Emotional, Restorative and Vitalizing Effects of Forest and Urban Environments at Four Sites in Japan

In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11, 7207-7230; doi:10.3390/ije ph110707207 In e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al Resea ch and Public Heal h ISSN 1660-4601 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph A icle Emo ional, Res o a i e and Vi alizing E ec s o Fo es and U ban En i onmen s a Fou Si es in Japan No imasa Takayama 1,*, Kale i Ko pela 2, Juyoung Lee 3, Takeshi Mo ikawa 1, Yuko Tsune sugu 1, Bum-Jin Pa k 4, Qing Li 5, Liisa Ty äinen 6, Yoshi umi Miyazaki 7 and Takahide Kagawa 1 1 Fo es y and Fo es P oduc s Resea ch Ins i u e, 1 Ma sunosa o, Tsukuba, Iba aki 305-8687, Japan; E-Mails: [email p o ec ed] (T.M.); [email p o ec ed] (Y.T.); [email p o ec ed] (T.K.) 2 School o Social Sciences and Humani ies, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Kale an ie 4, Tampe e FI-33104, Finland; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed] 3 Ko ea Fo es Se ice, Go e nmen Complex 1, 189 Cheongsa- o, Seo-gu, Daejeon 302-701, Ko ea; E-Mail: [email protected] 4 College o Ag icul u e and Li e Sciences, Chungnam Na ional Uni e si y, 99 Daehak- o, Yuseong-gu Daejeon 305-764, Ko ea; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed] 5 Depa men o Hygiene and Public Heal h, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8602, Japan; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed] 6 Finnish Fo es Resea ch Ins i u e (METLA), PO Box 18 (Jokiniemenkuja 1), Van aa FI-01301, Finland; E-Mail: liisa. y ainen@me la. i 7 Cen e o En i onmen , Heal h and Field Sciences, Chiba Uni e si y, 6-2-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-0882, Japan; E-Mail: ym[email p o ec ed] *Au ho o whom co espondence should be add essed; E-Mail: ha[email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +81-29-829-8315; Fax: +81-29-873-3799. Recei ed: 6 June 2014; in e ised o m: 22 June 2014 / Accep ed: 8 July 2014 / Published: 15 July 2014 Abs ac : The p esen s udy in es iga ed he well-being e ec s o sho - e m o es walking and iewing (“ o es ba hing”). The hypo hesis in ou s udy was ha bo h en i onmen ( o es s. u ban) and ac i i y (walking and iewing) would in luence psychological ou comes. An addi ional aim was o enhance basic esea ch using se e al psychological me hods. We conduc ed he expe imen s using 45 esponden s in ou a eas o Japan om Augus o Sep embe , 2011. The hypo hesis in ou s udy was suppo ed, because signi ican in e ac ion e ms be ween he en i onmen and ac i i y we e con i med OPEN ACCESS In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7208 ega ding he P o ile o Mood S a es (POMS) indexes, Res o a i e Ou come Scale (ROS) and Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS). No s a is ical di e ences be ween he wo expe imen al g oups in any o he en scales we e ound be o e he expe imen . Howe e , eelings o igo and posi i e e ec s, as well as eelings o subjec i e eco e y and i ali y we e s onge in he o es en i onmen han in he u ban en i onmen . Keywo ds: o es ba hing (Shin in-yoku); psychological ou come; es o a i eness; i aliza ion; emo ion 1. In oduc ion Many s esso s o u ban li e a e inc easingly d i ing humans o seek some o m o s ess elie [1]. In mode n u banized socie ies, acu e and ch onic s ess and insu icien eco e y om s ess a e well known as inc easing p oblems and causes o long- e m e ec s on heal h [2,3]. S ess is an impo an public heal h in e es ha is ela ed o men al heal h p oblems, such as bu nou synd ome, as well as ca dio ascula , gas oen e ological, immunological and neu ological diseases [4]. This sugges s ha s ess con ol is a i al issue in main aining good heal h and p e en ing s ess- ela ed diseases in u banized socie ies. Na u al en i onmen s, including u ban pa ks and na u al, seconda y, a i icial man-made o es s a e gene ally associa ed wi h s onge posi i e heal h e ec s as compa ed o u ban en i onmen s [5]. Fo ins ance, na u al scenes b ing highe anquili y and a educed eeling o dange compa ed o u ban scenes [6], while ou doo ec ea ion in a “g een” en i onmen has been shown o elie e s ess among u ban inhabi an s [7,8]; hence, e idence o da e seems o indica e he posi i e heal h e ec o a na u al se ing. Se e al s udies conduc ed in di e en coun ies ha e also epo ed ha na u al en i onmen s p o ide be e emo ional, physiological, es o a i e e ec s [9–12] and wo k pe o mance [13] han u ban en i onmen s. These posi i e e ec s a e shown, o example, in lowe ed blood p essu e, muscle ension and skin conduc ance and inc eased b ain ac i i y in he alpha equency band: a change o posi i ely- oned sel - epo ed emo ions and a eco e y o a en ion-demanding cogni i e pe o mances a e s ess si ua ions [14–17]. Fu he mo e, being ou doo s seems o ha e e i alizing (posi i ely- oned, ene gized s a e) e ec s [18]. Ul ich [19] epo ed ha su gical pa ien s assigned o ooms wi h windows o e looking na u al scene y wi h ees had sho e pos ope a i e hospi al s ays, ecei ed ewe nega i e commen s in nu ses’ no es and ook ewe po en analgesics han hose in simila ooms wi h windows acing a b ick wall. Mi chell and Popham [20] epo ed a link be ween he amoun o g een space in esiden ial a eas and mo ali y in a popula ion s udy conduc ed in he U.K. They ound ha a heal h gap de i ed om economic dispa i y was smalle o hose li ing nea g een places. Based on he analysis o dis ance be ween esidences and g een space and he amoun o g een space, Maas e al. [21] epo ed ha mo e g een space b ough be e pe cei ed gene al heal h. Con e sely, om a p e en i e pe spec i e, Roe and Aspinall [22] men ioned ha u al walks bene i ed a ec i e and cogni i e es o a ion, especially in he poo men al heal h g oup, and highligh ed he po en ial o g een space as a me hod o p e en ing men al diso de s. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7209 The p ojec on he he apeu ic e ec s o o es s was launched in 2004 as pa o scien i ic and p ac ical in es iga ions in o he heal h e ec s o o es s in Japan [23]. In Japan, o es s co e 68.2% o he o al land a ea [24]. Walking in o es s is a common ec ea ional ac i i y in Japan and is belie ed o p omo e bo h physical and men al heal h by b ea hing in esh ai and subs ances eleased om ees, as well as exe cise and/o o he healing ac o s associa ed wi h he o es en i onmen [25,26]. Recen Japanese s udies epo ed lowe concen a ions o co isol, blood p essu e and pulse a es, dec eased sympa he ic ne e ac i i y (as measu ed by he low equency/high equency (LF/HF) componen o hea - a e a iabili y (HRV), enhanced pa asympa he ic ne e ac i i y (as measu ed by he HF componen o HRV) and highe le els o na u al kille (NK) cell ac i i y (a ypical index o human immune unc ion) in he human body when subjec s walked o sa in a o es en i onmen , as opposed o when hey walked o sa in an u ban en i onmen [8,23,27,28]. Wi h ega d o he psychological esponses in Japanese o es en i onmen s, he Mul iple Mood Scale-Sho Fo m (MSS) [29,30] showed highe sco es o iendliness and well-being, and he MMS sco e o dep ession and S a e-T ai Anxie y In en o y (STAI) S a e Scale [31] sco es we e lowe on days spen walking in he o es compa ed wi h he con ol day, especially among indi iduals who el ch onic men al s ess [12]. He e, he eason why o es s gi e us a heal h bene i can explain Miyazaki’s Na u e The apy Theo y ha human psychological and physiological unc ions ha e e ol ed o adap o he o es en i onmen . The e o e, o es s imula ion easily acili a es psychological and physiological elaxa ion [32]. In a con inua ion o he The apeu ic E ec s o Fo es s p ojec , he p esen s udy was in ended o in es iga e he well-being e ec s o sho - e m o es walking and iewing (“ o es ba hing”). Thus, he p esen s udy con ibu es o he issue by using walking and iewing in a e e sed o de compa ed o many p e ious s udies [23,33,34]. One ea lie s udy using walking and iewing, in ha o de , epo ed only physiological esul s, showing ha , e.g., pulse a e and dias olic blood p essu e we e lowe in he o es a ea han in he ci y a ea [28]. The hypo hesis in ou s udy is ha bo h en i onmen ( o es s. u ban) and ac i i y (walking and iewing) would in luence psychological ou comes. An addi ional aim was o enhance basic esea ch using se e al psychological me hods. Emo ional esponses we e p e iously measu ed by he P o ile o Mood S a es (POMS) (e.g., [23,28,35]), MMS (e.g., [29,30]), STAI (e.g., [12]) and Zucke man In en o y o Pe sonal Reac ions (ZIPERS) (e.g., [36]). Howe e , o he emo ional measu es ha e been seldom used. To da e, es o a i e ou come scales ha e been used mainly in s udies o a o i e places [37]. Mo eo e , i ali y is a new concep , which is ela ed o es o a ion, bu belie ed o be a dis inc concep [18]; o which u he s udies compa ing u ban and na u al se ings a e equi ed. Mo eo e , he combina ion o he psychological measu es in ou s udy is no el in ha an ea lie s udy using Res o a i e Ou come Scale (ROS) and Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) had he Posi i e and Nega i e A ec Schedule (PANAS), bu no POMS, as an emo ional measu e (and used iewing be o e walking) [34]. A ecen s udy wi h only iewing used POMS, bu no o he psychological measu es [38]. We belie e ha many-sided desc ip ions o emo ional and es o a i e esponses migh help en i onmen al planning and managemen p o essionals de elop and measu e he quali ies o a com o able o es en i onmen app op ia e o o es ba hing in he u u e. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7210 2. Me hods 2.1. Responden s We conduc ed he expe imen s in ou a eas o Japan om Augus o Sep embe , 2011. Du ing each expe imen , o con ol he esponden s’ dispe sion by a oiding he in luence o he a ibu e’s di e ence, such as age o gende , 11 o 12 male uni e si y s uden s (45 in o al) pa icipa ed as esponden s, none o whom epo ed any his o y o physical o psychia ic diso de s (Table 1). The expe imen s we e conduc ed unde he egula ions o he Ins i u ional E hical Commi ee o he Fo es y and Fo es P oduc s Resea ch Ins i u e in Japan. All esponden s we e ully in o med o he aims and p ocedu es o his expe imen , and hei in o med consen was ob ained p io o he expe imen . Table 1. Summa y o esponden s and he day o examina ion. Expe imen al Loca ion A B C D Ci ies, owns and illages Na a P e ec u e Hi oshima P e ec u e Toyama P e ec u e Oi a P e ec u e. Yoshino Town Akio a Town Kamiichi Town Oi a Ci y Expe imen schedule Augus 3–4, 2011 Augus 8–9, 2011 Sep embe 6–7, 2011 Sep embe 13–14, 2011 Numbe o esponden s 11 12 11 11 Age o esponden s 21.2 ± 0.8 20.8 ± 1.5 21.4 ± 1.3 21.1 ± 1.4 Wea he o es /con ol Fine/Fine Fine/Fine Fine/Fine Fine/Fine Tempe a u e a e age (°C) o es /con ol 28.4 ± 2.42/34.5 ± 2.80 26.6 ± 1.29/34.6 ± 1.44 25.2 ± 1.49/27.5 ± 0.89 28.0 ± 1.80/31.8 ± 0.88 Humidi y a e age (%) o es /con ol 64.9 ± 12.9/42.6 ± 8.46 78.0 ± 6.72/56.6 ± 4.26 52.0 ± 8.46/41.5 ± 2.83 63.2 ± 7.09/59.1 ± 2.52 2.2. S udy Si es We selec ed ou o es en i onmen s (loca ed nea he owns o Yoshino, Akio a and Kamiichi and he ci y o Oi a) as expe imen al ields and ou u ban en i onmen s loca ed nea each o he o es en i onmen s. Figu e 1 shows he loca ion o each o es en i onmen . The o es s nea Yoshino and Kamiichi a e a i icial, mainly comp ising Japanese ceda (C yp ome ia japonica). The o he wo o es s a e deciduous, b oad-lea ed o es s comp ising species, such as Japanese oak (Que cus se a a) and Saw oo h oak (Que cus acu issima). The o es a eas we e la , b igh and well-managed (Figu e 2). The u ban a eas we e loca ed mainly along he down own majo a ic oads o a ound he main s a ion in each dis ic . The wea he was ine in each o he ou esea ch dis ic s du ing he expe imen . Table 1 shows he a e age empe a u e and humidi y alues in he o es and u ban ield o he ou esea ch dis ic s. In he au ho s’ judgmen , he ou look o he o es en i onmen s, despi e he di e ences in ee species, was ela i ely simila in all esea ch dis ic s. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7211 Figu e 1. De ails o each esea ch dis ic . Figu e 2. Pho o showing he o es and u ban si e used o he Walking and Viewing sessions. Expe imen al loca ion ABCD Na a P e . Hi oshima P e . Toyama P e . Oi a P e . Yoshino Town Akio a Town Kamiichi Town Oi a Ci y Fo es Loca ion T ailhead a Yoshino Moun ain Wes T ail in Shin'nyuzan Temple Pilla App oach in Ta eyama Moun ain Fo es Road in Oi a P e ec u al Fo es Ci y Loca ion (Con ol) Road be o e Kin e su Depa men S o e Road be o e Hi oshima P e ec u al Go e nmen Building Road be o e Ci y Cen e Road be o e Oi a Bank, L d. Ci ies, owns and illa g es In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7212 2.3. Psychological Measu emen P o ile o Mood S a es (POMS): The P o ile o Mood S a es (POMS; McNai and Lo , 1964) is a well-es ablished, ac o -based and analy ically-de i ed measu e o psychological dis ess. I s eliabili y and alidi y ha e been well documen ed [39]. POMS measu es six mood s a es: ension and anxie y (T-A), dep ession (D), ange and hos ili y (A-H), igo (V), a igue (F) and con usion (C). We used he Japanese e sion o POMS (co e ing 65 i ems) [40] and i s T-sco e o s a is ical analysis. Posi i e and Nega i e A ec Schedule (PANAS): The Posi i e and Nega i e A ec Schedule (PANAS) [41,42] measu es he posi i e a ec and nega i e a ec using 20 i ems (10 each o posi i e and nega i e a ec ). The scales we e shown o be highly in e nally consis en , la gely unco ela ed and s able a app op ia e le els o e a wo-mon h pe iod [41]. No ma i e da a, ac o ial elemen s and ex e nal e idence o con e gen and disc iminan alidi y o he scales a e also a ailable [41]. We used he Japanese e sion o PANAS (co e ing 16 i ems; 8 each o posi i e and nega i e a ec ) [43] and used each esponden ’s o al sco e o posi i e o nega i e a ec , espec i ely, o s a is ical analysis. Res o a i e Ou come Scale (ROS): The Res o a i e Ou come Scale (ROS) [37] is based on p e ious measu es and indings ega ding es o a i e ou comes [44–46]. ROS can be used o in es iga e es o a i e emo ional and cogni i e ou comes in a gi en en i onmen wi h he ollowing six i ems: “I eel calme a e being he e,” “My concen a ion and ale ness clea ly inc ease he e,” “I ge new en husiasm and ene gy o my e e yday ou ines om he e,” “A e isi ing his place, I always eel es o ed and elaxed,” “I can o ge e e yday wo ies he e” and “Visi ing he e is a way o clea ing and cla i ying my hough s”. Each i em has a se en-poin Like scale ( anging om “1”: no a all o “7”: comple ely), he eliabili y o which was con i med in p e ious esea ch [37,47]. In his s udy, we used ROS a e changing he o iginal wo ding o sui he expe imen (“1. I eel calm,” “2. I eel ocused and ale ,” “3. I ha e en husiasm and ene gy o my e e yday ou ines” “4. I eel es o ed and elaxed,” “5. I can o ge e e yday wo ies” and “6. My hough s a e clea .”). As he e was no Japanese e sion a ailable, we ansla ed he o iginal English e sion in o Japanese by employing a double-check me hod (English in o Japanese and ice e sa). We used he o al sco e o he six i ems o s a is ical analysis. Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS): The Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale [48] has wo e sions. One assesses ai s, namely he endu ing cha ac e is ics o indi iduals, and has been ound o ela e posi i ely o sel -ac ualiza ion and sel -es eem and nega i ely o dep ession and anxie y. The o he assesses he s a e o subjec i e i ali y a he han i s endu ing aspec . A he s a e le el, i ali y has been ound o ela e nega i ely o physical pain and posi i ely o he amoun o au onomous suppo in a gi en si ua ion. Bo h e sions comp ise se en di e en i ems, bu sha e ou common i ems, and a se en-poin Like scale ( anging om “1”: no a all o “7”: comple ely). The eliabili y and alidi y o SVS ha e also been con i med in p e ious esea ch [48,49]. In his expe imen , we chose ou common i ems (“I eel ali e and i al,” “I don’ eel e y ene ge ic,” “I ha e ene gy and spi i ” and “I look o wa d o each new day.”) as he SVS index, and hen ansla ed hem o a Japanese e sion simila ly o he ROS scale. We used he o al sco e o he ou i ems o s a is ical analysis (wi h one nega i e i em in e ed). In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7213 2.4. Expe imen al Design 2.4.1. Expe imen al Schedule Each expe imen was conduc ed o e wo days. The esponden s me a he ga he ing poin ea ly in he mo ning, hen headed o he mee ing oom o an explana ion o he ield expe imen and o sign a consen o m. A e his o ien a ion, he esponden s we e andomly di ided in o wo g oups, each wi h i e o six esponden s. On he day o he expe imen , depending on he a ea, i e o six esponden s (expe imen al g oup) we e sen o a o es a ea (expe imen al a ea), while he o he i e o six esponden s (con ol g oup) we e sen o an u ban a ea (con ol a ea). On he second day, he esponden s we e sen o he opposi e a ea o elimina e o de bias (Figu e 1). 2.4.2. Expe imen al Me hod Upon a i al in he gi en a ea, all esponden s we e ini ially aken o see he walking cou se in each a ea by he s a be o e going o a p e-p epa ed wai ing oom in each a ea, whe e hey we e equi ed o answe he ou ques ionnai es in he wai ing oom p o ided in he o es en i onmen and con ol a eas. Subsequen ly, o in es iga ing he emo ional, es o a i e and e i alizing e ec s o sho - e m walking and iewing in o es and down own a eas, each esponden walked indi idually (one by one expe imen ; esponden s we e no allowed o alk o o he esponden s du ing he expe imen , including he ime in he wai ing oom) a ound he a ea du ing a 15-min “walking” session be o e noon. They also sa on chai s and iewed he scene y indi idually du ing a 15-min “ iewing” session in he a e noon a e a lunch b eak (Figu e 2). Fou di e en ques ionnai es we e answe ed a leas wice du ing he expe imen (Table 2). ROS and SVS we e used h ee imes: be o e he expe imen , a e walking and iewing and while POMS and PANAS we e conduc ed, wice (be o e he expe imen and a e iewing). Table 2. In es iga i e iming o each ques ionnai e. Be o e Expe imen (B.E.) A e Walking (A.W.) A e Viewing (A.V.) P o ile o Mood S a es (POMS) ○ - ○ Posi i e and Nega i e A ec Schedule (PANAS) ○ - ○ Res o a i e Ou come Scale (ROS) ○ ○ ○ Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) ○ ○ ○ 2.5. Analysis Me hods In his s udy, we expec ed a signi ican in e ac ion e m be ween en i onmen and ac i i y. Acco dingly, we se o es and u ban (con ol) en i onmen s as ac o s and each measu emen poin (be o e expe imen , a e walking and a e iewing) as le els. The in e ac ion e ms we e analyzed wi h wo-way epea ed measu es (wi hin subjec ) ANOVA. We conduc ed 2 (place) × 2 ( ime) ANOVA o POMS and PANAS and 2 (place) × 3 ( ime) ANOVA o ROS and SVS o analysis. Pai wise di e ences we e checked wi h he Wilcoxon signed- ank es , and a p- alue o <0.05 was conside ed signi ican . Howe e , due o mul iple pai wise s a is ical es s (Wilcoxon signed- ank es ), we adjus ed he p- alue sepa a ely o each main scale wi h Bon e oni co ec ions (** p < 0.0017–0.005, In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7214 * p < 0.0083–0.025). The s a is ical analysis o psychological da a was p ocessed using Mic oso Excel 2003 and Excel S a is ics 2008 o Windows. Compa isons we e made o he ollowing pai s o si ua ions: POMS and PANAS: (1) esponses be o e he expe imen s in bo h o es and con ol a eas; (2) esponses a e he iewing session in bo h o es and u ban a eas; (3) esponses be o e he expe imen s and a e he iewing session in o es a eas; and (4) esponses be o e he expe imen s and a e he iewing session in u ban a eas. ROS and SVS: (1) esponses be o e he expe imen s in bo h o es and con ol a eas; (2) esponses a e he walking session in bo h o es and u ban a eas; (3) esponses a e he iewing session in bo h o es and u ban a eas; (4) esponses be o e he expe imen s and a e he walking session in o es a eas; (5) esponses be o e he expe imen s and a e he walking session in u ban a eas; (6) esponses be o e he expe imen s and a e he iewing session in o es a eas; and (7) esponses be o e he expe imen s and a e he iewing session in u ban a eas. 3. Resul s and Discussion 3.1. Resul 3.1.1. Co ela ions o he Scales The alidi y and eliabili y o he Japanese e sions o POMS and PANAS ha e been con i med in ea lie s udies [40,41]. Howe e , ROS and SVS we e ansla ed o Japanese o he i s ime, and hei con e gen and disc imina e alidi y and eliabili y had o be con i med. Con i ma ion esul s o he alidi y and eliabili y a e below. Table 3 lis s he co ela ions o all scales be o e he expe imen in he o es en i onmen and con ol a eas, while Tables 4 and 5 show he co ela ions o he scales a e walking and a e iewing in each en i onmen . Subsequen ly, Table 6 shows he esul o he assessmen s o he eliabili y o scales, subscales and he whole ques ionnai e. Table 3 shows ha “Nega i e A ec (PANAS)” is ela i ely high and posi i ely co ela ed wi h nega i e indexes, such as ension and anxie y, dep ession, ange and hos ili y and a igue, while ela i ely high and nega i ely co ela ed wi h such posi i e indexes as igo , ROS and SVS in he o es (be o e he expe imen ) in Tables 3 and 5. The same endency appea s o con ol (be o e he expe imen ) in Tables 3 and 5. Con e sely, “posi i e a ec (PANAS)” ends o be he opposi e o he “nega i e” index, meaning ROS and SVS ha e a ela i ely high posi i e co ela ion wi h he “posi i e” index o POMS and PANAS (Tables 3 and 5). In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7215 Table 3. Co ela ion o each in es iga i e index (be o e expe imen ). T-A, ension and anxie y; D, dep ession; A-H, ange and hos ili y; V, igo ; F, a igue; C, and con usion. Fo es (B.E.) POMS PANAS ROS SVS T-A D A-H V F C Nega i e Posi i e POMS T-A - 0.708 ** 0.433 ** −0.101 0.575 ** 0.780 ** 0.430 ** 0.014 −0.345 * −0.245 D - 0.623 ** 0.004 0.668 ** 0.646 ** 0.392 ** 0.006 −0.253 −0.332 * A-H - 0.162 0.755 ** 0.530 ** 0.506 ** 0.097 −0.081 −0.232 V - 0.001 −0.285 * −0.069 0.362 * 0.560 ** 0.576 ** F - 0.617 ** 0.349 * 0.092 −0.244 −0.406 ** C - 0.489 ** −0.029 −0.422 ** −0.402 ** PANAS Nega i e - 0.160 −0.204 −0.116 Posi i e - 0.480 ** 0.424 ** ROS - 0.621 ** SVS - Con ol (B.E.) POMS PANAS ROS SVS T-A D A-H V F C Nega i e Posi i e POMS T-A - 0.721 ** 0.685 ** 0.124 0.620 ** 0.713 ** 0.327 * −0.010 −0.095 −0.125 D - 0.815 ** 0.097 0.753 ** 0.654 ** 0.358 * −0.054 −0.279 −0.229 A-H - 0.147 0.716 ** 0.635 ** 0.373 ** 0.046 −0.187 −0.144 V - 0.127 0.121 −0.093 0.000 0.432 ** 0.415 ** F - 0.531 ** 0.293 * −0.082 −0.373 ** −0.473 ** C - 0.248 0.010 −0.152 −0.063 PANAS Nega i e - 0.458 ** 0.010 0.0 15 Posi i e - 0.134 0.242 ROS - 0.735 ** SVS - * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7222 e ec o walking and iewing in ension and anxie y (p < 0.000), dep ession (0.005) and con usion (0.003) we e s a is ically lowe han hose be o e he expe imen in he o es en i onmen . In con as wi h his esul , he T-sco e a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing o igo was signi ican ly lowe (p < 0.000) and a igue highe (0.000) han hose be o e he expe imen in he u ban a eas (Figu e 10). Figu e 9. The esul o POMS ( o es ). Figu e 10. The esul o POMS (con ol). PANAS: The o al PANAS sco es be o e he expe imen we e compa ed a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing in each en i onmen . In Figu e 11, bo h be o e he expe imen and a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing in “Nega i e A ec ” showed simila low sco es (p < 0.871). Con e sely, he sco e o a e iewing is as high as ha o be o e he expe imen in he o es en i onmen in “Posi i e A ec ” (0.027), e en hough we canno ind a s a is ical di e ence be ween be o e he expe imen and a e iewing in ei he scales. Figu e 12 shows ha he e was no s a is ical 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 T-A D A-H V F C T‐sco e (A e.) B.E. A.V. poin *：p < 0.0083 **：p < 0.0017 Wilcoxon signed- ank es **** A e applied Bon e oni co ec ion 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 T-A D A-H V F C T ‐sco e (A e.) B.E. A.V. poin *：p < 0.0083 **：p < 0.0017 Wilcoxon signed- ank es ** ** A e applied Bon e oni co ec ion In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7223 di e ence be ween be o e he expe imen and a e iewing ei he in he “Nega i e A ec ” (p < 0.039) o “Posi i e A ec ” (0.556). The “Posi i e A ec ” sco e o be o e he expe imen was also as high as ha o a e iewing in he u ban a eas. Figu e 11. The esul o PANAS ( o es ). Figu e 12. The esul o PANAS (con ol). ROS: Figu e 13 shows he esul o compa ison among he h ee measu emen poin s (be o e he expe imen , a e walking and a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing) in he o es en i onmen and he u ban a eas. The o al ROS sco es o a e walking (p < 0.000) and a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing (0.001) we e e y simila in each en i onmen and signi ican ly highe han be o e he expe imen in he o es en i onmen . In he u ban a eas, he sco e o a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing was ela i ely lowe han hose o be o e he expe imen and a e walking, wi h s a is ical di e ences be ween be o e he expe imen and a e he 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Nega i e Posi i e To alsco e (A e.) B.E. A.V. poin *：p < 0.025 **：p < 0.005 Wilcoxon signed- ank es A e applied Bon e oni co ec ion 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Nega i e Posi i e To alsco e (A e.) B.E. A.V. *：p < 0.025 **：p < 0.005 Wilcoxon signed- ank es A e applied Bon e oni co ec ion In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7224 combined e ec o walking and iewing (p < 0.002). The sco es a e walking (p < 0.830) we e no s a is ically di e en om he alues be o e he expe imen . Figu e 13. The esul o ROS ( o es and con ol). SVS: Las ly, Figu e 14 shows ha , in he o es en i onmen , he o al SVS sco e, be o e he expe imen was no s a is ically di e en om ha o a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing, bu a e walking had s a is ically highe sco es (p < 0.000) han be o e he expe imen . Con e sely, he sco e o a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing was signi ican ly lowe (p < 0.003) han ha o be o e he expe imen in he u ban a eas. The e was no s a is ical di e ence be ween be o e he expe imen and a e walking in u ban a eas. Figu e 14. The esul o SVS ( o es and con ol). 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 To alsco e (A e.) ■Fo es □Con ol poin *：p < 0.0083 **：p < 0.0017 Wilcoxon signed- ank es ** * ** B.E. B.E. A.W. A.V.A.W. A.V. A e applied Bon e oni co ec ion 0 5 10 15 20 25 To alsoco e (A e.) poin *：p < 0.0083 **：p < 0.0017 Wilcoxon signed- ank es * ** B.E. B.E. A.W. A.V.A.W. A.V. A e applied Bon e oni co ec ion ■Fo es □Con ol In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7225 3.2. Discussion 3.2.1. Compa isons be ween Fo es and U ban En i onmen To begin wi h, we ound no s a is ical di e ences in he esponden s’ psychological esponses (mood-POMS, a ec -PANAS, es o a i e ou comes-ROS, subjec i e i ali y-SVS) be ween he o es en i onmen and he con ol a eas be o e he expe imen . A e a 15-min walking ollowed by a 15-min iewing in he bo h en i onmen s, we ound ha ension and anxie y, dep ession and con usion (POMS) we e signi ican ly lowe , bu igo was signi ican ly highe in he o es en i onmen han in an u ban en i onmen . The nega i e a ec (PANAS) was signi ican ly lowe , bu he posi i e a ec was signi ican ly highe a e a s ay ( he combined e ec o walking and iewing) in he o es han a e ha in he u ban en i onmen . Sco es o he emo ional and cogni i e es o a i e ou comes (ROS) we e also signi ican ly highe in he o es en i onmen as opposed o an u ban en i onmen du ing (and a e ) he walking session, wi h he same esul s seen du ing (and a e ) he combined e ec o he walking and iewing session. A sho s ay in he o es en i onmen showed a signi ican ly highe sco e in e ms o subjec i e i ali y (SVS) han he u ban en i onmen o bo h he mo ning (walking) and a e noon ( he combined e ec o walking and iewing) sessions. Thus, i seems ha e en sho isi s o he o es en i onmen gene a e mul iple posi i e psychological e ec s in mood and a ec subjec i e eco e y and i ali y compa ed o isi s o a down own u ban en i onmen . Ou main esul s suppo ea lie esul s [18,23,25–28,35]. We did no measu e any en i onmen al ac o s ha migh induce such e ec s, bu p e ious Japanese s udies ha e highligh ed coolness in a he mal en i onmen and ce ain isual, audible and odo ous s imuli de i ed om he na u al se ing as c ucial and appa en ly inducing psychological eco e y e ec s no possible in u ban en i onmen s [33]. 3.2.2. Compa isons be ween be o e and a e he Expe imen We disco e ed ha mood wo sened, nega i e eelings inc eased and eelings o es o a ion and i ali y dec eased in an u ban en i onmen . Con e sely, posi i e eelings, subjec i e es o a ion and i ali y inc eased and nega i e eelings, such as ension and anxie y, dep ession and con usion, declined in he o es en i onmen a e he expe imen al sessions. These esul s again suppo p e ious s udies [23]. Bo h walking and he combined e ec o walking and iewing du ing a sho s ay in a o es clea ly induced a eeling o subjec i e es o a ion (ROS). Con e sely, he e was a dec ease in ROS sco es a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing in an u ban en i onmen compa ed o he p e-expe imen sco e. Possible causes include hea y c owding and/o many ac o s de i ed om he u ban en i onmen , which would ad e sely a ec esponden s’ eelings o subjec i e es o a ion. We ound a signi ican inc ease in he eeling o subjec i e i ali y (SVS) only a e he walking ac i i y in he o es , while he subjec i e i ali y a e he combined e ec o walking in and iewing an u ban en i onmen declined compa ed o he p e-expe imen sco e. Du ing his expe imen , he walking pace in bo h en i onmen s was delibe a ely es ic ed. Acco dingly, he physical ac i i y i sel (walking) does no explain he di e ences obse ed in subjec i e In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7226 well-being be ween he o es and u ban en i onmen s. Ra he , hese de i e om he physical en i onmen in which he ac i i y akes place. 4. Conclusions In his s udy, we in es iga ed he emo ional, es o a i e and e i alizing e ec s o sho - e m walking and iewing in o es and down own a eas. Ini ially, he hypo hesis in ou s udy ha bo h en i onmen and ac i i y would in luence psychological e ec s could be suppo ed, because signi ican in e ac ion e ms be ween he en i onmen and ac i i y we e con i med ega ding he POMS indexes, ROS and SVS. Al hough he subjec s we e once in oduced o he walking cou se be o e he expe imen , no s a is ical di e ences be ween he wo expe imen al g oups in any o he en scales we e ound be o e he expe imen . Howe e , eelings o igo and posi i e e ec s, as well as eelings o subjec i e eco e y and i ali y we e s onge in he o es en i onmen (a e he combined e ec o walking and iewing) han in he u ban en i onmen ( he same iming as o es en i onmen s). The limi a ions o he p esen s udy include he ac ha i was ocused on he psychological e ec s jus a e he expe imen , excluding po en ial long- e m e ec s. This emains a opic o u u e s udies. The expe imen s we e ca ied ou in la , b igh and well-managed o es a eas. Howe e , he psychological e ec s o o es se ings may depend on he s a e o ege a ion in he o es , as well as o es managemen and ca e. Compa isons be ween di e en kinds o o es s a e hus wa an ed in u u e s udies. Fu he mo e, s udies compa ing di e en kinds o u ban a eas a e also wa an ed. Me hodologically, he scales o es o a i e ou comes and subjec i e i ali y seemed o eco d somewha simila phenomena. This applied e en mo e so a e he esponden s had been exposed o he expe imen al manipula ion (a o es o u ban se ing; he co ela ions we e lowe be o e he expe imen ). We need u he s udies o con i m whe he his is due o he esponden s’ posi i e a i ude owa d he expe imen , o some ue expe imen al e ec s o o con e gence be ween he concep s o es o a ion and i ali y. In summa y, compa ed o he u ban con ol, his s udy cla i ied he ollowing psychological eco e y e ec s de i ed om a sho s ay in he o es en i onmen :  Fo es ba hing imp o ed mood;  Fo es ba hing heigh ened posi i e a ec ;  Fo es ba hing induced a eeling o subjec i e es o a ion;  Fo es ba hing induced a eeling o subjec i e i ali y. Acknowledgmen s This p ojec was suppo ed by he Japan Socie y o he P omo ion o Science, he Academy o Finland unde he Japan-Finland Bila e al Co e P og am and he Fo es The apy S a ion ini ia i e. Au ho Con ibu ions No imasa Takayama pa icipa ed in da a acquisi ion, analysis, in e p e a ion and d a ing o he manusc ip ; Juyoung Lee, Takeshi Mo ikawa and Yuko Tsune sugu acqui ed he da a and conduc ed In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2014, 11 7227 he analysis; Bum-Jin Pa k, Qing Li and Yoshi umi Miyazaki pa icipa ed in expe imen al design and da a in e p e a ion; Liisa Ty äinen coo dina ed he p ojec and pa icipa ed in da a in e p e a ion; Takahide Kagawa coo dina ed he p ojec and pa icipa ed in da a acquisi ion and analysis; and Kale i Ko pela concei ed o he s udy and pa icipa ed in da a in e p e a ion, d a ing o he manusc ip and gene al supe ision o he esea ch. All au ho s ha e ead and app o ed his manusc ip . Con lic s o In e es The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . Re e ences 1. F umkin, H. Beyond oxici y human heal h and he na u al en i onmen . Am. J. P e . Med. 2001, 20, 234–240. 2. McEwen, B.S. P o ec i e and damaging e ec s o s ess media o s. N. Engl. J. 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