Translation diaries of an illustrated technical text : Translation students’ conceptions of word-image interaction

connexions l in e na ional p o essional communica ion jou nal 2015, 3(2), 13–40 ISSN 2325-6044 TRANSLATION DIARIES OF AN ILLUSTRATED TECHNICAL TEXT T ansla ion s uden s’ concep ions o wo d–image in e ac ion Anne Ke ola Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland This s udy se ou o cha ac e ize he quali a i ely di e en ways in which a g oup o mas e ’s le el ansla ion s uden s concep ualized he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion du ing he ansla ion o an illus a ed echnical ex . The esea ch app oach chosen o his pu pose was phenomenog aphy, which aims o iden i y he di e ences in he ways people concep ualize a ious phenomena. The da a o he s udy consis ed o ansla ion dia ies w i en by he s uden s. The s udy iden i ied wo quali a i ely dis inc main ca ego ies o concep ualizing he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion: ei he concep ualizing he combina ion o modes as an en i y o be pe cei ed as a whole, o concep ualizing he modes as compe ing sou ces o in o ma ion. I was concluded ha he s uden s concep ualized he images as an impo an pa o he sou ce ex , capable o ampli ying, speci ying and e en annulling e bal in o ma ion. Keywo ds . Mul imodali y, Technical ex s, Illus a ed ex s, T ansla ion s uden s, T ansla ion dia ies, Phenomenog aphy. T ansla ing oday o en in ol es engaging wi h mul imodal ma e ial (Hi onen and Tii ula, 2010, p. 1). A mul imodal sou ce ex con eys meaning h ough he in e ac ion o modes—w i en language, spoken language, images, e c. (e.g., Gibbons, 2012, p. 8). The subjec s o he p esen a icle—illus a ed echnical sou ce ex s—c ea e hei message in he in e ac ion o wo ds and images, he e 14 e e ed o as he e b al s o u c e e x and he is u al s o u c e e x . The de ini ion o an illus a ed echnical ex adop ed in he a icle builds on By ne’s 2012 (pp. 26–28) desc ip ion o echnical ex s, which includes all ask–o ien ed documen s ha seek o help a pa icula audience unde s and how o do some hing o how some hing wo ks. By an illus a ed echnical ex , he a icle hence e e s o an in o ma i e, ins uc i e ex ha explains how some hing wo ks by bo h e bal and isual means. Illus a ed echnical ex s could well be he mos common ype o illus a ed ex s being ansla ed oday; echnical ex s cons i u e a signi ican sha e o all ansla ed ma e ial (Kingsco , 2002, p. 247, By ne, 2012, p. 6) and, as ema ked by By ne (2012, p. 26, 54) and Te cedo e al. (2009, p. 143), di e en ypes o images a e an in eg al ea u e o echnical documen s. Ye , esea ch in o he ansla ion o illus a ed echnical ex s so a has been a he sca ce, ocusing mainly on p o iding c i e ia o choosing app op ia e images in echnical and scien i ic ex s (Te cedo -Sánchez and Abadía-Molina, 2005) and echnically- o ien ed e minological da abases (P ie o Velasco, 2009, 2012). Ve bal in o ma ion in a mul imodal ex is always in e p e ed in ela ion o all modes p esen (Jewi , 2009, p. 2), whe he consciously o unconsciously. This a icle se s ou o examine how e bal in o ma ion is in e p e ed in ela ion o isual in o ma ion when ansla ing an illus a ed echnical ex . Na u ally, a phenomenon such as his one may be examined om a ious pe spec i es. One possible pe spec i e o examining a phenomenon is o desc ibe he dis inc i ely di e en ways in which people expe ience and concep ualize i . This a icle examines he in e ac ion o isual and e bal in o ma ion wi hin an illus a ed echnical sou ce ex as concep ualized by a g oup o mas e ’s le el ansla ion s uden s. The esea ch app oach adop ed o his pu pose is phenomenog aphy, which aims o map he di e en ways in which a phenomenon o an aspec o he wo ld may be expe ienced, concep ualized, pe cei ed, and unde s ood by di e en people (Ma on, 1994, p. 4424; 1988, p. 144). Phenomenog aphy se s ou o examine how people commen on a pa icula phenomenon, and i s aim is o desc ibe he a ia io n in he ways o concep ualizing he phenomenon. The da a o he s udy consis o ansla ion dia ies— epo s on he p oblems encoun e ed, he s a egies employed o sol e hem, and so on—w i en 15 abou he ansla ion p ocess o an illus a ed echnical ex du ing a echnical ansla ion cou se om English o Finnish. The s uden s we e no speci ically ins uc ed o commen on he images o hei in e ac ion wi h he e bal ex in hei dia ies. Fo his eason, p io o analyzing how he s uden s commen on he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion, he analys s mus de e mine i he s uden s commen on he issue—do hey inspec he images and do hey pay a en ion o hei in e ac ion wi h he e bal ex ? I he s uden s we e o ega d he images, o ins ance, as me ely deco a i e elemen s, i is unlikely ha hey would commen on hem when discussing hei ansla ion s a egies. The esea ch ques ions ha he a icle se s ou o answe may hence be o mula ed as ollows: “A e ansla ion s uden s awa e o he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion in illus a ed echnical ex s?” and “How do ansla ion s uden s concep ualize he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion wi hin he ansla ion o an illus a ed echnical ex ?” Backg ound o he Resea ch P ojec The s udy p esen ed in his a icle is a pa o a esea ch p ojec in es iga ing how an illus a ed echnical ex is p ocessed in ansla ion. The esea ch da a o he p ojec consis s o he ansla ions o an illus a ed echnical ex made by ansla ion s uden s as well as he ansla ion dia ies examined in his a icle. The da a we e p oduced du ing a echnical ansla ion cou se a he Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland. The esea ch subjec s we e a g oup o eigh mas e ’s le el ansla ion s uden s who all spoke Finnish as hei na i e language. All o he s uden s had ecei ed a bachelo ’s deg ee in English ansla ion a he Uni e si y o Tampe e, ha ing he e o e comple ed bo h heo e ical as well as p ac ical ansla ion cou ses—bo h om and in o English. The s uden s we e gi en one week o inish he ansla ion assignmen . The use o dic iona ies and o he e e ence esou ces was allowed. A e he s uden s had comple ed he ansla ion ask, a g oup in e iew was conduc ed in which he s uden s we e in o med o he aim o he esea ch and whe e hey had he chance o commen on he ask. The esea ch p ojec was submi ed o e alua ion by he uni e si y’s e hics commi ee 16 o esea ch in ol ing human subjec s and i was exemp ed om he need o a e iew. All eigh s uden s ga e w i en consen o pa icipa e in he s udy. The sou ce ex o he ansla ion assignmen p esen ed he illus a ed ope a ing p inciples o wo di e en ypes o we magne ic sepa a ion de ices used in he mining indus y o o e bene icia ion. The sou ce ex , including i s illus a ions, was p oduced speci ically o he pu poses o his esea ch wi h he help o he s a o he Geological Su ey o Finland. I was w i en in English and p oo ead by an expe a he Wes e n Aus alian School o Mines. The sou ce ex consis ed o jus o e 500 wo ds and wo la ge colo ed images, and I conside i o be a ep esen a i e example o an illus a ed echnical ex as de ined abo e. A b oad ange o esea ch has es ablished ha , when eading an illus a ed ex , eade s p ocess bo h wo ds and images, and o m hei in e p e a ion o he mul imodal ex based on bo h e bal and isual in o ma ion (e.g., Conno s, 2013; Hega y and Jus 1993; Maye , 2002; 2005; Schno z and Banne , 2003; Schno z and Kü schne , 2008; Wasylenky and Tapajna, 2001; Youngs and Se a ini, 2013). The in o ma ion p o ided by he wo modes may hence be deeply in e wined in he eade ’s mind. When designing he sou ce ex o he s udy, I conside ed i possible ha i he messages con eyed by he wo modes we e pe ec ly symme ical—in o he wo ds, hey exp essed p ecisely co esponding in o ma ion— hen he s uden s migh no be able o dis inguish which pa s o hei in e p e a ion consis ed o in o ma ion de i ed e bally and which isually. Hence, hey could be inclined o unde es ima e he impo ance o he isual in o ma ion wi hin he p ocess e en i hey had inspec ed he images wi h g ea ca e; a e all, i is wo ds ha hey undoub edly acknowledge eading, and i is wo ds ha hey p oduce. Fo his eason, he ela ionship be ween he wo ds and he images in he sou ce ex was modi ied in ce ain pa s o he sou ce ex so ha he in o ma ion con eyed by he wo modes was, in one way o ano he , asymme ical. Fo ins ance, in one sec ion o he sou ce ex , isual in o ma ion was dele ed om he image: he e bal ex accu a ely desc ibed a pa icula pa o he ope a ing p ocess— ailings o nonmagne ic pa icles exi ing he sepa a o —bu he 17 co esponding in o ma ion could no be ound in he image. On wo occasions, he isual and e bal ex s we e modi ied so ha he in o ma ion p o ided by he wo was s aigh o wa dly con adic o y: he e bal ex exp essed ha he de ice was subme ged unde wa e , while only he bo om–mos pa o he de ice was unde wa e in he image, and he e bal ex exp essed ha a ce ain pa o he de ice was loca ed in he uppe pa o he de ice while, acco ding o he image, he pa was in he lowe pa o he de ice. Fu he , he shape o a pa o he de ice called launde was modi ied: while he e m ypically e e s o a ough o a long, na ow con aine , i was p esen ed in he image as nea ly squa e–shaped. The a ionale behind hese modi ica ions was ha he asymme y o in o ma ion migh make i easie o dis inguish which mode he ansla ion s uden conside ed o be o mo e ele ance du ing ansla ion. In a p e- ansla ion ques ionnai e, hal o he s uden s es ima ed hei backg ound knowledge o o e bene icia ion as “none” and hal as “ e y li le.” E en hough hese es ima ions a e a he subjec i e, he s uden s’ le el o backg ound knowledge o he subjec ma e is an impo an ac o o conside : p e ious esea ch wi hin educa ional psychology in es iga ing uni e si y s uden s’ eading comp ehension o illus a ed scien i ic ex s has es ablished ha s uden s wi h low p io knowledge o he subjec ma e a hand obse e he illus a ions in mo e de ail han s uden s wi h high p io knowledge (Maye and Gallini, 1990). The ac ha none o he s uden s epo ed being conside ably be e acquain ed wi h he subjec ma e han he es o he g oup adds o he compa abili y o he da a. The p esen a icle concen a es on examining a ela i ely small numbe o ansla ion s uden s. The s udy does no in end o gene alize i s obse a ions o all ansla ion s uden s and, e en less so, o p o essional ansla o s who may gene ally be expec ed o employ ansla ion s a egies di e ing om hose employed by ansla ion s uden s (e.g., Göp e ich, 2010). I should be emphasized ha in he discussion o he esul s o he analysis, he e m “ ansla o ” as opposed o “ ansla ion s uden ” is employed; in ha con ex , i is used o e e o “ he pe son who ansla ed some hing.” 18 T ansla ion Dia ies as Resea ch Da a T ansla ion s uden s a he Uni e si y o Tampe e a e asked o w i e ansla ion dia ies o a la ge majo i y o he ansla ion assignmen s ha hey a e gi en du ing he s udy p og am. They a e gene ally ins uc ed o commen on he communica i e si ua ion—commissione o he ansla ion, he a ge audience, and so on—and on he sou ce ex i sel —i s s yle, ex ype, and subjec a ea. They a e also asked o desc ibe he ansla ion p ocess—mac o and mic o le el s a egies—and o speci y he sou ces consul ed, including dic iona ies and pa allel ex s— ex s o iginally w i en in he a ge language wi h a pu pose simila o ha o he sou ce ex . Finally, hey a e ins uc ed o e lec on he quali y o hei own wo k and o assess wha hey lea ned du ing he assignmen (UTA käännöskommen iohje). These ansla ion dia ies could be desc ibed as semis uc u ed as ins uc ions o w i ing he dia ies a e gene ally p o ided in he i s yea o he s udy p og am and, a e he s uden s a e accus omed o w i ing hem, he ins uc ions a e no egula ly ein o ced. This ansla ion dia y p ocedu e is highly simila o he In eg a ed P oblem and Decision Repo ing (IPDR) p ocedu e in oduced by Gile (2004, p. 15): bo h se “a sys ema ic equi emen o w i en in ospec i e epo ing by s uden s whene e hey hand in a ansla ion assignmen .” In bo h o ms o epo ing, s uden s discuss he p oblems hey encoun e ed du ing he ansla ion p ocess, he s eps hey ook o sol e hem, and he a ionale behind hei decisions. S uden s also in oduce he sou ces and e e ences hey consul ed du ing he ask. The epo s a e collec ed in a w i en o m wi h no s ic epo ing o ma o s uc u e excep o he ini ial ins uc ions om he ins uc o s (Gile, 2004, pp. 3–4). In ospec i e epo ing bene i s he s uden s and he ins uc o s alike. Gile desc ibes ha w i ing epo s inc eases he s uden s’ awa eness o hei ansla ion p ocess: i emphasizes ha ansla ion is a demanding ope a ion equi ing in ense decision-making, and i encou ages he s uden s o de o e mo e e o o hei wo k. I also p o ides he ins uc o s wi h a be e iew o wha he s uden s a e doing and wha hey ind pa icula ly 19 di icul , as well as how o in e p e hei ansla ions and o iden i y hei s a egies (pp. 4–9). Gile, oo, ema ks ha apa om ha ing a didac ic unc ion, hese in ospec i e epo s may also be used as da a o esea ch (pp. 8–9). T ansla ion p ocess esea ch has employed o he in ospec ion me hods as well, including hink-aloud me hods and e ospec ion (e.g., Ti kkonen-Condi and Jääskeläinen, 2000). Gile (2004, pp. 8–9) emphasizes ha IPDR o e s “no e olu iona y way o accessing in o ma ion no a ailable h ough o he me hods,” bu ha compa ed o o he in ospec ion me hods, i does ha e i s bene i s: he da a is easily ga he ed and a ailable o he esea che in a di ec ly eadable o m. Fu he , IPDR does no include dis ac ion be ween ansla ing and e balizing one’s hough s a he same ime, no does i equi e he s uden s o wo k unde s ic ime limi a ions o wi h a pa icula so wa e. Gile (p. 10) concludes ha he main limi a ion o IPDR as a da a collec ion me hod lies in he unp edic able, possibly noncomp ehensi e na u e o he da a, and sugges s ha mo e comple e epo s could pe haps be p oduced wi h he help o a mo e s uc u ed se o ques ions posed o he ansla o s. Göp e ich and Jääskeläinen (2009, p. 172) make he same obse a ion, s a ing ha he con en s o he epo s depend en i ely on wha he ansla o s hemsel es ega d as ele an . Ye , he jus i ica ion o he use o he da a collec ion me hod in his pa icula s udy lies in ha e y no ion: one o he aims o he s udy was o elucida e whe he he ansla ion s uden s indeed ega d isual in o ma ion as ele an enough o analyse in hei dia ies. In addi ion, as discussed in he ollowing sec ion, i would be highly ques ionable o pe o m a phenomenog aphic analysis on ansla ion dia ies w i en in esponse o a s uc u ed se o ques ions. Resea ch App oach and P ocess The esea ch app oach adop ed in he analysis o he ansla ion dia ies is phenomenog aphy, which se s ou o map he di e en ways in which a ious aspec s o he wo ld a e expe ienced, concep ualized, pe cei ed, and unde s ood by di e en people (Ma on, 1994, p. 4424; 1988, p. 144). Phenomenog aphy was 20 de eloped and has mainly been applied wi hin an educa ional con ex . Ye , i s aim anscends he educa ional con ex as he app oach se s ou o iden i y simila i ies and di e ences in he way we expe ience and comp ehend phenomena in he wo ld a ound us (Ma on, 1994, p. 4429). Ra he han a single me hod o analysis, phenomenog aphy is an in eg al pe spec i e on esea ch. I is unde pinned by he adop ion o a second–o de pe spec i e, which e e s o ocusing on how hings appea o people ins ead o ocusing on how hings “ eally a e” in he wo ld. In o he wo ds, wi hin he so- called i s -o de pe spec i e, esea ch aims o make s a emen s abou he wo ld (Ma on, 1981, p. 178) and could pose a ques ion such as “How do wo ds and images in e ac in illus a ed ex s?” Wi hin he second–o de pe spec i e adop ed in phenomenog aphy, on he o he hand, esea ch aims o make s a emen s abou people’s concep ions o he wo ld (ibid.), posing ques ions such as “How do ansla o s hemsel es expe ience and concep ualize wo d–image in e ac ion in illus a ed ex s?” In o de o ully unde s and he phenomenon o wo d–image in e ac ion wi hin ansla ion, obse a ions made om he i s –o de pe spec i e may be complemen ed by hose made om he second–o de pe spec i e. Phenomenog aphic Analysis and Issues o Da a Collec ion The da a used in phenomenog aphic esea ch is collec ed om a g oup o people indi idually e lec ing on hei expe ience o a phenomenon (Reed, 2006, p. 5). The esea che goes h ough he da a and looks o exp essions—di ec quo es— ha e e o expe iencing he phenomenon unde s udy in a ce ain way. Based on hei simila i ies and di e ences, hese expe iences a e a anged in o g oups e e ed o as ca ego ies o desc ip ion (Ma on, 1988, p. 145). In o he wo ds, he ca ego ies a e no selec ed in ad ance bu eme ge om he da a as exp essions a e b ough oge he and compa ed. As he same indi idual may exp ess mo e han one way o concep ualizing he phenomenon when in di e en si ua ions, he indi idual—in his case, he indi idual ansla o —is no he uni o analysis (Ma on and Pong, 2005, p. 346). Ins ead, he ca ego ies o desc ip ion a e 21 a i ed a by “sepa a ing o ms o hough bo h om he hinking and he hinke ” (Ma on, 1981, p. 196). Since he ca ego ies a e he esul o e lec ions abou he same phenomenon, hey a e meaning ully ela ed o each o he . Fu he , as some ways o expe iencing a phenomenon may be mo e comp ehensi e han o he s in ela ion o a pa icula c i e ion, i may be possible o es ablish a hie a chy be ween he ca ego ies o desc ip ion (Ma on, 1994, p. 4426). The main aim o phenomenog aphic analysis is o iden i y he ela ionships o he s uc u e be ween he ca ego ies. The s uc u ed se o ca ego ies o desc ip ion is called he ou come space o he phenomenon in ques ion, and i cons i u es he main ou come o phenomenog aphic esea ch (Ma on, 1994, p. 4424). Since phenomenog aphic esea ch in gene al— his s udy being no excep ion—analyzes a ela i ely small numbe o esea ch subjec s, he ou come space may ne e be claimed o be exhaus i e. The goal is simply ha he ou come space is comple e in he sense ha no hing has been le ou o he collec i e expe ience o he pa icula g oup (Ma on and Boo h, 1997, p. 125). The dominan me hod o da a collec ion in phenomenog aphic esea ch has adi ionally been he indi idual in e iew, bu some s udies ha e also employed g oup in e iews, child en’s d awings, w i en esponses, and his o ical documen s (Ma on, 1994, p. 4427), as well as uns uc u ed lea ning dia ies (P insloo, Slade, and Galpin, 2011) as esea ch da a. As explained abo e, he da a used in his s udy consis s o semis uc u ed ansla ion dia ies w i en by a g oup o ansla ion s uden s. This ype o da a has bo h ad an ages and disad an ages as esea ch da a o phenomenog aphic inqui y. An ob ious disad an age is ha he me hod o da a collec ion does no o e a chance o ask he s uden s o u he cla i ica ions o hei e lec ions. A clea ad an age, on he o he hand, is ha he esea che canno guide he s uden s’ e lec ions by—consciously o unconsciously—imposing one’s own p esupposi ions o he phenomenon in he o m o ollow-up ques ions. Ma on (1988, p. 154) emphasizes ha any guiding ques ions used wi hin he p ocess o phenomenog aphic da a collec ion should be as open-ended as possible, allowing o he subjec s o “choose he dimensions o he ques ion hey wan o answe .” The dimensions o he answe e lec wha he 28 co ec ” ansla ion solu ion is. T ansla ion solu ions a e based on o jus i ied wi h isual in o ma ion, as exempli ied by he ollowing quo a ion: Thanks o he images, I had he cou age o de ia e om he sou ce ex mo e adically. I was mo e ce ain ha I had unde s ood he ex co ec ly, and was he e o e mo e con iden abou he sui abili y o he de ia ing ansla ion solu ions o each gi en con ex . The ollowing wo quo a ions a e excellen examples o how he image may speci y he meaning o a pa icula elemen in he e bal sou ce ex and how he image de ines wha he co ec ansla ion solu ion is. In he i s , he ansla o compa es a lis o possible ansla ion choices o he in o ma ion p o ided by he image, and in he second, he sui abili y o he ansla ion solu ion is assessed in ela ion o isual in o ma ion: Judging by he image, he pa in ques ion is no a unnel, a gea box, an access doo box o a cha ge pocke . “A con aine ” is an easy choice since i is so gene ic i can be o any shape a all. Some o hese expe iences, oo, we e ela ed o isual pa allel ex s. The ollowing quo a ion illus a es how a ansla ion solu ion is based on isual in o ma ion ound in o he images: A e I checked images o simila de ices online, I decided o change i [ he ansla ion solu ion]. In he ollowing quo a ion, he ansla o e lec s on he ansla ion o he wo d “ eedbox,” and epo s ha ing ound a Finnish equi alen o a simila looking pa labeled in an image desc ibing he p oduc ion p ocess o bio uel. The ex e nal simila i y—and, pe haps, he assumed unc ional simila i y—o he pa s in he wo images is conside ed o a i y he use o he equi alen in he ansla ion: I ound an image o a simila eedbox in a ex desc ibing he p oduc ion o bio uel. I belie e his alida es my choice. 29 All in all, he expe iences in main ca ego y A indica e a conscious e o o map isual and e bal in o ma ion on o each o he and o app ehend each mode in e ms o he o he . This way o concep ualizing he in e ac ion o modes did no include ques ioning he accu acy o ei he one, e en when he e was a clea asymme y o in o ma ion be ween he wo. Main Ca ego y B: Concep ualizing he Ve bal and he Visual as Compe ing Sou ces o In o ma ion Ca ego y B ep esen s expe iences o consciously dissec ing he mul imodal sou ce ex and concep ualizing wo d and image as sepa a e sou ces o in o ma ion. These expe iences we e ela ed o e alua ing he e bal and he isual modes as sou ces o in o ma ion, o assessing hei use ulness and us wo hiness in ela ion o each o he . Mos —bu , in e es ingly, no all—o he expe iences in his ca ego y we e ela ed o he ins ances o asymme y o in o ma ion be ween he modes. Some o he expe iences in he ca ego y—in subca ego y B3, o be p ecise—also included examples o he ansla o assessing he use ulness and us wo hiness o he modes on a mo e gene al le el: in o he wo ds, when he mul imodal sou ce ex did no di ec ly p omp a eason o do so. Th ee quali a i ely exclusi e subca ego ies we e de ec ed, ep esen ing he a ia ion in he ways o concep ualizing he wo modes as sou ces o in o ma ion in ela ion o each o he . Concep ualizing e bal in o ma ion as mo e ele an (B1). In his subca ego y, isual in o ma ion was expe ienced p ima ily as subsidia y o e bal in o ma ion. Cha ac e is ic o hese expe iences was ha he use ulness o he image was ques ioned when he wo modes p o ided asymme ical in o ma ion: The second image was no as in o ma i e as he ex . These expe iences also e lec disc edi ing he con en s o he isual sou ce ex when he wo modes we e con adic o y o each o he . 30 I us ed he con en s o he ex comple ely and he e o e igno ed he inadequacy o he image. In one pa , he in o ma ion in he sou ce ex di e ed om ha claimed by he image. Concep ualizing e bal and isual in o ma ion as equally ele an (B2). This subca ego y suppo s a iew o conside ing wo d and image as sou ces o in o ma ion wi h an equal s a us, no explici ly iden i ying ei he one as mo e us wo hy han he o he . The e migh be a mis ake in he pa ag aph because acco ding o he image, he ailings a e collec ed in he lowe pa o he machine, and no in he uppe pa as exp essed in he ex . In he abo e quo a ion, he asymme y o in o ma ion is epo ed in a somewha neu al manne : he ansla o s a es ha one mode exp esses his piece o in o ma ion in one way, and he o he mode in ano he way. The ansla o does no di ec ly p opose ha he e bal ex is mis aken, bu ha he e migh be a mis ake. This subca ego y did no eme ge om he da a as a p ominen one; in ac , he quo a ion abo e was he only one ep esen ing a iew o no di ec ly dis ega ding ei he mode. All o he quo a ions e e ing o concep ualizing he issue e lec ed a conside ably mo e explici s ance owa ds p i ileging ei he e bal o isual in o ma ion. Concep ualizing isual in o ma ion as mo e ele an (B3). This subca ego y was ela ed o expe iencing e bal in o ma ion as subsidia y o isual. Visual in o ma ion was concep ualized as bo h ampli ying he e bal, in o he wo ds, p o iding in o ma ion no a ailable om he e bal ex , as well as annulling o disc edi ing he con en s o he e bal ex when he wo modes we e con adic o y o each o he . Ou o he h ee subca ego ies in ca ego y B, B3 eme ged om he da a as he mos p ominen one. Unlike he subca ego ies o B1 31 and B2, hese expe iences we e no limi ed o discussing ins ances o asymme y o in o ma ion be ween he modes bu we e also made on a mo e gene al le el; e lec ion on he isual mode being mo e in o ma i e han he e bal was o en ela ed o he comp ehension o he subjec ma e , in o he wo ds, he ope a ing p inciple o de ices he sou ce ex desc ibes: The image ga e me a be e o e all unde s anding o he subjec , e ealed he shape o he pa s and he di ec ion o he low o he subs ances e c. Compa ed o subca ego y A2, in which he image was concep ualized as a i ming he acqui ed e bal ex con en s, he image is he e concep ualized as helping in sou ce ex comp ehension by o e ing in o ma ion no e ie able om he e bal ex . In ac , isual in o ma ion was concep ualized as so in insic o he comp ehension o he ope a ing p inciple o he de ice ha he ansla o s epo ed ha ing imagined i in he pa s whe e isual in o ma ion was missing om he image: I looked a he image o assess whe e hey [pa icles missing om he image] ac ually go. In his subca ego y, he expe iences ela ed o concep ualizing he con adic ion o in o ma ion be ween he wo modes e lec ed concep ualizing he e bal elemen as mis aken. This was, in ac , he mos common way o commen ing on he ins ances o con adic ion. The con adic ion be ween he ex and he image made me ques ion he accu acy/inco ec ness o he ex . … he pa which alked abou he loca ion o he ailings launde s, claiming i o be in he uppe pa o he equipmen , while he image clea ly shows ha i is one o he bo ommos pa s o he equipmen . Ano he pa indica i e o he somewha de icien connec ion be ween image and ex is he pa which says ha he d um is subme ged in he ank, which I 32 unde s and o mean ha he d um is en i ely unde wa e – ye , his is no he case. Some o hese expe iences we e also jus i ied wi h isual pa allel ex s: In he image (o in o he images I saw) i [pa o he equipmen ] is no in he uppe pa . In e es ingly, e en hough hese expe iences e lec ed a clea endency o iden i y he e bal componen as mis aken, mos o hese ansla o s also men ioned ha hey did no , in ac , change he “mis aken” e bal in o ma ion in hei ansla ions: e en hough hey we e con inced ha he e bal ex was w ong, hey epo ed ha hey did no eel hey had he au ho i y o change i . All in all, main ca ego y B sugges s ha he combina ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion may be app oached wi h s a egies e lec ing a ying a i udes owa ds he impo ance and ele ance o bo h modes. The g oup in e iew conduc ed a week a e he ansla ion assignmen s had been handed in shed some u he ligh on he ansla o s’ hough p ocesses. As men ioned abo e, one o he s uden s did no discuss he images a all in he ansla ion dia y. Ye , in he g oup in e iew, his pa icula s uden epo ed ha ing s udied he images in g ea de ail—howe e , his had been done e en be o e eading he e bal sou ce ex o he i s ime. In he s uden ’s own wo ds, he s uden had examined he images i s o gain a gene al idea o he subjec ma e and had hen mo ed on o ead and ansla e he e bal ex , dis ega ding he images. This illus a es ha isual in o ma ion may be app oached wi h di e en eading s a egies. Fu he , se e al s uden s discussed he pa o he sou ce ex in which isual in o ma ion had been dele ed and men ioned ha i had no occu ed o hem ha he image could be aul y in any way— hey had simply hough hey we e “ oo s upid” o unde s and he p ocess co ec ly. Fu he , one o he s uden s epo ed ha ing hough ha he asymme y o in o ma ion could well ha e been due o di icul ies in p in ing he colo s co ec ly— ha , o some eason, he colo blue ( he colo o he dele ed 33 in o ma ion) had no p in ed co ec ly. These no ions a e discussed in he ollowing sec ion in ela ion o he esul s o he phenomenog aphic analysis. Conclusions This s udy se ou o elucida e i a g oup o ansla ion s uden s we e awa e o he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion in an illus a ed echnical sou ce ex as well as o cha ac e ize he di e en ways in which he s uden s concep ualized his in e ac ion. Visual in o ma ion—in pa icula , ins ances o asymme y o in o ma ion be ween e bal and isual in o ma ion—was widely discussed in he ansla ion dia ies, which con i med ha mos s uden s had indeed inspec ed he images. Fu he , in he g oup in e iew, he one ansla o who did no discuss he issue in he ansla ion dia y con i med ha ing inspec ed he images. In o he wo ds, all eigh ansla o s inspec ed he images while eading he sou ce ex . Mo eo e , isual in o ma ion was conside ed o be a ele an pa o he sou ce ex ; a imes he ansla o s concluded ha hey es eemed e bal in o ma ion abo e he isual, bu e en such a commen indica es ha he ansla o consciously nego ia ed he ela ionship be ween he modes. In answe o he i s esea ch ques ion, i may hence be concluded ha he ansla o s we e p incipally awa e o he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion, e en hough one o hem only inspec ed he images be o e s a ing he ac ual ansla ion o he e bal ex . In answe o he second esea ch ques ion, he s udy iden i ied wo dis inc main ca ego ies o concep ualizing he in e ac ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion in an illus a ed echnical sou ce ex : ei he making a conscious e o o ead, in e p e and ansla e he combina ion o he modes as a whole, o sepa a ing he wo modes o he sou ce ex o compa ison and e alua ion. These ca ego ies a e no mean o desc ibe indi idual ansla o s: as o en happens in phenomenog aphic esea ch (Ma on, 1994, p. 4428), he same indi iduals exp essed mo e han one way o concep ualizing he phenomenon when app oaching i om di e en angles. 34 The expe iences in he ca ego y o pe cei ing he combina ion o wo ds and images as an insepa able whole indica ed a conscious e o o map isual and e bal in o ma ion on o each o he . When his was impeded by dele ing in o ma ion om he image, he ansla o s seemed o be le wi h an imp ession o no ha ing unde s ood he sou ce ex a all. Unlike in he second ca ego y, he u h alue o nei he mode was no ques ioned. These obse a ions— oge he wi h he s uden s’ accoun s o how hey did no doub he in o ma ion con eyed by he images, exp essed du ing he g oup in e iew—sugges ha images a e conside ed o ha e a ela i ely high u h alue; in o he wo ds, ha hey accu a ely depic he objec s hey ep esen . An ob ious ailu e o do so was explained by doub ing one’s own sense o blaming i on he ep oduc ion a he han p oduc ion o he image. When e e ing di ec ly o ansla ion, he expe iences in his ca ego y illus a ed how ansla ion solu ions we e nego ia ed om he in e ac ion o he wo modes; he e bal sou ce ex e oked a ious di e en ansla ion solu ions, and he image de ined wha “ he co ec ” solu ion was. In he ca ego y o e alua ing wo ds and images as compe ing sou ces o in o ma ion, h ee di e en s ances we e iden i ied: ansla o s ei he conside ed e bal in o ma ion as mo e ele an han he isual, conside ed hem bo h as equally ele an , o conside ed isual in o ma ion as mo e ele an han he e bal. In o he wo ds, he combina ion o e bal and isual in o ma ion was app oached wi h s a egies e lec ing a ying a i udes owa ds he impo ance and ele ance o bo h modes. I may be easonably assumed ha hese unde lying a i udes may a ec subsequen ansla ion choices: o ins ance, aluing isual in o ma ion abo e he e bal could lead o ansla ion choices based mo e on isual in o ma ion han he e bal. Once again, i has o be emphasized ha hese ca ego ies did no cha ac e ize indi idual ansla o s: he same ansla o s adop ed di e en s ances owa ds he wo modes in di e en si ua ions. In hei ansla ion dia ies, he s uden s concen a ed mainly on discussing he ea u es o he a ge ex and desc ibing hei ansla ion p ocess. A ew, bu no all, discussed he communica i e si ua ion and e lec ed upon he quali y o hei own wo k. Ye , he mos ecu ing heme in he ansla ion dia ies we e he 35 di icul ies p oduced by he asymme y o in o ma ion be ween he wo modes. This sugges s ha isual and e bal in o ma ion challenging o con adic ing each o he dis u bed he ansla ion p ocess conside ably. The ansla o who did no employ isual in o ma ion du ing he ac ual ansla ion s age did no discuss hese pa s o he sou ce ex a all in he ansla ion dia y, which may be in e p e ed as implying wo hings: i s , he ac ha he es o he g oup singled hese pa s ou as di icul o ansla e was indeed due o lack o cohe ence be ween he modes—as opposed o he e bal sou ce ex simply being mo e di icul in hese pa s. Second, i implies ha a e bal ex coupled wi h images may be in e p e ed and ansla ed di e en ly han he same ex wi hou images; he sou ce ex wi hou he images is, in a sense, a di e en sou ce ex . The mos signi ican conclusion ha may be d awn om he p esen s udy is ha he ansla ion s uden s did no me ely assign he isual sou ce ex o a deco a i e o con ex ual ole; ins ead, hey concep ualized i as an impo an sou ce o in o ma ion, capable o ampli ying, speci ying, and e en annulling elemen s o he e bal sou ce ex . Fu he , some o he e lec ion in bo h ca ego ies was made in e e ence o images o he han hose cons i u ing he isual sou ce ex , e e ed o in his a icle as is ual p a alle l e x s . This e lec ion indica ed ha isual pa allel ex s we e conside ed as use ul and eliable sou ces o in o ma ion. All in all, he obse a ions made in he a icle ha e g ea consequences o ansla ion s udies—a discipline ha has adi ionally been hea ily language–o ien ed (O’Sulli an, 2013, pp. 2–3; Kaindl, 2013, p. 257). Hence, his a icle emphasizes he impo ance o acknowledging images as an objec o inqui y in hei own igh wi hin he discipline, bo h in ansla ion esea ch as well as ansla o aining. The obse a ions made in his a icle om he second–o de pe spec i e can con ibu e o u u e esea ch on wo d–image in e ac ion in ansla ion made om he i s –o de pe spec i e; in o he wo ds, s udying illus a ed sou ce ex s o hei ansla ions di ec ly. The main limi a ion o he indings is ha he ways o concep ualizing wo d–image in e ac ion a e no an exhaus i e desc ip ion o all he possible ways o concep ualizing he phenomenon. I is likely ha an analysis wi h a di e en sample o ansla ion s uden s would esul in addi ional 36 ca ego ies o desc ip ion. An in e es ing opic o u u e esea ch would also be o analyse whe he p o essional ansla o s would concep ualize he phenomenon di e en ly han ansla ion s uden s would. Fu he esea ch could also in es iga e how ansla o s concep ualize wo d–image in e ac ion in o he illus a ed ex ypes, o ins ance in child en’s pic u e books. ■ Re e ences Åke lind, G. S. (2005). Va ia ion and commonali y in phenomenog aphic esea ch me hods. Highe Educa ion Resea ch and De elopmen , 24(4), 321–334. doi:10.1080/ 07294360500284672 By ne, J. (2012). Scien i ic and echnical ansla ion explained. Manches e : S . Je ome Publishing. Conno s, S. P. (2013). Wea ing mul imodal meaning in a g aphic no el eading g oup. 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