Global Climate Policies, Local Institutions and Food Security in a Pastoral Society in Ethiopia

Consilience: The Jou nal o Sus ainable De elopmen Vol. 5, Iss. 1 (2011), Pp. 96-118 Global Clima e Policies, Local Ins i u ions and Food Secu i y in a Pas o al Socie y in E hiopia Pekka Vi anen, PhD Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland [email p o ec ed] Ee o Palmujoki, PhD Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland De eje Te e e Gemechu, PhD Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland Abs ac This pape explo es clima e change adap a ion wi hin na ional policy p io i ies in a leas de eloped coun y (LDC). The p emise o he a icle is ha when conside ing ood secu i y, clima e is an exogenous igge , while he deepe causes lie in social p oblems. The e o e, adap a ion is subo dina e o po e y alle ia ion. The pape examines how hese wo goals, clima e adap a ion and po e y alle ia ion, can be combined. Recen s udies ha e shown ha he mos e ec i e way o adap o changing clima e condi ions in a poo coun y is o ely on local ins i u ions ha ha e es ablished sus ainable mechanisms o deal wi h ex eme clima ic condi ions. This esea ch analyzes he s akeholde model, which calls o he pa icipa ion o bo h go e nmen al and non-go e nmen al ins i u ions, and how i is applied o clima e change adap a ion ac i i ies in E hiopia. The s udy includes ield esea ch o analyze how local ins i u ions a e used o s eng hen he esilience o communi ies in changing clima e condi ions. This esea ch was ca ied ou among pas o al communi ies in he Bo ana Zone and in he lowland a eas o he Guji Zone in he O omia Regional S a e o E hiopia. The cen al me hods o he s udy a e semi- s uc u ed in e iews wi h key s akeholde s as well as seconda y ma e ials in he o m o o policy s a emen s, p ojec documen s and esea ch li e a u e. This esea ch concludes ha local ins i u ions a e poo ly in eg a ed in o he p ocess, while adi ional adap a ion s a egies such as mobili y a e p ac ically neglec ed. Keywo ds: LDC, s akeholde model, clima e adap a ion, po e y alle ia ion. 1. In oduc ion This esea ch explo es how global clima e policies a e a icula ed wi hin na ional policy p io i ies in E hiopia, which sha es many common ea u es wi h o he leas de eloped coun ies (LDCs) in A ica. The ocus o he s udy is on pas o al communi ies, which ha e been ad e sely a ec ed by clima e change, which is gene ally expec ed o hi de eloping coun ies ha de han indus ialized coun ies. Consilience Vi anen: Global Clima e This esul s since LDCs a e less capable o mi iga ing o adap ing o clima ic changes due o po e y and high dependence on he en i onmen o subsis ence (UNDP, 2007). Recen esea ch indica es, howe e , ha in mos cases o li elihood ailu e, clima e is an exogenous igge , while he deepe causes lie in social p oblems. The ex en o he impac o clima e change is de e mined by bo h he dependency o a na ional economy on clima e-sensi i e na u al esou ces as well as he obus ness o esilience o i s social ins i u ions o secu e an equi able dis ibu ion in he ace o such change (Ba ne and Adge , 2007). Adap a ion o clima e change can be conside ed success ul i i educes he ulne abili y o poo popula ions o exis ing clima e a iabili y while also s eng hening hei po en ial o an icipa e and eac o u he changes (IGAD, 2007; UNDP, 2007). In E hiopia, pas o alism p o ides he main li elihood o close o 15 million people sp ead ac oss se en egions o he coun y. A ec ed by unp edic able clima ic condi ions, ecu en con lic s and a gene ally inhospi able en i onmen , he pas o alis s a e among he poo es o he poo in e ms o disposable income, access o social se ices and gene al wel a e. Human de elopmen indica o s and po e y a es among pas o alis s a e uni o mly wo se han non-pas o alis s in E hiopia. Heal h co e age is spa se, wi h only 10 pe cen o he popula ion immunized and mo e han 90 pe cen li ing in mala ia-in es ed a eas. In e ms o educa ion, bo h p ima y and seconda y le els o en olmen emain a 20 pe cen and h ee pe cen , espec i ely (Bekele, 2008; MoFED, 2006). The up edic able clima e, coupled wi h low le els o human de elopmen , mean ha he expec ed e ec s o clima e change a e likely o exace ba e he p oblems o de elopmen in pas o al egions. These e ec s include inc easing empe a u es, a shi in ain all pa e ns and dis ibu ion, as well as inc eased equency o ex eme wea he e en s such as d ough s and loods (Ande son e al., 2009; Nasse e al., 2009). The local pas o alis s ha e hi he o been able o cope wi h ecu en d ough s h ough he esilience o hei adi ional li elihood sys em, bu p esen ly ma ked signs o c isis a e isible. The pas o al modes o sus enance a e unde excessi e – la gely ex e nally c ea ed – p essu e, and he numbe o people d opping ou o he pas o al sys em has inc eased conside ably (Pan uliano and Wekesa, 2008; Tache and Oba, 2008). In global clima e policies, as de ined in in e na ional ea ies, de eloped coun ies play he main ole in clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion. Beyond me ely limi ing hei own g eenhouse gas emissions, he de eloped coun ies ha e o assis de eloping coun ies in adap ing o he a iable clima e condi ions. Conce ning he la e , howe e , he ques ion o adap a ion is subo dina e o po e y alle ia ion. Recen s udies ha e shown ha he mos e ec i e way o adap ing o changing clima e condi ions in a poo coun y is o ely on local ins i u ions, which ha e well- es ablished and sus ainable mechanisms o deal wi h ex eme clima e condi ions (Ag awal, 2008). In o de o alloca e assis ance a he local le el o local ins i u ions, he adi ional dono - ecipien go e nmen model, e med he “sha eholde ” model, seems inapp op ia e. The e o e, he dono communi y is sugges ing ha a s akeholde model based on b oad pa icipa ion eplace he sha eholde model o go e nance in clima e change adap a ion. This pape analyzes how dono s, he E hiopian go e nmen and non-s a e ac o s (including he pas o alis s) ha e p epa ed o ca y ou ac i i ies ele an o clima e adap a ion. The esea ch does no explo e global and na ional in e aces and hei ole in adap a ion (i.e. how global ideas and no ms a e adop ed in E hiopia), bu 98 Consilience a he he p epa edness o na ional and local ins i u ions o ackle hese issues. This calls o an unde s anding o he iewpoin s o local s akeholde s, especially he poo es g oups. The s udy he e o e includes ield esea ch o examine how local ins i u ions a e used o s eng hen he esilience o communi y adap ion o changing clima e condi ions. The ield s udy was ca ied ou among pas o al and semi-pas o al communi ies in he Bo ana Zone and in he lowland a eas o he Guji Zone in he O omia Regional S a e. The s udy is based on semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h key s akeholde s and seconda y ma e ial consis ing o policy and p ojec documen s and esea ch li e a u e. Al oge he 64 pe sons we e in e iewed, including ep esen a i es o he go e nmen o E hiopia a he ede al, egional and local le els (27 in e iews), ep esen a i es o bo h na ional and in e na ional NGOs and academic ins i u ions (19), bila e al and mul ila e al dono s (9) and local p ojec bene icia ies (9).1 In e iews we e in he o ma o open-ended in o mal discussions guided by a b ie se o ques ions and ook place in Addis Ababa (41 in e iews) and in he ield s udy a ea (23). Ele en in e iewees we e women. The in e iews we e ca ied ou in English o in a local language (A aan O omoo o Amha ic) be ween Ap il and Oc obe 2009. In he ield s udy a ea he esea che s also isi ed six small- and medium-scale wa e p ojec s, which we e he si es o he bene icia y in e iews. 2. Food Secu i y and Ways o Adap a ion Cu en es ima es indica e ha he g ea es losses in sui able c opland due o clima e change a e likely o be in sub-Saha an A ica. The egion‟s dependence on ain- ed ag icul u e means ha p oduc ion is ulne able o clima ic a iabili y, which can ad e sely a ec ood secu i y, human well-being and expo s (Schmidhube and Tubiello, 2007). Jus a single clima e disas e is capable o s agna ing o e en e e sing he economic g ow h achie ed o e a decade. In he a id, semi-a id and d y sub-humid egions o A ica he si ua ion is u he complica ed by inc easing dese i ica ion (Cline, 2007; IGAD, 2007). The e o e, he poo es and mos ood- insecu e con inen is also expec ed o su e he mos se ious con ac ion in ag icul u al incomes, es ima ed o ange om wo o eigh pe cen o he ag icul u al GDP (Schmidhube and Tubiello, 2007). Acco ding o A un Ag awal and Nicolas Pe in, he mos impo an impac s o clima e change on u al li elihoods include inc eases in en i onmen al isks, educ ion in li elihood oppo uni ies and s esses on exis ing social ins i u ions (2009, p. 354-55). The basic adap a ion s a egies can be classi ied in o a se o ou analy ical ypes: mobili y, s o age, di e si ica ion and communal pooling. Howe e , ma ke -based exchange can subs i u e o any o he abo e adap a ion s a egies. When adop ed, hese esponses can educe spa ial, empo al, asse - ela ed and/o communi y-le el isks di ec ly, o minimize hem by pooling unco ela ed isks associa ed wi h di e en li elihoods. The p ospec s o adap a ion p ac ices depend on ins i u ional a angemen s: he p opensi y o indi idual households o adop 1 When used as e e ence, he ca ego ies o in e iewees will be iden i ied by A o go e nmen s a , B o ci il socie y o ganiza ions, C o dono o ganiza ions, and D o local bene icia ies. Consilience Vi anen: Global Clima e speci ic p ac ices depends on hei social and economic endowmen s, social ne wo ks and access o esou ces and powe . The e ec i eness o adap a ion can also be enhanced by ex e nal in e en ions and local collec i e ac ion. In his s udy he abo e classi ica ion (summa ized in Table 1) is used as a amewo k o analysing he adap a ion p ac ices adop ed in E hiopia. Success ul adap a ion o clima e change is a highly con ex -dependen p ocess, and E hiopia is cha ac e ised by pa icula ly high a iabili y in e ms o clima e, physical geog aphy and popula ion (IGAD, 2007). As obse ed by he FAO (2003), an impo an in a-coun y gap exis s in cu en analyses o ood insecu i y. The FAO ends o ocus on he na ional le el o he indi idual le el, based on calcula ions o a e ages de i ed as a ios o na ional agg ega es o na ional su ey es ima es. Impo an ends may no , howe e , be ully e iden a he na ional le el, emphasising he need o complemen a y analyses a di e en sub-na ional le els. This concep ion has also been con i med by ecen s udies on clima e change and ood secu i y, which show ha while mac o-le el ulne abili y and impac assessmen s can be bene icial, mo e de ailed analysis is ul ima ely needed on he egional and local le el. This is especially ue among he mos ulne able popula ions, as o allow e ec i e p o-poo a ge ing (Tho n on e al., 2009). Such s udies will also acili a e lea ning om exis ing local and/o indigenous mechanisms o coping wi h di icul clima ic condi ions and ecu en clima e shocks (De e eux and Sha p, 2006). 3. Clima e Change, Ins i u ions and Pa icipa ion In adap ing o he a iable condi ions o clima e change, ins i u ional de elopmen is c i ical. Simila ly, he e ec o inc easing clima ic ola ili y and en i onmen al deg ada ion on ood secu i y is ansmi ed h ough ins i u ions ha shape he ules and igh s o esou ce use. Ins i u ions a e o en o e lapping, and ope a e on a ious scales, exace ba ing o alle ia ing he ad e se e ec s o clima e change, whe he di ec ly o indi ec ly (Ba ne and Adge , 2007). The e o e, i is c i ically impo an o be e unde s and he ole o ins i u ions, i adap a ion is o help he mos ulne able social g oups, as is equi ed by he cu en emphasis on po e y alle ia ion (Ag awal and Pe in, 2009). Howe e , while he adap a ion p ocess is p edominan ly local, i s e ec i eness depends on bo h local and ex a- local ins i u ions h ough which incen i es o indi idual and collec i e ac ion a e s uc u ed. This is because “ins i u ional a angemen s s uc u e isks and sensi i i y o clima e haza ds, acili a e o impede indi idual and collec i e esponses, and shape he ou comes o such esponses” (Ag awal 2008, p. 8). Di e en adap a ion p ac ises se di e en equi emen s o go e nance. Mobili y in adi ional socie y is ealised h ough pas o alism, bu in a cen alised s a e sys em i may mean o ced mig a ion o wage labou mig a ion, i such economic oppo uni ies exis . To a oid coe ci e measu es o mig a ion in he p esen con ex , lexible ins i u ions ha espec he iewpoin s o local popula ion a e necessa y. The ins i u ions o a cen alised s a e ha e be e possibili ies o in as uc u e s a egies aimed a po e y alle ia ion h ough economic g ow h wi h mul ipu pose adap a ion p ac ices o s o age, di e si ica ion and communal pooling. Acco ding o neolibe al policies, 100 Consilience hese de elopmen s a egies may lead o de eloped ma ke s, which a e expec ed o be a cen al mechanism o dealing wi h adap a ion (Ag awal and Pe in, 2009). The deba e on he in e -linkage be ween clima e change and de elopmen has b ough new dimensions and colo s o he policies o in e na ional o ganiza ions and o issues o go e nance. The cons an ailings o de eloping coun ies in hei a emp s o ollow neolibe al economic policies ha e illus a ed ha ma ke -based sys ems do no unc ion adequa ely wi hou i mly es ablished ins i u ions and egula i e sys ems (Lumley, 1999). The in e na ional o ganiza ions add ess he ailings o he neolibe al model in de elopmen by in oducing poli ico-economic concep s and models o go e nance, such as he mul i-s akeholde (MSH) model. The MSH model is an economic-manage ial model o b oade ci il socie y pa icipa ion in go e nance (Hemma i, 2002). The MSH amewo k in he de elopmen indus y con ains all he main ypes o ac o s: s a es, in e na ional o ganiza ions, businesses, and global o local CSOs. Following he es ablished language, he shi om he dono - ecipien model sugges s a mo e “ om a sha eholde model, in which inancial con ibu o s (dono s) la gely domina ed, o a s akeholde model, in which he ep esen a i es o he a ec ed pa ies – de eloping coun ies, NGOs, ci il socie y o ganiza ions, p i a e sec o bodies – also play a ole in decision making” (Wo ld Bank, 2006, p. 13). In he LDC con ex , he c ucial ques ion is o wha ex en non-s a e playe s and local ins i u ions a e in ol ed in adap a ion ac i i ies. Like mos A ican coun ies, E hiopia has a long his o y o eligious and ci il socie y o ganisa ions (CSOs), including local sa ings g oups, mu ual sel -help g oups and e hnic-based o egional de elopmen associa ions. Such g oups p o ide suppo du ing imes o s ess and social e en s such as dea h o ma iage (Be hanu, 2002). Since a de as a ing amine in 1972-73, he numbe o in e na ional non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (INGOs) has inc eased signi ican ly, and hey ha e become one o he main ood elie and public se ice p o ide s (Lau ze e al., 2009). Cu en ly, he E hiopian Minis y o Fo eign A ai s men ions 14 INGOs ha a e c ucial public se ice p o ide s in elie and de elopmen ac i i ies. Due o he dec ease in eme gency elie , he go e nmen has also sugges ed ha INGOs pa icipa e in heal h, educa ion, ood secu i y and wa e supply p o ision unde close go e nmen guidance (MFA, 2009). While he INGO p esence in E hiopia is s ill ela i ely small conside ing he popula ion size and he ex en o po e y and ood insecu i y, he cu en ede al go e nmen has aken s eps o limi he scope o ope a ion o he CSOs and especially he INGOs. Despi e s ong and epea ed c i ical s a emen s and appeals by bo h CSOs and dono s highligh ed in he in e iews, in 2009 he go e nmen app o ed a new CSO law ha bans domes ic NGOs om ecei ing mo e han 10 pe cen o hei income om o eign sou ces. O he wise hey a e conside ed „ o eign o ganiza ions,‟ and, like INGOs, a e no allowed o pa icipa e in any ac i i y deemed poli ical by he go e nmen . Due o he ex emely wide ange o issues (bu excluding he en i onmen ) included unde his de ini ion, including any hing om women's igh s o democ a isa ion, he new law is especially p oblema ic o he la ge numbe o NGOs. This includes mos NGOs wo king wi h pas o alis s, which ha e adop ed igh s-based app oaches and engaged in ad ocacy wo k. By equa ing policy ad ocacy wi h poli ics, he go e nmen seeks o con ine NGO ac i i y s ic ly o se ice deli e y unde i s supe ision. The ew na ional NGOs wi h su icien means Consilience Vi anen: Global Clima e Table 1. Majo Classes o Adap a ion P ac ices (Ag awal & Pe in, 2009, p. 358). o independen ac ion a e in ima ely linked o he uling coali ion (In e iews, B and C, c . Lau ze e al., 2009). 4. In e na ional Suppo o Adap a ion: The NAPA in E hiopia The Global En i onmen al Facili y (GEF), which is he main unding mechanism o clima e change ac i i ies, ope a es wi h di e en unding ins umen s o suppo clima e change mi iga ion and/o adap a ion in de eloping coun ies. The Leas De eloped Coun ies Fund (LDCF), which is he main channel o suppo ing adap a ion, has ela i ely limi ed asse s o USD 172 million (DESA, 2009). The e is conside able c i icism, mainly om de eloping coun ies and INGOs, wi h espec o he GEF unds in e ms o adequacy and accessibili y. The asse s o he LDCF a e ba ely su icien o na ional planning. Ano he p oblem ela es o he addi ionali y c i e ia: he LDCF‟s asse s a e in ended o building esilience o change in a na ow sense, as dis inc om mo e gene al clima ic a iabili y. In conc e e p ojec s i has p o ed pa icula ly di icul o dis inguish he adap a ion componen ( o be unded om UNFCCC sou ces) om mo e gene al esilience building and de elopmen ac i i ies ( o be unded om go e nmen budge s and/o ODA). Wi h a e y low unding capaci y o i s own, he o e o und only he adap a ion pa becomes u ile unless o he ex e nal sou ces can be iden i ied (Aye s and Huq, 2009). Unde he LDCF, he p ojec s conce ned wi h adap a ion a e p omo ed by he Na ional Adap a ion P og ammes o Ac ion (NAPA), which he LDCs in oduced in o he UNFCCC p ocess in 2001. A majo sha e o adap a ion p ojec s ha e ocused on na u al esou ces- ela ed ac i i ies. Fo example, ag icul u e, o es y, wa e conse a ion, i iga ion, he de elopmen o in as uc u e, and disas e elie . Hence, hey unde line he de elopmen p io i ies o he LDCs (Ag awal and Pe in, 2009, pp. 363-364). The NAPA documen s emphasise a pa icipa o y p ocess in ol ing s akeholde s and local communi ies in he p epa a ion o NAPAs (Huq and Khan Class o adap a ion Co esponding s a egies Mobili y Pas o alism, wage labou mig a ion, in olun a y mig a ion S o age Wa e s o age, ood s o age (c ops, seeds, o es p oduc s), animal s o age, pes con ol Di e si ica ion Asse po olio di e si ica ion, skills and occupa ional di e si ica ion, skills and occupa ional aining, occupa ional di e si ica ion, c op choices, p oduc ion echnologies, consump ion choices, animal b eeding Communal pooling Fo es y, in as uc u e de elopmen , in o ma ion ga he ing, disas e p epa a ion Ma ke exchange Imp o ed ma ke access, insu ance p o ision, new p oduc sales, seeds, animal and o he inpu pu chases 102 Consilience 2009, pp. 192-195). Howe e , in con as o ac ual ins ances o adap a ion epo ed o he UNFCCC, mos o he NAPA p ojec s appea o be gea ed o building he capaci y o na ional go e nmen s and agencies o coo dina e adap a ion, inc ease se ice p o isions, and c ea e in as uc u e, a he han o s eng hen local ac o s. Acco ding o a ecen s udy, local ins i u ions we e inco po a ed as he ocus o adap a ion p ojec s in only abou 20 pe cen o he p ojec s analysed. The e is also li le e idence o consul a ion and coo dina ion be ween local and na ional le els in he desc ip ion o he p ojec s selec ed, despi e he equi emen o widesp ead consul a ions as a key pa o he p oduc ion o NAPA documen s (Ag awal, 2008). In E hiopia, mos o he 11 p ojec s selec ed o high-p io i y s a us a e empha ically s a e-cen ic. Only in h ee p ojec plans a e non-s a e ac o s, such as CBOs, NGOs, o wa e use s‟ associa ions, men ioned. In h ee o he s he na u e o he p ojec in ol es he possibili y o he pa icipa ion o non-s a e ac o s (p ojec le el and in he con en o he p ojec , i.e., ma ke s, en i onmen al conse a ion/ ehabili a ion, e c.). Despi e he NAPA guidelines‟ emphasis on ci il socie y pa icipa ion in he p og amme, he e is only one NGO ep esen a i e among he 10 ins i u ions ep esen ed in he E hiopian NAPA S ee ing Commi ee. In all 11 p ojec s a ede al minis y o o he ede al agency is indica ed as he lead ins i u ion.2 The high-p io i y p ojec s3 ocus on he ood secu i y, wa e esou ces, in as uc u e, heal h ecosys ems and insu ance sec o s. The dis ibu ion is a he simila o he gene al p o ile o NAPA high-p io i y p ojec s elsewhe e (Ag awal, 2008, pp. 43-44). Howe e , ou p ojec s ocusing on he h ee i s -men ioned sec o s amoun o 738 million USD, o 96 pe cen o he o al in es men s es ima ed a 770 million USD. In ac , one p ojec designed o he sou he n pas o al and ag o- pas o al egion, „Realizing ood secu i y h ough a mul i-pu pose la ge-scale wa e de elopmen p ojec in he Genale-Dawa Basin,‟ co e s 91 pe cen o all unds budge ed o he E hiopian NAPA p ojec s, wi h a o al budge o 700 million USD (UNFCCC; Tadege, 2007). The Genale-Dawa unde aking, which can be conside ed he lagship, is a la ge-scale in as uc u e p ojec combining he de elopmen o hyd opowe , i iga ion, wa e supply/sani a ion and he upg ading o u al oads. I ep esen s b oad economic and social goals o e a ime-span o 30 yea s (Tadege, 2007). The p ojec is clea ly no a p oduc o s akeholde discussion and pa icipa o y planning, bu a he e lec s b oad go e nmen -de ined economic goals which emphasise expo -o ien ed ag icul u al p oduc ion (see e.g. S okes e al., p. 127-128). Al hough i is linked wi h he NAPA p ocess, i s oo s in he Genale-Dawa Ri e basin in eg a ed de elopmen mas e plan (MoWR, 2007) gi e i a high posi ion in o e all E hiopian de elopmen policies independen ly o he NAPA linkage. Few o he 2 I was no possible o cla i y he ole o he local communi ies and CSOs in he NAPA p epa a ion and app aisal p ocess, as he lis s o pa icipan s a ailable only include s a om ede al ins i u ions. Leading NAPA ep esen a i es main ain ha ideas and sugges ions om he bene icia ies we e ansmi ed adequa ely h ough he consul a ion wo kshops, bu his canno be e i ied om independen sou ces (in e iews). 3 The high-p io i y p ojec s we e selec ed om a g oup o 37 p ojec op ions wi h a o al cos o abou USD 874 million (Tadege, 2007). Consilience Vi anen: Global Clima e au ho i ies in e iewed on he Genale-Dawa p ojec e en acknowledged ha i is pa o he clima e change adap a ion amewo k suppo ed by he UNFCCC (in e iews, A). The ieldwo k and he in e iews p o ed he almos o al in isibili y o he NAPA p ojec s in E hiopia. Some o he majo ba ie s o adap a ion gains lis ed in he na ional NAPA documen include a lack o s ong coo dina ion mechanisms, inadequacy o c oss-sec o al links, inadequa e exchange be ween he coo dina ing ins i u ion ( he Na ional Me eo ology Agency, NMA) and plan implemen e s, and a gene al lack o capaci y. These a e exac ly he same p oblems ha seem o cha ac e ize he cu en si ua ion. One o he au ho s o his epo isi ed all i e ede al minis ies o agencies selec ed as lead ins i u ions o he 11 p ojec s, and i u ned ou o be ex emely di icul o ind anybody who was e en awa e o he NAPA p ojec s.4 Any addi ional in o ma ion beyond he b ie desc ip ions included in he NAPA documen was almos impossible o ge a hold o . This is mos ly because he p ojec s a e cu en ly no being implemen ed o a e no e en close o he implemen a ion phase. In some cases (such as he Genale-Dawa p ojec ), he eam was gi en access o a pa allel p ojec documen unde a di e en heading. The o e all conclusion om his wo k is ha he NAPA p ojec s a e an ex emely low p io i y wi hin he go e nmen , and ha e been p ac ically shel ed. The unding a ailable om UNFCCC does no allow o hei implemen a ion a he p esen ime (in e iews, A and C). The e appea s o ha e been no se ious a emp o c ea e go e nance based on he s akeholde model o clima e change adap a ion in E hiopia. P oo o au hen ic g ass oo s consul a ions is lacking, as he NAPA documen is mo e a p oduc o he ede al de elopmen au ho i ies han o clima e change eali ies el on he g ound. In eg a ion o non-s a e ac o s has been minimal bo h on he le el o p og am p epa a ion and in p ojec plans. As such, he ocus is on capaci y building o go e nmen ins i u ions and in es men in la ge-scale p ojec s imposed om abo e by go e nmen echnoc a s. While go e nmen au ho i ies blame he ailu e o elease suppo unding h ough he UNFCCC, an equally impo an eason seems o be a low le el o na ional commi men . A p esen , he NMA possess nei he he ins i u ional au ho i y no he capaci y o moni o egional and local clima e change in e en ions o e en o epo and analyze he expe iences gained (in e iews, A; c . Aye s and Huq, 2009; B ockhaus and Kambi é, 2009). The p ocess is no only s a e- cen ic, bu mo eo e almos o ally s agnan . 4 I appea s ha mos „lead ins i u ions‟ expec ed o be he o e unne s o he p ocess ha e no accessed and a e no amilia wi h he NAPA documen . The e is a plan o p in 3000 ha d copies o he documen o be deli e ed o he ele an ins i u ions in la e 2009, i.e., wo yea s a e i was submi ed o UNFCCC. I would hus appea ha NAPA has la gely emained a sec e o he S ee ing Commi ee and a ew NMA s a (in e iews). A simila si ua ion has been epo ed om some o he A ican coun ies (see, e.g., B ockhaus and Kambi é, 2009). 104 Consilience 5. Adap a ion and Pa icipa ion on he Na ional Le el: The Na ional Food Secu i y P og am In an e o o imp o e go e nance in he con ex o he con inued ulne abili y agg a a ed by clima e change, he E hiopian go e nmen has sough o ag ee wi h he o he key ac o s (mos ly dono s, bu also he p i a e sec o and CSOs) on a common app oach o ood secu i y. These we e eco ded in he 2002 Food Secu i y P og amme (FSP) de eloped wi hin he amewo k o he na ional po e y educ ion/de elopmen plan. The co e objec i es o he p og am e lec he esul s o a s uc u al analysis: he i s objec i e is o enable he 8.3 million ch onically ood-insecu e E hiopians o a ain ood secu i y wi hin a i e-yea pe iod, and he second is o imp o e signi ican ly he ood secu i y si ua ion o he emaining 6.7 million ci izens acing ansi o y ood insecu i y (MoFED, 2006). The mos impo an elemen in he FSP is a P oduc i e Sa e y Ne P og amme (PSNP), which is he la ges social p o ec ion scheme on he con inen ou side o Sou h A ica. I commenced in 2005, and has wo componen s: labo - in ensi e public wo ks and di ec suppo o labo -poo households. The majo i y o bene icia ies a e equi ed o con ibu e labo o public wo ks, while a u he se o c i e ia a e applied o iden i y hose who quali y o sa e y ne suppo bu a e no equi ed o pa icipa e in public wo ks. Paymen s o bo h g oups o bene icia ies a e p o ided in cash o ood, and in heo y each household membe is en i led o i e days paid wo k pe mon h (MoFED, 2006; Nega u, 2009). The p og am‟s a ge g oup consis s o people acing p edic able ood insecu i y as a esul o po e y a he han empo a y shocks (UNDP, 2007). As he go e nmen ecognizes ha small ans e s o cash o ood a e likely o be consumed a he han in es ed, ood secu i y and li elihood p omo ion a e o be achie ed p ima ily h ough linkages wi h o he modes o suppo , especially household ex ension packages in ended o gene a e complemen a y s eams o income. The asse s cons uc ed by he public wo ks ac i i ies will, on he o he hand, con ibu e o c ea ing a a ou able en i onmen o ma ke p oduc ion a he han di ec income gene a ion (De e eux and Guen he , 2009). Mos o he ypical public wo ks ac i i ies a e designed o clima e change adap a ion. Imp o ing access o d inking and i iga ion wa e is impo an o s o age, while land p oduc i i y imp o emen , soil e ili y es o a ion ac i i ies, and inc easing odde a ailabili y a e ele an o bo h s o age and di e si ica ion. Communal land conse a ion measu es, e- o es a ion, and imp o emen o school and heal h acili ies a e some o he ypical communal pooling ac i i ies. Finally, ma ke exchange can be imp o ed h ough cons uc ion and/o ehabili a ion o oads, b idges, ma ke ya ds, s o age and s ock ou es. I is in e es ing o no e ha none o he ypical public wo ks ac i i ies highligh ed in he implemen a ion manual add ess he issue o mobili y (MoARD, 2006; c . Ag awal and Pe in, 2009, pp. 357- 359). The ela i ely e ec i e implemen a ion o he PSNP is based on s ong go e nmen owne ship a he ede al and egional le el, and coo dina ion be ween he key dono s (B own and Teshome, 2007). The complex ins i u ional se -up c ea es conside able p essu e o e icien collabo a ion be ween e y di e en ypes o ins i u ions. In heo y, he mix o communi y and adminis a i e a ge ing used in Consilience Vi anen: Global Clima e a ea, a numbe o households li ing in pe i-u ban a eas indica ed ha hei membe s pa icipa e o a e willing o pa icipa e in u ban labo mig a ion. The mig an s a e mos ly young people om poo households who seek unskilled employmen in small u al owns in he egion o in Kenya, whe e his mobili y op ion is well es ablished. The esponden s we e, howe e , awa e ha unskilled labo is no a iable solu ion o he coming li elihood c isis (Tache and Oba, 2008). As a long- e m s a egy, hey inc easingly see he educa ion o hei child en as an in es men o he u u e (in e iews, B and D). The e a e some signs ha ep esen a ion o he di e en pas o al g oups in consul a i e and policy o mula ion ins i u ions has become s onge and be e o ganized (in e iews, A, B and D). Some esea che s and NGO s a ha e epo ed a good wo king ela ionship be ween local go e nmen and indigenous ins i u ions (Ande son e al., 2009; Mui , 2007), e en hough o he s e e o deep dis us and some imes e en open con lic (Homann e al., 2004; Tache and Oba, 2008; Tache and Sjaas ad, 2008). A ew NGOs egula ly in ol e bo h local go e nmen (a wa d le el) and adi ional ins i u ions in hei pa icipa o y esou ce managemen p ojec s in o es y, angeland and wa e de elopmen (in e iews, B). Some o hese ha e epo ed conc e e esul s in pa icula a eas o ope a ion; o example, p e en ing o es i es, disman ling p i a e enclosu es o e-in oducing con olled ange bu ning (Geb u e al., 2007; Mui , 2007). In he hal -dozen small-scale wa e p ojec s isi ed by wo o he au ho s, he e appea ed o be ela i ely good collabo a ion be ween indigenous managemen ins i u ions and local s a e au ho i ies in he echnically simple ea h dams and ponds in ended o domes ic use and small s ock, as well as he ehabili a ed adi ional deep well. In he sligh ly mo e complica ed ea h dam cons uc ed o i iga ion pu poses (which he eam also isi ed), he bluep in managemen s uc u e imposed by he Minis y on all ag icul u al p oduc ion coope a i es seemed, howe e , o be expe iencing se ious p oblems only a yea a e he NGO suppo ing he p ojec had wi hd awn (in e iews, A, B and D). The indings suppo he iew ha suppo should be di ec ed o imp o emen o small-scale ain- ed wa e schemes using ela i ely simple echnologies ins ead o la ge-scale i iga ion o expo c ops, which d aw land and economic esou ces om ood p oduc ion (S okes e al. 2010, p. 127-128). Despi e explici public commi men o s eng hen collabo a ion be ween adi ional ins i u ions and ele an s a e o gans, he op-down adminis a i e cul u e emains p e alen wi hin s a e adminis a ion (in e iews, A and B). In mos cases, he en husiasm o popula pa icipa ion and s eng hening o local ins i u ions, shown by in e na ional NGOs and o he key ac o s including he go e nmen , has ailed o c ea e e icien ela ionships o coope a ion. Many o hose NGOs ha we e ini ially commi ed o wo k wi h adi ional ins i u ions ha e e e ed o o mal go e nmen pa ne s, a leas in some cases unde di ec p essu e om go e nmen au ho i ies. Ou side s mos ly make de elopmen in e en ions on behal o pas o alis s, and so-called consul a ions wi h local ep esen a i es a e in many cases e en s o op-down in o ma ion dissemina ion wi h no eal powe s con e ed on local pa icipan s (Helland, 2001; Wa son, 2003). The ailu e o in ol e all key ac o s and es ablish a poli ical space whe e hey can pa icipa e in a meaning ul way is pa ly due o he unequal ela ionship be ween he pas o alis s and he s a e au ho i ies. The la e con inue o claim hegemony and exclusi e ju isdic ion in he s udy a ea a he expense o indigenous ins i u ions. 112 Consilience Despi e he go e nmen 's sel - eliance he o ic, dis ibu ion h ough ood- o -wo k has ans e ed esponsibili y om he indigenous ins i u ions o he ood aid o ganisa ions, which a e no in p ac ice accoun able o he bene icia ies (in e iews, A and B; c . Homann e al., 2004; Pan uliano and Wekesa, 2008). Go e nmen (and/o NGO) pa onage – ollowing he dono - ecipien model - has hus become he dominan ins i u ion o adap a ion o en i onmen al s ess o ulne able pas o alis s. The issue is ha he p ocess c ea es e en mo e ulne abili y in making des i u ion and powe lessness he key c i e ia o accessing c ucial subsis ence esou ces. 7. Conclusion The gene al idea ha adap a ion o clima e change will ake place on he local le el is well es ablished in he in e na ional communi y. Simila ly, in e na ional o ganisa ions and dono s sugges b oad pa icipa ion o ci il socie y in he p ojec s ela ed o adap a ion. The s eng hening o local ins i u ions, ci il socie y, and p i a e ac o s is expec ed o inc ease he capaci y o ca y ou adap a ion ela ed ac i i ies, bo h adi ional and mode n, such as mobili y and ma ke -based p ac ices. Howe e , in LDCs such as E hiopia, which a e cha ac e ised by high incidences o po e y and a low le el o ood secu i y, adap a ion o clima e change is seldom a poli ical p io i y. The key objec i es o he poli ical leade ship a e a he economic g ow h and main enance o a secu e g ip on poli ical powe . I is, he e o e, no su p ising ha he in e iews show ha he owne ship o E hiopia's NAPA is a he weak. The mos dis u bing aspec o he p ac ically pa alyzed p og am is he low le el o ci il socie y and p i a e sec o pa icipa ion in bo h p epa a ion and en isaged implemen a ion o he selec ed high-p io i y p ojec s, which - un o una ely - is no pa icula o E hiopia. In p ac ice, he go e nmen is ackling clima e change adap a ion h ough na ional ini ia i es such as he FSP. In his p og am, he condi ions o pa icipa ion a e somewha be e han in he NAPA p ocess, and a leas o mally he p ocedu al aspec s a e mo e compa ible wi h he MSH model. The FSP enjoys s ong go e nmen owne ship a he ede al and egional le el and ela i ely good coo dina ion be ween he key dono s, bu su e s om unequal ep esen a ion o ci il socie y on he lowe adminis a i e le els. In p ac ice he p og am, and pa icula ly he asse s cons uc ed by he public wo ks ac i i ies unde he sa e y ne componen , ep esen he majo local le el con ibu ion owa ds clima e adap a ion in many u al a eas. The weak and essen ially subo dina e ole gi en o local CSOs, and e en ep esen a i es o decen alised s a e adminis a ion, is pa icula ly e iden in pe iphe al pas o al a eas such as Bo ana and Guji. In hese egions, local ins i u ions a e eage ly cou ed o poli ical suppo be o e elec ions, bu o he wise mos ly neglec ed o used as channels o acili a e p ojec implemen a ion wi h only ma ginal oles in planning and moni o ing. The go e nmen ‟s economic policies, which ely on in es men in medium and la ge-scale i iga ion p ojec s o p oduce expo c ops, exace ba e he p oblem. While he expec ed inc ease in he na ional GDP can heo e ically be used o buy ood om ab oad, e idence shows ha he esul ing dis ibu ion p oblems a e e y di icul o sol e equi ably when adminis a i e Consilience Vi anen: Global Clima e capaci y is weak as in many LDCs, including E hiopia. A he same ime he cu en policy o ien a ion ein o ces he al eady se ious p oblem o dependency in he pas o al a eas. A key inding wi h espec o bo h NAPA and FSP is he insigni ican ole o local ins i u ions and knowledge in he o mal adap a ion s a egies, pa icula ly on he implemen a ion le el. This is a he wo ying in he LDC con ex , which is cha ac e ised by high dependency on ex e nal unding o public se ice deli e y and weak adminis a i e capaci y a lowe le els. Ins ead o building on he di e si y o local human and ma e ial esou ces, he p og ammes seek o ans o m local socie ies in o a homogeneous mass con ollable h ough i s dependency om he cen e. One example o his app oach is he s ong bias agains mobili y obse ed in bo h NAPA and FSP. None o he suppo ed in e en ions in he case s udy a ea ocus on s eng hening condi ions o mobili y e en hough i was iden i ied as a p io i y s a egy by bo h adi ional pas o alis s and hose sloughed o om he pas o al ne wo ks. 114 Consilience Bibliog aphy Ag awal, A. (2008). The ole o local ins i u ions in adap a ion o clima e change. 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