme a: heo y & poli ics in o ganiza ion 16(4): 99-119 104 | a icle wi hd aws om he sys em o expands i , e e i o ializa ion seeks o e u n hese expansions o a new e i o y. The e o e capi alism is an in en i e and p oduc i e sys em which ‘p og essi ely lea es he ac o y and in ades, like a pa asi e, all sphe es o li e and he li e-wo ld i sel . In he end, as we shall see, i is p oducing and consuming li e i sel ’, as Vandenbe ghe (2008: 878) pu s i . Since he 1960s, Eu ope and No h Ame ica ha e wi nessed an eme gence o c i ical challenges o he nexus o posi i is psychology o wo k and Taylo is managemen p ac ices. This also en ailed a demand ha he public o ms o human in e ac ion be managed so as o make indi idual sel - ul ilmen and e en spi i ual expe ience possible a wo k (Binkley, 2014; Ca e e and King, 2005). Ab aham Maslow, a p ominen p oponen o humanis psychology, helped o legi imize eligious expe ience as an objec o psychological knowledge and p axis, and as i educible o any pa icula eligion. Fo Maslow, eligious expe iences we e ‘peak expe iences’ o c ea i e, indi idualis minds ha shunned o ganized and hie a chical o ms o wo k and eligion (Maslow, 1970). Maslowian ideas on spi i ual expe iences we e quickly mobilized no only in he new psychology o wo k, bu also in he coun e cul u al mo emen s o he 1960s (Ca e e, 2007: 147-148; He man, 1995: 269-275). In he 1950s and 1960s, humanis and exis en ial psychologies also encoun e ed he wisdom adi ions o he Eas , mos p ominen ly including Japanese Zen Buddhism. Ca l Jung and E ich F omm we e among he leading psychoanaly ic heo is s using Zen Buddhis in luences in hei wo k. F omm, o example, e e ed o Zen Buddhism as a model o inding abundance in he p esen momen as well as a libe a ion om he g eed and illusion cul i a ed by capi alis socie ies (see e.g. F omm, 1997; F omm, Suzuki and De Ma ino, 1960). Mo eo e , popula philosophe Alan Wa s and poe s Jack Ke ouac and Ga y Snyde made Zen an index o c ea i e, coun e -in ui i e expe iences ha seemed o wi hhold o ces able o challenge he cul u al and poli ical s a us quo (Goldbe g, 2006: 290-291; Williams, 2011; Wei , 2011: 234, 236-246). Ye he in e es in spi i ual expe iences and Buddhism did no emain he p ope y o he coun e cul u al mo emen alone. F om he 1970s, bo h humanis psychology and Buddhis wisdom adi ions d ew a en ion o heo ies and p ac ices o wo k, lea ning, and psycho he apy o accoun o he highe human acul ies o c ea i i y, e lexi i y and spi i uali y. These aspec s we e an index o essen ial skills and compe ences needed especially in whi e colla wo k. Thus, wha used o be sub e si e and coun e cul u al, now became a pa and pa cel o he pac be ween he human sciences and an eme ging pos -indus ial economy (Ca e e, 2007; Ca e e and King, 2005; He man, 1995; Obadia, 2011; Williams, 2011). An i Saa i and Esko Ha ni Zen and he a o e e y hing a icle | 105 The ‘sweeping’ na u e o spi i ual expe ience illus a es he in en i eness o capi alism in assimila ing elemen s ou side i sel and e en c i ical o i . In a simila ashion, Bol anski and Chiapello (2007: 241-90) ha e demons a ed how capi alism swep he pos mode nizing c i ique o he 1960s and 1970s and used i as a way o eo ganize i sel and expand in ini ely. The c i ical challenges o he nexus o posi i is psychology and Taylo is managemen o wo k since he 1960s ha e o e ed s yles o easoning and new kinds o go e nmen al p ac ices o managing he labou o ce in a con empo a y capi alis egime. As we will see, especially he use o Buddhism is indica i e o he inhe en p oblems o managemen o wo k in gene al economy. I is an a emp o ha ness he mos gene al and lexible human capaci ies o p oduc ion. I also ep esen s he sweeping ges u e whe eupon c i ical mo emen s aimed a an emancipa ion om he na ow o ms o knowing a e eapp op ia ed. Wha seems o enable his o e coding is spi i ual expe ience as a loose signi ie o he highes acul ies o human beings (c . Žižek, 2001: 12-13). ‘Bea Zen’ and mind ulness: Spi i ual expe ience in Wes e n Zen Buddhism A cen al igu e o he Wes e niza ion o Zen a he u n o he wen ie h cen u y was D.T. Suzuki (1870–1966). He was p o oundly in luenced by William James’s The Va ie ies o eligious expe ience (1902), which cha ac e ized he co e o eligion esiding in a subjec i e expe ience o anscendence ha can be psychologically desc ibed ac oss cul u al and eligious di e ences. Thus Suzuki saw Zen as a uni e sal p ac ice o cul i a ing spi i ual expe iences. Fo him, he essen ial pa o Zen is he p ac ice o medi a ion (zazen), in which a pe son can wi ness his/he own sensa ions, emo ions and hough s wi hou judgmen . The ul ima e aim o his p ac ice is a spi i ual enligh enmen expe ience (sa o i), in which one ealizes he impe manence o ‘emp iness’ o all exis ence, including one’s own sel (Suzuki, 1962). Suzuki a gues ha Buddhism ma e ializes clea -headed a ionali y mo e han any o he eligion as i is no educible o i ualis ic o supe na u al aspec s o eligion (Suzuki, 1908: 81). Ye his does no mean c edence o me e in ellec , o enligh enmen is an ine able pe sonal expe ience o ba e exis ence beyond any dicho omies p oduced by hough and language (Suzuki, 1957: 36-37; Suzuki, 1962: 5-7; Suzuki, 1969: 21-27). Ha ing his expe ience is also o slip beyond ime as a measu able, ch onological succession o e en s (Suzuki, 1957: 98-99; Suzuki, 1969: 57). This esul ed in Zen being unde s ood as an indi idualis ic way o li e ou side o mal eligious ins i u ions o dogma. Mo eo e , as i was epheme a: heo y & poli ics in o ganiza ion 16(4): 99-119 106 | a icle based on subjec i e expe ience beyond language and cul u e, i could be disce ned in o he cul u es and eligions as well. Thus i is no wonde ha Suzuki’s Zen could be quickly assimila ed in o Ame ican in ellec ual and popula cul u e (Bo up, 2004; McMahan, 2008; Sha , 1995). Coex ensi e wi h Suzuki’s academic Zen, a ans-Paci ic mo emen was es ablished, whe eupon Zen monks s a ed equen ing he Uni ed S a es (especially Hawaii and Cali o nia) and Ame ican pilg ims we e isi ing Japanese Zen monas e ies. As Robe Sha (1995) no es, i wasn’ he Zen o he mos no able Japanese schools o Rinzai o Sō ō ha was media ed, bu a ma ginalized, ma e ick Zen o Sanbôkyôdan es ablished in he 1950s. I accen ua ed non- eligious aspec s o Zen as well as in ensi e medi a ion which would quickly b ing abou enligh enmen expe iences. This was no es ic ed o monas ic li e, bu o be p oli e a ed among lay people. This is he Zen ha was o be agg essi ely p oli e a ed in Ame ican Zen Buddhis communi ies om he 1960s onwa ds (Sha , 1995; c . P ebish, 1999: 8-26). Alan Wa s aided in making Suzuki’s Zen popula in he Anglo-Ame ican wo ld. Fo Wa s, he co e o Zen lies in he ac ha wisdom can be ound in he mos o dina y aspec s o li ing, wi hou a li e spen in pilg image o a monas e y (Wa s, 1958: 47-48). Zen is based on an expe ience which is so quo idian and uni e sal ha i can also be mapped in hinke s in Eu opean and Ame ican cul u e as well (ibid.; see also Ames, 1962). Like Suzuki, Wa s also e e s o a uni e sal, ‘as onishing momen o insigh ’, which escapes any labels o dualisms one migh a ach o i . In medi a i e expe ience all exis ence seems o be ocused in o he p esen momen : ‘ he immedia e now…is he goal and ul illmen o all li ing’ (Wa s, 1960: 18). This expe ience also con eys ul ima e sa is ac ion and disappea ance o pe sonal p oblems and ea s o u u e e en s, which esul only om language and a alse sense o empo ali y. Reali y con on ed in he now is he ine able expe ience o exis ence as pe ec , as lacking no hing (Wa s, 1960: 17-30; see also Suzuki, 1969: 57-60). This p o ides a basis o wo ld-a i ming ac ion in e e yday li e. Ac ing in he Zen way in quo idian li e is always e o less and lexible, which ollows om no being in opposi ion wi h one’s ou e and inne eali y (Wa s, 1960: 67). A human being exp essing Zen is likened o a ball in a moun ain s eam, which is o say ha he canno be blocked, s opped, o emba assed in any si ua ion. He ne e wobbles o di he s in his mind, o hough he may pause in o e ac ion o hink a p oblem ou , he s eam o his consciousness always mo es s aigh ahead wi hou being caugh in he An i Saa i and Esko Ha ni Zen and he a o e e y hing a icle | 107 icious ci cles o o anxie y o indecisi e doub , whe ein hough whi ls wildly a ound wi hou issue. (Wa s, 1960: 68) Such a lexible and c ea i e pe son exp esses he a o emen ioned emp iness o oid (sunya a), which means he u e impe manence o exis ence. No hough s o ou e obs acles ‘s ick’ in he pe son who ac s e o lessly: hey loa by wi hou ic ion, wi hou clinging o concep ions o good o e il, possible o impossible (Wa s, 1960: 68, 83-91). Wa s claims ha his a i ude is disce nible in ‘Bea Zen’, in which he younge gene a ion o he 1950s was exp essing passi e esis ance o he ‘Ame ican way o li e’. Such esis ance op s o a highly indi idualis ic, easygoing li es yle in which one ‘does no seek o change he exis ing o de bu simply u ns away om i o ind he signi icance o li e in subjec i e expe ience a he han objec i e achie emen ’ (Wa s, 1960: 91). This is opposed o wha Wa s a he pejo a i ely calls ‘Squa e Zen’, o ganized Buddhism obsessed wi h i uals and hie a chies ha es ains he ee low o spi i ual expe iences (Wa s, 1960: 103-105). The a o emen ioned elemen s o ine able expe ience, wo ld a i ma ion, and e o less and lexible ac ion in he p esen momen a e s ill disce nible in con empo a y popula Zen li e a u e. Books on humanis psychology, sel -help and managemen celeb a e he abili y o say ‘yes’ o he wo ld wi hou dis o ing dualisms and ic ions. In managemen li e a u e, he Zen expe ience gained popula i y in he 1980s wi h he ema kable success o Japanese managemen heo ies and p ac ices. Companies such as Toyo a and Honda seemed o embody a holis ic, in ui i e and lexible managemen ideology ha was con eyed o he Wes e n hemisphe e wi h such wo ks as he all- ime bes selle managemen book In Sea ch o Excellence. In he 1990s, Zen ecei ed u he a en ion as he ech gu us o he Silicon Valley (such as S e e Jobs) ad oca ed Zen medi a ion as a esou ce o ocus and c ea i i y (Williams, 2011: 44-49). Wes e n Zen expe ience also plays a pa in Jon Kaba -Zinn’s idea o mind ulness. T ained in Ko ean Zen Buddhism, Kaba -Zinn de ines mind ulness as a medi a i e p ac ice o non-judgmen al ocus on he p esen momen (Kaba -Zinn, 1994; Williams & Kaba -Zinn, 2013). Kaba -Zinnian mind ulness is a he apeu ic p ac ice o ea ing expe iences o s ess, anxie y and pain ha admi s a Buddhis in luence while being comple ely secula and es ing on a Wes e n scien i ic ounda ion. Kaba -Zinn also gi es de ailed accoun s on how o assume medi a ion pos u es, how o obse e one’s own b ea hing and how o ela e o one’s own emo ions and hough s wi hou judgmen (Kaba -Zinn, 1994; Williams and Kaba -Zinn, 2013). epheme a: heo y & poli ics in o ganiza ion 16(4): 99-119 114 | a icle de eloping hei own business en e p ises. Webe desc ibed a subjec i e in e io i y as a p i a e space o moulding eligious i ues which would hen also make up he ounda ion o a wo k e hic o e ec i eness and p o i esponsibili y (Webe , 1930). One can ind consis ency wi h he Webe ian accoun in he way subjec i e in e io i y and spi i uali y ha e become he ocal poin o he en ep eneu ial wo k e hic. Howe e , he e y no ion o subjec i i y now assumes a liquidi y o ‘emp iness’, as he e is seemingly no hing s able and unchanging in he ideal en ep eneu . A guably, Zen discou se also des abilizes on ological ca ego ies and he bina ies o mind and body and a ionali y and a ec s, in a ou o he a ec i e and in ui i e aspec o p oduc i e ac ion. This also has a di e en empo al o ien a ion, as a pe son p ac icing mind ulness is no a ached o he u u e no he pas , bu ocuses s ingen ly on he p esen momen only. Holis ic cha ac e iza ions o spi i uali y in mind ulness discou ses also esona e well wi h he no ion o gene al economy, in which he mos gene al aspec s o wha makes us human, a e go e ned as sou ces o p o i . D awing om Zen Buddhism, he en ep eneu ial celeb a ion o mind ulness highligh s i s abili y o cul i a e c ea i i y, in ui i e and lexible ac ion and lea ning o lea n. I does no speci y exac ly how and whe e en ep eneu ial spi i should be mani es , bu ins ead, ocuses on hese me a-le el condi ions o en ep eneu ial beha io . This can be unde s ood as an a emp o g asp he na u e o p oduc i e wo k as i educible o spa ial o empo al exigencies. Mo eo e , he way Zen spi i uali y is used in en ep eneu ship educa ion shows he in en i e sweeping logic o capi alism: i b oadens i s own bounda ies by assimila ing c i icism ha seems o come om ou side i . In his case, he coun e cul u al and a imes decidedly an i-capi alis e hos o Zen Buddhism was de e i o ialized and annexed o he e y condi ions o p oduc i e wo k in gene al economy. This also highligh s he way capi alism does no only ‘ ep ess’ in he sense o su oca ing human li e, bu c ea es human eali y and cul i a es i p oduc i e o ces. e e ences Al obello, R. (2007) ‘Concen a ion and con empla ion: A lesson in lea ning o lea n’, Jou nal o T ans o ma i e Educa ion, 5(4): 354-371. Ames, V.M. 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San F ancisco: Jossey Bass. Vähämäki, J. (2004) ‘Con olling he mul i ude’, epheme a, 4(3): 233-245. Wa s, A. (1958) The spi i o zen. New Yo k: G o e P ess. Wa s, A. (1960) This is i and o he essays on zen and spi i ual expe ience. London: John Mu ay. Webe , M. (1930) The P o es an e hic and he spi i o capi alism. T ansla ed by T. Pa sons. London: Allen & Unwin. Williams, J. and J. Kaba -Zinn (2013) ‘Mind ulness: Di e se pe spec i es on i s meaning, o igins, and mul iple applica ions a he in e sec ion o science and dha ma’, in M. Williams and J. Kaba -Zinn (eds.) Mind ulness: Di e se pe spec i es on i s meaning, o igins and applica ions. London: Rou ledge. Wei , D. (2011) Ame ican o ien . Imagining he eas om he colonial e a h ough he wen ie h cen u y. Amhe s and Bos on: Uni e si y o Massachuse s P ess. Williams, R.J. (2011) ‘Technê-Zen and he Spi i ual quali y o global capi alism’, C i ical Inqui y, 38(1): 17-70. Zajonc, A. (2006) ‘Lo e and knowledge: Reco e ing he hea o lea ning h ough con empla ion’, Teache s College Reco d, 108(9): 1742-1759. Žižek, S. (2001) Fi s as agedy, hen as a ce. London: Ve so. he au ho s An i Saa i wo ks as a pos -doc o al esea che in he Facul y o Educa ion a he Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland. His esea ch in e es s include he uses o spi i ual, especially Buddhis discou ses in he go e nmen o educa ion. He has also done esea ch on he his o y o educa ional psychology in Finland, Ge many and he US. Email: an i.w.saa i@s a .u a. i An i Saa i and Esko Ha ni Zen and he a o e e y hing a icle | 119 Esko Ha ni (Facul y o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland) is cu en ly wo king on his doc o al disse a ion in which he is ocusing on poli ical and epis emic go e nance o en ep eneu ship in la e capi alism. He has also done esea ch on poli ical heo y and poli ical philosophy, especially on Michel Foucaul ’s and Gio gio Agamben’s poli ical hough . Email: espeha n@s uden .jyu. i