Attention to faces expressing negative emotion at 7 months predicts attachment security at 14 months

A en ion o Faces Exp essing Nega i e Emo ion a 7 Mon hs P edic s A achmen Secu i y a 14 Mon hs Mikko J. Pel ola and Linda Fo ssman Uni e si y o Tampe e Kaija Puu a Uni e si y o Tampe e and Tampe e Uni e si y Hospi al Ma inus H. an IJzendoo n Leiden Uni e si y Jukka M. Lepp€ anen Uni e si y o Tampe e To in es iga e po en ial in an - ela ed an eceden s cha ac e izing la e a achmen secu i y, his s udy es ed whe he a en ion o acial exp essions, assessed wi h an eye- acking pa adigm a 7 mon hs o age (N=73), p edic ed in an –mo he a achmen in he S ange Si ua ion P ocedu e a 14 mon hs. A en ion o ea ul aces a 7 mon hs p edic ed a achmen secu i y, wi h a smalle a en ional bias o ea ul exp essions associa ed wi h insecu e a achmen . A achmen diso ganiza ion in pa icula was linked o an absence o he age- ypi- cal a en ional bias o ea . These da a p o ide he fi s e idence linking in an s’a en ional bias o nega i e acial exp essions wi h a achmen o ma ion and sugges educed sensi i i y o acial exp essions o nega i e emo ion as a es able ai ha could link a achmen diso ganiza ion wi h la e beha io al ou comes. De eloping du ing he 1s yea , he a achmen beha io al sys em acili a es di e en esponse pa - e ns upon h ea ening si ua ions and sepa a ion om ca egi e s (Bowlby, 1969). Compa ed o secu ely a ached in an s who eadily seek and manage o ge com o om he ca egi e when eeling igh ened, insecu ely a ached in an s a e cha ac e ized by an inhibi ion o ou wa d signs o dis ess and appa en indi e ence owa d he ca e- gi e (a oidance), clinginess and ange owa d he ca egi e ( esis ance), o a lack o a cohe en beha - io al s a egy and po en ial signs o ea o he ca e- gi e (diso ganiza ion; Ainswo h, Bleha , Wa e s, & Wall, 1978; Main & Solomon, 1990). An ex ensi e amoun o esea ch has es ablished he impo ance o sensi i e and suppo i e ca egi ing on he eme - gence o secu e a achmen (Ainswo h e al., 1978; Be nie , Ma e-Gagn e, B elange , & Whipple, 2014; De Wol & an IJzendoo n, 1997), and p o ided e idence o an endu ing impac o a achmen secu i y on a ange o measu es o social adap a ion such as ex e nalizing and in e nalizing p oblems, social compe ence, and emo ion egula ion (Fea on, Bake mans-K anenbu g, an IJzendoo n, Lapsley, & Roisman, 2010; G oh, Roisman, an IJzendoo n, Bake mans-K anenbu g, & Fea on, 2012; G oh e al., 2014; S ou e, 2005). Al hough he 1s yea o li e is c i ical o a ach- men o ma ion and he ole o he ca egi ing en i- onmen in his p ocess has been in es iga ed in de ail, he e a e conside ably ewe p ospec i e s udies in es iga ing how de elopmen al ajec o- ies du ing his pe iod di e in in an s la e classi- fied as secu ely o insecu ely a ached. S udies add essing his ques ion ha e shown ha child cha ac e is ics such as empe amen (Van IJzen- doo n & Bake mans-K anenbu g, 2012) and candi- da e gene ic a ian s (e.g., Luijk e al., 2011) may no consis en ly p edic a achmen , bu he e is some e idence o esponses mo e closely ela ed o in e ac i e con ex s, such as in an s’posi i e a ec We g a e ully acknowledge he e o s o he amilies who pa - icipa ed in his p ojec , and Henna Salo aa a, Ma i Fadjuko , Mia Huolman, Susanna Kein€ anen, Ii is Ruo salainen, Milla Mie - inen, Hen iikka Nisula, and Ma ia Ka aja o hei help in da a collec ion. This esea ch was suppo ed by a g an om he Kone Founda ion and a pos doc o al ellowship om he Ins i u e o Ad anced Social Resea ch, Uni e si y o Tampe e, o Mikko J. Pel ola; an awa d om he he Ne he lands O ganiza ion o Scien ific Resea ch (SPINOZA p ize) o Ma inus H. an IJzen- doo n; and a g an om he Eu opean Resea ch Council (G an 283763) o Jukka M. Lepp€ anen. Co espondence conce ning his a icle should be add essed o Mikko J. Pel ola, Human In o ma ion P ocessing Labo a o y, School o Social Sciences and Humani ies, Uni e si y o Tampe e, 33014 Tampe e, Finland. Elec onic mail may be sen o mikko. pel ola@u a.fi. ©2015 The Au ho s. Child De elopmen published by Wiley Pe iodicals, Inc. on behal o Socie y o Resea ch in Child De elopmen . This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed and is no used o comme cial pu poses. All igh s ese ed. 0009-3920/2015/8605-0002 DOI: 10.1111/cde .12380 Child De elopmen , Sep embe /Oc obe 2015, Volume 86, Numbe 5, Pages 1321–1332 exp essions and beha io al esponses du ing he S ill Face p ocedu e, o p edic la e a achmen (e.g., B aunga -Rieke e al., 2014; Mesman, an IJzendoo n, & Bake mans-K anenbu g, 2009, o a e iew). In he p esen s udy, we con inued his line o esea ch by es ing a hypo hesis ha in an s’ a en ion o acial emo ion exp essions, pa icula ly o emo ions o nega i e alence, is associa ed wi h la e a achmen secu i y. The e a e good easons o assume ha a ach- men o ma ion in in an s is ma ked by changes in a en ion o acial exp essions. Models o a ach- men and socioemo ional in o ma ion p ocessing sugges ha ecu en a achmen - ela ed expe i- ences shape ep esen a ional, physiological, and beha io al esponses o emo ional in o ma ion, and o cues signaling h ea in pa icula (Bowlby, 1969; Cassidy, Jones, & Sha e , 2013; Dykas & Cassidy, 2011; V i cka & Vuilleumie , 2012). Cues signaling h ea can ange om di ec and a achmen -specific h ea signals (such as he sepa a ion om o dis- plays o ange by he ca egi e ) o mo e ambiguous cues o po en ial dange (such as ea ul aces). I is a gued ha a achmen - ela ed in o ma ion p ocess- ing biases owa d po en ial h ea cues in he en i- onmen a e cons an ly ope a ing (c . Bowlby, 1969; Dykas & Cassidy, 2011), al hough expe iencing h ea onesel may ampli y he p eexis ing esponse pa e ns. Al hough he e is e idence om adul s showing ha a achmen secu i y is associa ed wi h pa e ns o a ending owa d o away om h ea - ela ed s imuli such as ang y aces (e.g., Dewi e & De Houwe , 2008), no s udies ha e in es iga ed he ea ly o igins o a achmen - ela ed in o ma ion p o- cessing biases in in ancy. The possibili y ha a ia- ions in a en ion o acial exp essions o nega i e emo ion a e associa ed wi h he e ol ing a ach- men ela ionship in ea ly de elopmen is u he sugges ed by findings showing ha indi idual a i- a ions in a en ion o ea ul acial exp essions in 7- mon h-old in an s a e ela ed o ma e nal s ess and dep essi e symp oms (Fo ssman e al., 2014) and ha a en ion o ang y aces is enhanced in school- age child en wi h his o ies o pa en al mal ea men (e.g., Pollak & Kis le , 2002). Resea ch documen ing he ea ly on ogeny o he pe cep ion o emo ional s imuli has shown ha du - ing he second hal o he 1s yea , in an s begin o eliably disc imina e be ween a ange o emo ional exp essions p esen ed in di e en channels such as he ace (Lepp€ anen & Nelson, 2009; Nelson & Dol- gin, 1985), oice (Flom & Bah ick, 2007), and body mo emen s (Ziebe , Kangas, Hock, & Bha , 2014). A no able de elopmen al ea u e o emo ion pe - cep ion a a ound 5–7 mon hs o age is a obus a en ional bias owa d acial exp essions o ea . This bias is ypically obse ed in p olonged engage- men o a en ion o ea ul acial exp essions in compa ison o happy o neu al s imuli (Nakagawa & Sukiga a, 2012; Nelson & Dolgin, 1985; Pel ola, Hie anen, Fo ssman, & Lepp€ anen, 2013; Pel ola, Lepp€ anen, Palokangas, & Hie anen, 2008), aug- men ed hea a e decele a ion (Lepp€ anen e al., 2010; Pel ola, Lepp€ anen, & Hie anen, 2011), and a en ion- ela ed elec oco ical b ain esponses o ea ul aces (Lepp€ anen, Moulson, Vogel-Fa ley, & Nelson, 2007; Nelson & de Haan, 1996; Pel ola, Lepp€ anen, M€ aki, & Hie anen, 2009). Impo an ly, he a en ion bias appea s o be ela i ely specific o ea ul exp essions as simila biases ha e no been obse ed o sad o ang y exp essions (e.g., G oss- mann, S iano, & F iede ici, 2007; Soken & Pick, 1999) o o aces displaying no el, non ea ul exp essions (Pel ola, Lepp€ anen, Vogel-Fa ley, Hie a- nen, & Nelson, 2009; Pel ola e al., 2008), al hough he ex en o which in an s assign specific emo ional meaning (e.g., ea ) o pic u es o acial exp essions emains deba able (Kagan & He schkowi z, 2005). The obus ness and ela i e specifici y o in an s’ a en ional bias o ea ul acial exp essions a e ea- sons o assume ha his phenomenon eflec s an impo an aspec o ea ly emo ional in o ma ion p ocessing, and a iabili y in his bias may he e- o e p esen a pa icula ly sui able s a ing poin o in es iga ing he ea ly an eceden s o la e a ach- men . Howe e , as ye , he e ha e been no s udies examining he po en ial o in e indi idual a ia ion in a en ional biases o nega i e acial exp essions as a ma ke o subsequen social and emo ional de elopmen , o as a p ecu so o mo e efined unc ional beha io al esponding o emo ional e en s (c . Walle & Campos, 2012). In he p esen longi udinal s udy we examined whe he in an s’a en ional biases o acial exp es- sions a 7 mon hs o age p edic mo he –in an a achmen quali y a e 1 yea o age. In an s we e es ed wi h an eye- acking measu e o a en ion o acial exp essions (i.e., he O e lap pa adigm) a 7 mon hs o age and mo he –in an a achmen was assessed a 14 mon hs o age wi h he S ange Si u- a ion P ocedu e (SSP; Ainswo h e al., 1978). The O e lap pa adigm (modified om he o iginal pa - adigm by Aslin & Salapa ek, 1975), examines in an s’gaze shi s om a cen al s imulus (i.e., a neu al, happy, o ea ul exp ession, o a ace- shaped con ol s imulus) o a high-con as s imulus in he le o igh pe iphe y. Due o he empo ally o e lapping p esen a ion o he wo s imuli, a gaze 1322 Pel ola, Fo ssman, Puu a, an IJzendoo n, and Lepp€ anen shi o he pe iphe al s imulus equi es ac i e disengagemen o a en ion om he cen al ace s imulus (Colombo, B ez, & Cu indale, 2012), which makes his ask sui able o p obing di e - ences in a en ion alloca ion be ween dis inc cen- ally p esen ed s imuli. A en ional biases can be assessed mos eliably by calcula ing he p obabili y o a en ion shi s om he cen ally p esen ed s im- uli owa d he pe iphe al s imuli, and a obus bias o ea ul exp essions has been obse ed as a highe p obabili y o missing a en ion shi s om ea ul e sus happy/neu al aces in independen in an samples (Fo ssman e al., 2014; Lepp€ anen e al., 2011; Nakagawa & Sukiga a, 2012; Pel ola e al., 2008, 2011). Ou p ima y aim was o es o di e ences in a en ion o acial exp essions be ween in an s g ouped as secu ely o insecu ely a ached (i.e., a oidan , esis an , and diso ganized), wi h addi- ional explo a o y analyses aiming a a u he cha ac e iza ion o he da a ac oss he a achmen subg oups and wi h a con inuous measu e o a achmen diso ganiza ion. As desc ibed abo e, we we e pa icula ly in e es ed in whe he ea ly a en ional esponses o nega i e acial exp essions p edic he ac i a ion o a achmen beha io s in la e de elopmen . Because p e ious s udies ha e shown in an s wi hin his age ange o display obus a en ional biases o ea ul aces, we selec ed ea ul aces as he nega i e emo ion ca e- go y in his s udy. The e a e no p io s udies examining he associa ion be ween p ocessing o acial exp essions and a achmen secu i y in in an s, which led us o adop an explo a o y app oach and e ain om s ong di ec ional hypo heses. Theo e ical and empi ical wo k wi h adul s (Dewi e & De Houwe , 2008; Dykas & Cas- sidy, 2011) sugges ha , possibly se ing a egula- o y unc ion o supp ess emo ional o e a ousal, a ela i ely au oma ic endency o di e a en ion away om h ea - ela ed cues is associa ed wi h insecu e a achmen . In he p esen pa adigm such endency would be obse ed as a ela i ely smalle a en ion bias o ea ul exp essions. Al e na i ely, he e e se could also be expec ed; ha is, secu e a achmen could be associa ed wi h a ela i ely smalle a en ion bias o ea ul exp essions, possi- bly due o a dec eased need o moni o he en i- onmen o po en ial signs o h ea in in an s wi h a mo e es ablished expec a ion o ca egi e a ailabili y. Besides in an s’a en ion o acial exp essions, ma e nal sensi i i y was assessed when he in an s we e 7 mon hs old. Ma e nal sensi i i y was assessed o examine whe he a en ional biases o acial exp essions, and hei po en ial associa ions wi h la e a achmen , a e associa ed wi h di e - ences in he mo he s’abili y o de ec and espond o in an signals. Apa om s udies wi h ma e nal pe sonali y (de Haan, Belsky, Reid, Volein, & John- son, 2004) o dep essi e symp oms (Fo ssman e al., 2014) as a p oxy o he ca egi ing en i onmen , he e is a lack o esea ch on he associa ions be ween pa en al ca egi ing sensi i i y and he p o- cessing o emo ional s imuli in in ancy. Also, as pa en al sensi i i y has an es ablished ole in he de elopmen o a achmen secu i y, i is impo an o de e mine whe he o he po en ial p edic i e ac- o s (such as a en ional biases o acial exp essions) a e independen om o in e ac wi h pa en al sen- si i i y in p edic ing la e a achmen secu i y. We expec ed secu e a achmen o be associa ed wi h highe ma e nal sensi i i y, bu did no ad ance a specific di ec ional hypo hesis wi h espec o he influence o ma e nal sensi i i y on a en ion o acial exp essions. Me hod Pa icipan s The in an s we e ec ui ed om an ongoing lon- gi udinal coho s udy (N=126; 44% emales; Fo ssman e al., 2014; Pel ola e al., 2013) in which eye- acking assessmen s o a en ion o acial exp essions wi h he O e lap pa adigm ha e been conduc ed a 5 mon hs (M=152.43 days, SD =3.64) and 7 mon hs o age (M=213.85 days, SD =4.39). All in an s we e heal hy, ull- e m (≥37 weeks), and om u ban, middle-class amilies o Caucasian e hnici y. A o al o 73 in an s om he o iginal coho pa icipa ed in he a achmen assessmen a 14 mon hs o age (M=414.85 days, SD =20.24; 44% emales). The no able loss o in an s o he ol- low-up a achmen assessmen s is pa ly explained by he ac ha he a achmen assessmen was in oduced as a supplemen al isi a e he onse o he longi udinal s udy. Impo an ly, no s a is ical di e ences we e ound be ween hose who did and did no pa icipa e in he a achmen assessmen in ma e nal sensi i i y, a en ion o acial exp essions, o empe amen (as measu ed wi h he In an Beha io Ques ionnai e; Ro hba , 1981), ps=.28–.96, indica ing ha he pa icipan s included in he cu en analyses a e ep esen a i e o he comple e longi udinal s udy coho . All in an s wi h ≥3 sco - able ials in each o he ou s imulus condi ions in he O e lap pa adigm and a achmen da a we e A achmen and A en ional Biases in In an s 1323 included in he p esen analyses. Gi en ha a ela- i ely g ea e numbe o in an s had insu ficien eye- acking da a in he 5-mon h assessmen (n=26) as compa ed o he 7-mon h assessmen s (n=11), he final analyses epo ed he e a e based on in an s who had alid eye- acking da a om he 7-mon h-assessmen and had pa icipa ed in he a achmen assessmen s a 14 mon hs o age (n=62; 39% emales; see Da a S1 in he Online Suppo ing In o ma ion o he 5-mon h da a analyses). App o al o he p ojec was ob ained om he E hical Com- mi ee o Tampe e Uni e si y Hospi al, and in o med w i en consen was ob ained om he pa en o each child. Measu es A en ion o Facial Exp essions Eye- acking da a we e collec ed du ing he O e - lap pa adigm o measu ing a en ion o acial exp essions and ace-shaped con ol s imuli (Fig- u e 1). The acial exp ession s imuli we e neu al, happy, and ea ul exp essions posed by wo emale models, and he ace-shaped con ol s imuli we e phase-sc ambled images o bo h o he models’ aces, p ese ing he ou e con ou o he ace. The ace and con ol s imuli measu ed 15°and 11° e ically and ho izon ally, espec i ely. The session s a ed wi h he placemen o an elec ode ne o eco ding elec- oencephalog aphy ( o hese da a, see Y iaho, Fo ssman, Kaa iala, & Lepp€ anen, 2014). Du ing he expe imen , he in an s sa on hei pa en ’s lap a a 60-cm iewing dis ance om a co neal- eflec ion eye- acke moni o wi h a 58-cm diame e (Tobii TX300; Tobii Technology, S ockholm, Sweden), which eco ded da a on in an s’eye posi ions on he sc een wi h a 300-Hz sampling a e. Da a collec ion s a ed wi h he calib a ion o he eye- acke cam- e as du ing which an audio isual anima ion was p esen ed sequen ially a e e y co ne and he cen e o he sc een. I he fi s calib a ion was no success- ul (i.e., one o mo e calib a ion poin s we e missing o we e no p ope ly calib a ed), he calib a ion was epea ed a leas wo imes o a ain sa is ac o y cali- b a ion o all fi e loca ions. I one o mo e calib a- ion poin s we e missing a e mo e han 2 ecalib a ion a emp s, he final calib a ion ou come was accep ed and he expe imen was s a ed. I none o he loca ions we e success ully calib a ed a e se e al ecalib a ion a emp s, he expe imen was hen un wi hou collec ing eye- acking da a. In he O e lap pa adigm, a fixa ion s imulus (a ed ci - cle epea edly expanding om 0.4° o 4.3°) p eceded each ial. Once he in an looked a he fixa ion s im- ulus, he expe imen e p essed a key o p esen a ace o a ace-shaped con ol s imulus on he cen e o he sc een. The cen al s imulus was flanked a e 1,000 ms by a pe iphe al s imulus p esen ed 14° equip obably on he le o igh o 3,000 ms. The pe iphe al s imuli we e black-and-whi e e ically a anged ci cles o a checke boa d pa e n, measu - ing 15°94° isual angle. Each s imulus condi ion (i.e., con ol, neu al, happy, ea ul) was epea ed six imes o bo h models in a andom o de (i.e., a o al o 48 ials), wi h he cons ain ha he same s imulus condi ion was p esen ed no mo e han ou imes in a ow and he pe iphe al s imulus on he same side no mo e han h ee imes in a ow. S imu- lus p esen a ion was con olled by E-P ime 2 so - wa e (Psychology So wa e Tools Inc., www.ps ne . com). All da a p ocessing om he aw x–ygaze posi- ion coo dina es o he pa ame e s eflec ing a en- ion disengagemen we e comple ed au oma ically by using gazeAnalysisLib, a lib a y o MATLAB Figu e 1. The sequence o e en s in he O e lap pa adigm and examples o he s imuli. 1324 Pel ola, Fo ssman, Puu a, an IJzendoo n, and Lepp€ anen (Ma hwo ks, Na ick, MA) ou ines o o fline analysis o aw gaze da a (Lepp€ anen, Fo ssman, Kaa iala, Y iaho, & Wass, 2014). Fi s , a 37-sam- ple median fil e was applied o emo ing ab up spikes in he gaze da a (a ibu able o echnical a i ac s). Second, da a segmen s wi h a maximum o 200 ms o missing eye posi ion da a we e in e - pola ed by con inuing he las eco ded x- and y- coo dina es un il he acking came back online. Thi d, bad ials we e excluded om u he analy- ses. These included ials wi h in an mo emen , ina en i eness, o echnical p oblems in eye ack- ing ( agmen ed acking), esul ing in mo e han 200 ms o missing eye posi ion da a du ing he ial o he in an looking a he cen al s imulus o less han 70% o he ime p eceding gaze disengagemen o he end o he analysis pe iod (on a e age 21.9% o all ials). Addi ionally, a small numbe o ials we e excluded due o an icipa o y eye mo emen s (i.e., a saccade commenced less han 150 ms a e he pe iphe al s imulus onse ; 0.5% o all ials) o compu e iming e o s (i.e., he s imuli no p e- sen ed o he co ec du a ion; 0.15% o all ials). No significan di e ence was obse ed in he num- be o excluded ials be ween secu ely and inse- cu ely a ached in an s, (68) =1.11, p=.27. O he emaining sco able ials, he p opo ion o missing a en ion shi s (i.e., no eye mo emen owa d he pe iphe al s imulus du ing a 150- o 1,000-ms ime window a e he pe iphe al s imulus onse ) was calcula ed o each s imulus condi ion (c . Lepp€ anen e al., 2011). In addi ion, a en ional bias sco es we e calcula ed o each s imulus ype o pos hoc com- pa isons. The bias sco es a e de ia ion con as s, which eflec he ela i e weigh ing o a en ion o pa icula ace s imuli in he con ex o o he s imuli (e.g., missing a en ion shi s o ea minus he mean o missing a en ion shi s o all o he ace s imuli). To be included in he s a is ical analyses a minimum o h ee sco able ials was equi ed o each s imulus condi ion. On a e age, he in an s included in he analyses had 9.2, 9.4, 9.0, and 9.4 sco able ials in he con ol, neu al, happy, and ea ul s imulus condi ions, espec i ely, wi h no di e ences in he numbe o sco able ials be ween secu ely and insecu ely a ached in an s, F(1, 60) = .48, p=.49. Ma e nal Sensi i i y Mo he –in an dyads we e ideo aped a hei homes du ing a ee-play in e ac ion o 15 min wi hin 2 weeks a e he 7-mon h labo a o y ses- sion. Ma e nal sensi i i y was assessed om ideo- apes using he Emo ional A ailabili y Scales (EAS), 4 h ed. (Bi ingen, 2008) by a ce ified code (au ho 3), unawa e o in an s’a achmen classifi- ca ions and pe o mance in he eye- acking ask. Ma e nal sensi i i y was coded on a scale o 1–7, consis ing o pa en al a ec exp ession, he abili y o de ec and app op ia ely eac o child signals and beha io s, and communica ing in espec ul ways. The EAS da a we e a ailable o 69 (o 73) mo he –in an dyads. The a e age sensi i i y sco e wi hin his sample was 5.14 (SD =1.14, skew- ness =.20), which is simila o na ionally ep esen- a i e ma e nal sensi i i y da a (e.g., Me as-Salmio e al., 2013). In e code ag eemen (in aclass co e- la ion [ICC]) be ween he main code and an inde- penden ce ified code on a se o 20 cases was ICC =.95. In an –Mo he A achmen In an s and mo he s we e obse ed in he SSP (Ainswo h e al., 1978). In acco dance wi h s an- da d p ocedu es, he SSP consis ed o se en 3-min episodes, including wo sepa a ions om and wo eunions wi h he mo he , and in e ac ion wi h a emale s ange . In an s’a achmen beha io s we e coded om ideo apes acco ding o he o ganized a achmen scales by Ainswo h e al. (1978) and he Main and Solomon (1990) coding sys em o assessing a achmen diso ganiza ion. On he basis o a ings on 7-poin scales assessing in an s’p ox- imi y seeking, con ac main enance, esis ance, and a oidance du ing he wo eunion episodes, in an s we e fi s classified as secu e (B), insecu e-a oidan (A), o insecu e- esis an (C). Nex , signs o a ach- men diso ganiza ion (D) du ing each episode when he mo he was p esen we e a ed using a scale om 1 (no signs o diso ganiza ion) o9(s ong signs o diso ganiza ion), wi h sco es highe han 5 ecei - ing a diso ganized classifica ion. In an beha io s con ibu ing o a achmen diso ganiza ion sco ing include con adic o y beha io s (e.g., apid a oid- ance ollowing a c y o he mo he ), s e eo ypical o anomalous beha io s, s illing o eezing, di ec signs o app ehension ega ding he mo he , and misdi ec ed o diso ien ed beha io s. In e code ag eemen was calcula ed om 18% o he sample by wo code s (au ho s 1 and 4, bo h unawa e o he ma e nal sensi i i y sco es o in an s’pe o - mance in he eye- acking ask). Fo he ou -way ABCD classifica ions, p esence e sus absence o secu e a achmen (i.e., B s. non-B), and he p es- ence e sus absence o a achmen diso ganiza ion (i.e., D s. non-D), in e code ag eemen was 92% A achmen and A en ional Biases in In an s 1325 (js=.88, .85, and .81, espec i ely). Ag eemen on he con inuous D sco es was ICC =.91. Fo he emaining sample, he ABCD classifica ions we e based on a consensus be ween he fi s au ho and expe code s om Leiden Uni e si y. In he ull sample o 73 in an s, 46 in an s (63%) we e classi- fied as secu ely a ached (B), 10 (14%) as insecu e- a oidan (A), 6 (8%) as insecu e- esis an (C), and 11 (15%) as diso ganized (D). Wi hin he sample o 62 in an s ha ing su ficien eye- acking da a a 7 mon hs, he dis ibu ion was: B =37 (60%), A =8 (13%), C =6 (10%), and D =11 (17%). These dis ibu ions we e hus highly conco dan wi h me a-analy ic da a on a achmen dis ibu ions in Wes e n samples (e.g., Van IJzendoo n, Schuengel, & Bake mans-K anenbu g, 1999), 2 <.58, p=.90. The s a is ical analyses we e conduc ed using he secu e e sus insecu e g ouping and he con inuous D sco es as dependen a iables. Resul s Fi s , an analysis o a iance o he missing a en- ion shi da a a 7 mon hs was conduc ed o es whe he he in an s included in he p esen sample show a simila pa e n o a en ion o aces as has been obse ed in p e ious esea ch. Replica ing p e ious findings, he main e ec o ace s imulus was significan , F(3, 183) =41.34, p<.0001, pa ial g 2 =.40, due o he p opo ion o missing a en ion shi s being significan ly highe o ea ul aces (M=.52; SD =.25) han o happy (M=.36, SD =.25) and neu al (M=.36, SD =.25) aces, o o he con ol s imuli (M=.18, SD =.21), all Bon- e oni-co ec ed compa isons p<.0001, d>.64. O he p elimina y analyses showed ha missing a en ion shi s o aces a 7 mon hs o age we e no associa ed wi h gende o ma e nal sensi i i y (ps=.16–.99). A achmen g ouping (secu e s. insecu e) was no associa ed wi h ma e nal sensi i - i y, (67) =.45, p=.66, o age (in days) a a ach- men assessmen , (71) =.49, p=.63. The e we e mo e males han emales wi h an insecu e classifica- ion (20 s. 7) as compa ed o he gende dis ibu- ion wi hin he secu e g oup (21 s. 25), 2 =5.58, p=.018. The con inuous D sco es we e no associ- a ed wi h ma e nal sensi i i y, =.05, p=.71; age a a achmen assessmen , =.03, p=.79; o gen- de , (71) =.40, p=.69. In he main analyses, logis ic eg ession analysis was conduc ed o p edic secu e e sus insecu e a achmen g ouping and linea eg ession was used o p edic a achmen diso ganiza ion ( he con inuous D sco es) on he basis o missing a en- ion shi sco es o aces and ace-shaped con ol s imuli a 7 mon hs o age (wi h he p edic o a i- ables mean cen e ed). The eg ession analyses we e fi s un wi h gende and ma e nal sensi i i y included as p edic o a iables, bu as no in e ac- ions in ol ing hese a iables eme ged (i.e., gende and ma e nal sensi i i y did no in e ac wi h miss- ing a en ion shi sco es o p edic a achmen secu- i y o diso ganiza ion), hey we e excluded om he final analyses o educe he numbe o p edic- o s and o imp o e model fi . The logis ic eg ession model wi h a achmen g ouping (secu e s. insecu e) as he dependen a iable and missing a en ion shi sco es as p e- dic o s was significan , 2 =10.40, p=.034, R 2 =.15. A achmen g ouping was p edic ed sig- nifican ly by he p opo ion o missing a en ion Figu e 2. Mean p opo ion (p) o missing a en ion shi s in di e en s imulus condi ions in 7-mon h-old in an s, g ouped by a achmen secu i y. E o ba s ep esen he s anda d e o o mean. *p<.05. 1326 Pel ola, Fo ssman, Puu a, an IJzendoo n, and Lepp€ anen shi s o neu al (B=3.90, SE =1.79, p=.03) and ea ul (B=3.39, SE =1.61, p=.035) aces (Fig- u e 2). Sepa a e es s wi h he a en ional bias sco es showed ha secu e a achmen was associ- a ed wi h a la ge a en ional bias o ea ul aces, (60) =2.59, p=.012, d=.67, while he bias sco es o neu al aces we e la ge in insecu e han secu e in an s, (60) =2.46, p=.017, d=.64. As an explo - a o y analysis o es ima e how hese e ec s mani- es in he di e en insecu e subg oups, a mul inomial logis ic eg ession wi h he ou -way a achmen classifica ion (A, B, C, D) as he depen- den a iable and missing a en ion shi sco es as p edic o s was un. The model was significan , 2 =23.40, p=.024, R 2 =.31. Inspec ion o he pa ame e es ima es (wi h secu e a achmen as he e e ence ca ego y) indica ed ha a achmen a oid- ance was associa ed wi h a ela i ely la ge bias o neu al (p=.023) bu no ea ul (p=.79) aces, whe eas bo h esis an and diso ganized a achmen we e associa ed wi h a smalle bias o ea ul aces (ps=.039 and .012, espec i ely), bu did no di e om secu e a achmen in a en ion o neu al aces (ps=.44 and .15, espec i ely). The associa ion wi h a achmen diso ganiza ion was u he es ed wi h a linea eg ession analysis wi h he D sco e as he dependen a iable and missing a en ion shi sco es a 7 mon hs as p edic- o s. The model was significan , F(4, 61) =2.68, p=.041, R 2 =.16, wi h a en ion o ea ul aces as he only significan p edic o o he D sco es, b=.48, p=.004. Finally, o es whe he he a en ional bias o ea ul aces is equally s ongly associa ed wi h diso ganiza ion and esis ance, a pa ial co ela ion be ween ea bias sco es and D sco es was calcula ed while con olling o esis ance sco es (a e aged ac oss he wo eunions du ing he SSP, wi h highe sco es on a 7-poin scale indica ing highe esis ance), and ice e sa (i.e., co ela ing ea bias and esis ance sco es while con olling o D sco es). This analysis showed ha he nega i e associa ion be ween ea bias and a achmen diso ganiza ion ( =.35, p=.006, i.e., highe D sco es associa ed wi h a smalle a en ional bias o ea ul aces; see Fig- u e 3) emained significan e en while con olling o esis ance sco es ( =.26, p=.046), whe eas he co ela ion be ween ea bias and esis ance ( =.28, p=.03) became nonsignifican when he D sco es we e aken in o accoun ( =.14, p=.28), indica ing ha he dec eased a en ional bias o ea ul aces was mo e s ongly associa ed wi h a achmen diso ganiza ion han esis ance. A one-sample es wi h he subg oup classified as diso ganized u he indica ed an absence o ea bias in hese in an s, as he magni ude o hei ea Figu e 3. The co ela ion ( =.35, p=.006) be ween a achmen diso ganiza ion and a en ional bias o ea ul aces a 7 mon hs o age. A achmen and A en ional Biases in In an s 1327 bias (M=.09) did no di e om ze o, (10) =1.59, p=.14. Discussion In he p esen s udy, a en ion o acial exp essions a 7 mon hs o age p edic ed a achmen secu i y a 14 mon hs o age: As compa ed o secu ely a ached in an s, insecu ely a ached in an s showed a smalle a en ional bias o ea ul aces and a la - ge bias o neu al aces (al hough he la e e ec appea ed o be es ic ed o he small subg oup o a oidan ly a ached in an s). Fu he explo a o y analyses showed ha he smalle a en ional bias o ea ul aces was mos clea ly associa ed wi h inc easing signs o a achmen diso ganiza ion. Toge he , hese findings a e consis en wi h he hypo hesis ha a ia ions in a en ion o nega i e emo ions, and possibly o cues signaling h ea in pa icula , a e associa ed wi h a achmen o ma ion and may p o ide a use ul ma ke o in an s’a ach- men s a us p io o he s anda d obse a ional assessmen o a achmen a e he fi s bi hday. Rega ding he po en ial mechanisms media ing his associa ion, he esul s could be seen as consis en wi h he model o Dykas and Cassidy (2011) p opos- ing ha an acqui ed endency o di e a en ion away om h ea - ela ed cues and supp ess emo- ional o e a ousal is a ma ke o insecu e a ach- men . I is unclea , howe e , whe he he seemingly simila pa e n o esul s implies ha he same mech- anisms (i.e., supp ession o a ousal) a e unc ional in in an s and adul s, o whe he o he ac o s such as lowe o e en blun ed sensi i i y o he emo ional signal con eyed by ea ul aces (and po en ially o he exp essions o nega i e alence) in insecu ely a ached in an s a e mo e likely esponsible o he obse ed e ec s. In e es ingly, ou supplemen a y analyses showed ha a ia ions in a en ion bias a 5 mon hs we e no associa ed wi h la e a achmen s a us and ha an inc ease in he a en ional bias o ea ul exp essions om 5 o 7 mon hs was mo e p onounced in secu ely a ached in an s han inse- cu e and diso ganized in an s (see Da a S1). Al hough en a i e, hese esul s aise he possibili y ha indi idual a ia ions in he de elopmen al eme gence o an a en ional bias o aces exp essing nega i e emo ions (such as ea ul exp essions) be ween 5 and 7 mon hs o age a e pa icula ly in o ma i e o unde s anding a achmen o ma ion (c . Lepp€ anen & Nelson, 2012). Whe eas a obus a en ional bias o ea ul aces was ela ed o secu e a achmen and low a ach- men diso ganiza ion sco es, highe le els o a ach- men diso ganiza ion we e cha ac e ized by a diminished a en ional bias o ea ul aces in his s udy. The absence o he age- ypical (e.g., Fo ss- man e al., 2014; Pel ola e al., 2008) a en ional bias o ea ul exp essions in diso ganized in an s is highly in e es ing in ligh o da a on he associa- ions be ween a achmen diso ganiza ion in in ancy and la e emo ional and beha io al ou comes. Me a-analy ic da a indica e ha while a achmen diso ganiza ion shows only a negligible associa ion wi h la e in e nalizing symp oms (e.g., anxie y and dep ession; G oh e al., 2012), diso ganized a ach- men is associa ed wi h la e ex e nalizing symp- oms (e.g., agg essi e and opposi ional beha io ; see Fea on e al., 2010). Face s o ex e nalizing symp oma ology such as callous-unemo ional ai s and an isocial beha io ha e been linked wi h spe- cific impai men s in sensi i i y o o he indi iduals’ ea ulness a he han a gene alized impai men in p ocessing emo ion exp essions (Dadds e al., 2006; Ma sh & Blai , 2008), and con e sely, highe sensi- i i y o de ec ea ul cues is ela ed o highe p o- social endencies (Ma sh, Kozak, & Ambady, 2007). I is in iguing o hypo hesize ha a lowe sensi i - i y o he dis ess signals o o he s could p o ide a ema kably ea ly-eme ging endopheno ypic ma ke ela ing a achmen diso ganiza ion in in ancy o la e ex e nalizing p oblems. Wha is no ully e ealed by he cu en esul s is he causal di ec ion o associa ions, ha is, whe he a ia ion in a en ional biases o emo ional s imuli is an inhe en cha ac e is ic o he in an imposing independen e ec s on he eme gence o a achmen secu i y, o whe he a en ional biases a e shaped by he ca egi ing en i onmen a 7 mon hs o age and could be mo e eadily in e - p e ed as an ea ly co ela e o he a achmen ela- ionship a he han an independen de e minan . Pa ly ela ed o his ques ion, Tha ne e al. (2011) showed ha a achmen diso ganiza ion a 14 mon hs was p edic ed by ana omical a ia ion in 6-week-old in an s’subco ical s uc u es (i.e., he diame e o he ganglio halamic o oid). As his s uc u e is linked o he limbic a eas subse ing he p ocessing o emo ional in o ma ion, such find- ings indica e po en ially inhe en neu obiological ac o s ha may p edispose in an s o be di e en- ially sensi i e o emo ional s imuli. Al hough such findings and he absence o associa ions be ween a en ional biases and ma e nal sensi i i y in he p esen s udy could be seen o a o he indepen- den ole o a en i eness o emo ional signals on de e mining la e a achmen , we hesi a e o d aw 1328 Pel ola, Fo ssman, Puu a, an IJzendoo n, and Lepp€ anen such s ong conclusions gi en po en ial limi a ions in ou assays o ma e nal sensi i i y. Fo example, he associa ion be ween a achmen secu i y and sensi i i y was no ound in his s udy al hough i has been ex ensi ely documen ed me a-analy ically (De Wol & an IJzendoo n, 1997) and wi h beha - io gene ic (Fea on e al., 2006) and in e en ion (Bake mans-K anenbu g, an IJzendoo n, & Ju e , 2003) designs. Mul iple ac o s ha e likely con ib- u ed o his null e ec , including modes sample size, limi ed a iance in ma e nal sensi i i y sco es, and he ela i ely uncons ained ee-play obse a- ion, as i has been p oposed ha sensi i i y o in an dis ess signals in s ess-inducing con ex s p o ides a be e es ima e o he influence o sensi- i i y on a achmen han nondis essing assess- men s (Lee kes, 2011). Fu he mo e, apa om he global assessmen o ca egi ing sensi i i y used in he p esen s udy, he influence o mo e ocal in e - ac i e beha io s on in an s’p ocessing o emo ional signals has no been in es iga ed. Specific ace s o in e ac i e beha io such as a ypical pa en al mi - o ing o in an a ec (DeOli ei a, Bailey, Mo an, & Pede son, 2004; Ge gely, 2004) as well as igh ened and igh ening emo ion displays owa d he in an (Main & Hesse, 1990; Schuengel, Bake mans-K an- enbu g, & an IJzendoo n, 1999) ha e been ela ed o he de elopmen o a achmen diso ganiza ion, and sugges ed o be pa ly media ed by in an s’ abili y o ecognize hei own and o he s’emo ions (DeOli ei a e al., 2004). A po en ially ui ul agenda o u u e s udies is o in es iga e in mo e de ail how such ocal aspec s o pa en ing a e asso- cia ed wi h in an s’pe cep ual p ocessing o emo- ion signals. In a wide con ex , he p esen esul s showing ha in an s’a en ional bias o ea ul aces is asso- cia ed wi h an appa en ly posi i e de elopmen al ou come (secu e a achmen ) a e o in e es as p e i- ous s udies ha e linked a en ional biases o h ea - ela ed s imuli (such as ang y and ea ul aces) wi h exposu e o s ess (Fo ssman e al., 2014) and p oneness o anxie y (Ba -Haim, Lamy, Pe gamin, Bake mans-K anenbu g, & an IJzendoo n, 2007). Fi s , he p esen esul s sugges ha he absence o age- ypical a en ion biases, no only heigh ened le els o his bias, may be in o ma i e as a ma ke o ea ly childhood de elopmen . Second, he p es- en esul s call o cau ion in in e p e ing in an s’ a en ional biases o h ea - ela ed s imuli as “ isk ac o s,”e en hough his in e p e a ion appea s plausible in ligh o se e al s udies in adul s linking he bias wi h anxie y (Ba -Haim e al., 2007). In pa - icula , he p esen esul s aise he possibili y ha he p esence o h ea - ela ed a en ional biases in in ancy is an impo an and po en ially ansien (see Pel ola e al., 2013) aspec o ypical socioemo- ional de elopmen . The esul s also call o u he wo k o examine in an s’a en ional biases o ea - ul aces and o he h ea - ela ed s imuli no only in he con ex o o dina y a ia ions in pa en al dep ession and s ess symp oms (Fo ssman e al., 2014) bu also unde mo e se e e condi ions. Limi a ions In he u u e, he links be ween a achmen and social in o ma ion p ocessing need o be in es i- ga ed in e hnically and socioeconomically mo e di e se samples o assess he gene alizabili y o he e ec s ( he p esen s udy being es ic ed o a Cau- casian, middle-class sample). Likewise, al hough he associa ion be ween a en ional biases and la e a achmen secu i y was no influenced by gende in his s udy, a eplica ion o hese findings in a la ge sample wi hou boys being o e ep esen ed in he insecu e ca ego y is needed. A la ge sample will also be impo an o enable mo e eliable analyses o he pa e ns o a en ional bias wi hin each insecu e a achmen subg oup. Finally, i is impo an o s ess ha he p esen esul s do no unequi ocally pe mi in e p e ing he obse ed a en ion e ec s o be specific o ea ul exp essions ins ead o a mo e gene al bias o h ea - ela ed o nega i ely alenced emo ion exp essions, and a u - he in es iga ion o he scope o he obse ed e ec s will be impo an . Conside ing he idea ha a achmen ep esen a ions impose a gene alized influence on he deploymen o p ocessing esou ces owa d po en ial h ea s in he en i on- men (e.g., Dewi e & De Houwe , 2008; Dykas & Cassidy, 2011), i could be expec ed ha he obse ed e ec s eplica e wi h o he h ea - ela ed s imuli such as exp essions o ange di ec ed owa d he in an . We belie e, howe e , ha ea ul exp essions a e a pa icula ly sui able class o s im- uli o s a in es iga ing he links be ween a ach- men and p ocessing o emo ional s imuli in in ancy as he e is cu en ly no e idence o a simi- la ly obus a en ional bias o o he nega i ely alenced acial exp essions, such as ange o sadness in in an s in he same age ange (e.g., G ossmann e al., 2007; Soken & Pick, 1999). Conclusions No wi hs anding he limi a ions o he p esen s udy, he in es iga ion o in an s’a en ion o acial A achmen and A en ional Biases in In an s 1329