Disciplinary Struggles in Education

DISCIPLINARY STRUGGLES IN EDUCATION Edi ed by Anja Heikkinen Jenni Pä ä i Gab iele Molzbe ge DISCIPLINARY STRUGGLES IN EDUCATION DISCIPLINARY STRUGGLES IN EDUCATION Edi ed by Anja Heikkinen Jenni Pä ä i Gab iele Molzbe ge Layou Si pa Randell ISBN 978-952-359-003-8 (nid.) ISBN 978-952-359-002-1 (pd ) PunaMus a Oy – Yliopis opaino Tampe e 2019 This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial- NoDe i a i es 4.0 In e na ional License. Copy igh ©2019 Tampe e Uni e si y P ess and au ho s Con en s P e ace 9 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i, Gab iele Molzbe ge In oduc ion. The many meanings o disciplina y s uggles in educa ion 11 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge Sec ion 1 Discipline in Educa ion Con ol jus i ied. Discipline as mo al egula ion in adul educa ion 25 Leena Koski ‘How o cul i a e eedom h ough coe cion’. De ining discipline in ana chis educa ion 41 I an Zamo kin S uggles o iden i y. A Finnish uni e si y’s iden i y ansi ion in i s own policies a e e o m 61 Hen y Yuan Wang Sec ion 2 Jus i ica ion o Educa ional Knowledge Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy. Lessons om Finland 83 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde (Re) hinking he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex 117 Lais Oli ei a Lei e Thinking ou side he box. De-s uc u ing con inuing and highe educa ion 135 Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e Mul icul u alism in educa ion and poli ical philosophy 155 Ta na Kannis o Changing oca ional special needs educa ion. F om eache o de elope 173 Maija Hi onen & Raija Pi imaa Sec ion 3 Meanings and Func ions o Educa ion Ecological wisdom as a challenge o he philosophy o educa ion 195 Ka i Väy ynen How does phenomenological psychology con ibu e o cu en concep s o sus ainabili y in Ge many’s oca ional educa ion sys em? A b ie his o ical ou line and ema ks on cu en p oblems 215 Bu kha d Vollme s, We ne Kuhlmeie & Sö en Schü -Sayed Financing and ins i u ions as key elemen s o he u u e o adul educa ion. Disciplina y s uggles abou empi ical obse a ions 239 Lo enz Lassnigg & S e an Vog enhube Lis o con ibu o s 261 15 In oduc ion In he 21s cen u y, he shi o go e nance in educa ion show no dec ease in disciplina y impac s o educa ion ei he in pedagogical p ac ice, in science o in ins i u ional and p o essional se ings. A ound he wo ld, uni e si ies may be he mos s iking exemples o he disciplina y cha ac e o socie al ins i u ions and hei loss o au onomy. While an i-academis discou se has o long accompanied he success s o y o he expansion o uni e si ies (Engelmeie & Felsch, 2017), i also en o ces endencies o de-ins i u ionalize highe educa ion. These con adic ions and ambi alences by speaking abou und doing esea ch on discipline a e o be in es iga ed. The ca ego iza ion o he disciplina y s uggles in educa ion in o p ac ices, science and ins i u ions and p o essions, can all be p oblema ized om he pe spec i e o cul u al e olu ion, and i s cu en phase, con ibu ing o a geog aphical e a o he An h opocene. When he di e en meanings o educa ion a e placed in he wide con ex o socie al and en i onmen al change, he powe - c i ical amewo k o Foucaul ’s genealogy migh p o ide new ho izons. (Foucaul 1980a, b, 1995.) The majo shi s in he ‘plane a y o de ’, such as clima e change and des uc ion o he biosphe e, challenge he human- and socie y-cen ed ounda ion o all a eas o educa ional p ac ice and science. I can be ques ioned, whe he he human-cen e ed ixa ion o educa ion o ce ain disciplines – such as psychology, sociology, philosophy, and economics – has also con ibu ed o he cu en en i onmen al, economic and social c isis, which endange s he con inui y o human li e i sel . The e isioning o educa ion om a plane a y pe spec i e, which embeds humans and human eali ies in he wide exis en ial amewo k o human and nonhuman en i ies, migh lead in o subla ion o he dualis ic meanings o discipline in educa ion. Ins ead o u ning o b ain sciences and digi al echnology as solu ions o he human-c ea ed c ises, c oss-disciplina y ques ioning o he human-cen ed he i age o educa ion migh p omo e subla ion o he p e ious dicho omies and opposi ions o discipline and au onomy. The chap e s The book is di ided in o h ee sec ions. The disciplina y cha ac e o educa ion is discussed in he chap e s o he i s sec ion o he book. The chap e s in he Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge 16 second sec ion exempli y he jus i ica ion o educa ional knowledge in p ocesses o mu ual ansmission be ween heo y and p ac ice. The con ibu ions o he hi d sec ion p oblema ize he aims and unc ions o educa ional p ac ice and heo y, which a e c i ical o unde s anding he implica ions o disciplina y s uggles in educa ion o he u u e. Al hough he chap e s ocus on ce ain his o ical pe iods, o ms and con ex s o educa ion, hey p o ide insigh s, which a e use ul and ele an o a wide discussion in he eclec ic and di e se heo ies and p ac ices o educa ion. The i s sec ion Discipline in Educa ion discusses educa ion as a disciplina y ac i i y and p ac ice, a ge ing expec a ions o and applying indings om educa ional heo ies and esea ch. I begins wi h a chap e by Leena Koski, who p o ides a c i ique o he his o y o (popula ) adul educa ion in Finland in he con ex o p og ammes o na ion-building. She conside s adul educa ion as a disciplina y cons i uen in adap ing “common people” o he changing capi alis economy, u ilizing mo al egula ion based on Lu he an eligion. Acco ding o he au ho , mo al egula ion has been shaped o con ol social g oups o adjus in o he ans o ming e hos o capi alis economy. The nex chap e by I an Zamo kin poses ques ions o he eade abou al e na i es o he selec ion unc ion o mode n educa ional sys ems in me i oc a ic socie ies. He discusses ypical de ini ions o discipline in educa ion, cha ac e ized by submission o au ho i ies. He asks abou he possibili y o ana chis concep o discipline, which would enable educa ion as a ans o ma i e ac i i y. The chap e o Hen y-Yuan Wang analyses he shi in he sel -de ini ion o uni e si ies as educa ional ins i u ions, using as an example he b anding s a egies o Finnish uni e si ies since he e o m o 2010. Th ough a changing imagina y, he uni e si y is s ee ed om a collabo a i e, locally esponsible and socie ally ans o ma i e communi y owa ds a compe i i e, high s anda d and business-economic playe in he global highe educa ion ma ke s. In he sec ion Jus i ica ion o Educa ional Knowledge, discipline is conside ed as a media o in s uggles abou powe ul knowledge, ex ending also o de elopmen o ins i u ions and p o essions. The i s chap e by Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i and Sini Te äsahde analyses he his o y o disciplina isa ion o adul and oca ional educa ion in Finland, in ela ion o gene al educa ion. They ques ion he con en ional in e p e a ions abou he eme gence o disciplines and show how jus i ica ion o knowledge conce ning adul and oca ional educa ion 17 In oduc ion happens h ough nego ia ions and s uggles among ne wo ks o academic, poli ical and economic ac o s. In he nex chap e , Lais Oli ei a Lei e discusses he me hodological jus i ica ion o educa ional knowledge in he con ex o educa ional p ac ices in B azil. She p o ides a Foucauldian c i ique abou he sepa a ion o esea che and he objec o s udy in educa ional esea ch, a guing ha i hides he powe ela ions be ween hem and hei knowledge p oduc ion. In hei chap e , Ma kus Weil and Bal hasa Eugs e analyze he s uggle and discipline in he discou ses o de-s uc u ing o con inuing and highe educa ion. They ask, whe he he blu ing o bounda ies be ween academic esea ch and educa ion and p o essional p ac ices migh o e op ions o hinking ou o he box o bo h. The chap e o Ta na Kannis o p oblema ises he popula gene alizing no ions o ‘mul icul u al’ in educa ional heo y and p ac ice. Ra he implici ly she asks whe he cul u e is always a disciplining concep , based on he hegemony o ce ain cul u al g oups. She sugges s ha indi idualis concep ions o cul u e, building on libe al poli ical philosophy would p o ide mo e sound app oach o cul u ally di e se educa ional encoun e s. In he las chap e o his sec ion, Maija Hi onen and Raija Pi imaa show, based on a case s udy o expe ienced special educa ion eache s, how he changing compe ence equi emen s implied by oca ional educa ion e o ms ha e challenged hei p o essional expe ise and iden i y. Besides challenging he disciplina y basis o hei p o essionalism, hey seem o unde mine he meaning o he expe ien ial expe ise o eache s hemsel es. The hi d sec ion p oblema ises he p e ious disciplina y s uggles in ela ion o Meanings and Func ions o Educa ion. Educa ion as a science has de eloped in close connec ion o, i no ounded on he basis o ce ain o he disciplines. I can be asked, how hese connec ions ela e o he e hical, p ac ical and heo e ical po en ial o educa ion o add ess he mos i al challenges o i s e a. In he i s chap e , Ka i Väy ynen conside s dialec ical philosophy and ecological knowledge i al in de eloping app op ia e ounda ions o he p ac ice and heo y o educa ion, ins ead o such ashionable candida es as neu o-scien i ic, business- economic and digi al echnological heo ies and me hodologies. Libe a ion om hei disciplining echniques would equi e an al e na i e concep o discipline, as esponsibili y o econcilia ion be ween he eedoms o “spi i ” and “na u e”. The co e o educa ion should be his o ical unde s anding o human his o y and i s Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge 18 in e ac ion wi h he na u al en i onmen . In he nex chap e , Bu kha d Vollme s wi h his colleagues discusses he his o y and po en ial o phenomenological psychology in de eloping oca ional educa ion o sus ainabili y. They emphasise he need o conc e e didac ic solu ions, which ecognize he expe ien ial, expe imen al, emo ional and e hical aspec s o occupa ional g ow h. The inal chap e by Lo enz Lassnigg and S e an Vog enhübe c i izes he use o uni e salizing wel a e egime- o a ie ies o capi alism- app oaches in compa a i e esea ch on educa ion. Building on a conc e e s udy on di e ences in inancing adul educa ion, hey show he impo ance o con ex ual analysis o he powe - mechanisms in pa icipa ion and inancing, o comp ehension o he unde lying ac o s o he obse ed di e ences. The chap e cau ions agains he hegemony o economis app oaches also when s udying economic aspec s o educa ion c oss coun ies and cul u es. Concluding ema ks Educa ion and discipline ha e a a ie y o meanings in and be ween linguis ic and educa ional adi ions and ields, o which his book ocuses especially on adul , highe and oca ional educa ion. The uses o educa ional concep s and he meanings a ibu ed o hem a y wi h ime, place and ac o s and he concep s consis o a ious empo al and seman ic laye s acco ding o hei a ious his o ical ajec o ies, con es a ion be ween ela ed concep s and connec ion wi h socio-economic, ins i u ional, ideological, heo e ical and ecological change. The concep ual, p ac ical and ideological changes in educa ion ca y hei his o y wi h hem. Despi e educa ional goals like democ acy, social equali y and emancipa ion, mode n socie ies ha e no p og essed owa ds hese goals in linea bu s uggling wi h eme ging cons ain s. Fo ins ance, in he pu sui o na ional in eg i y o high na ional cul u e h ough educa ion, mino i ies end o ge excluded om he p ojec o he na ion-s a e (see Kananen, 2014). Following Reinha Koselleck (2011, 16), we belie e ha his o ical o his o icizing cla i ica ions including unde s anding he con ingency o his o ical change can lead o poli ical cla i y and ans o ma ion. 19 In oduc ion Despi e he wicked p oblems ha go beyond he depa men alized and sec ionalis o ganiza ion o disciplines, i con inues o go e n academic educa ion. Besides educa ional esea ch and expe ise, i e lec s o policies and he ways in which s a es o ganize hei poli ical-economic, social and educa ional sys ems: like he academic disciplines, he na ion-s a es a e o ganized a ound ideas o e i o ies and na ional bounda ies, while ma ke s, p oduc ion and consump ion a e disconnec ed om he na u e’s capaci y o eco e . I policy-make s’ majo in e es in he in e disciplina i y and he econ igu a ion o academic disciplines and hei au onomy ela es p ima ily o academic capi alism and a pa adigm o “inno a ions h ough anking”, i a he c ea es mo e hie a chies han b oade , mo e comp ehensi e and complex unde s anding o eali y. Decisions based on measu emen s a he han concep ualisa ions and unde s anding a i e a con lic ing esul s on he na u e o educa ional disciplines (c . Sugimo o & Weinga , 2014) as well as on a human being. While educa ion is adi ionally oo ed in deep dualisms like na u e-socie y (see Haila, 2000; Rudy & Whi e, 2014), i is high ime o o e come he bina y opposi ion be ween he humankind and na u e, and o add ess he powe s uc u es and imbalances among global economic o de , coun ies, communi ies and na u e. (Moo e, 2017.) Plane a y c ises dissol e he cons ained o de o knowledge and equi e a holis ic wo ld iew in educa ion ins ead o he dicho omies and di isions o mode ni y. Howe e , he challenging o ins i u ionalized educa ion does no ha e o mean he end o educa ional disciplines. I a he equi es o c i ically esol e he ways in which knowledge is p oduced, dissemina ed and augh , o p ac ice socially and en i onmen ally jus educa ion and esea ch o con es he dominan human-cen ic s uc u es, global beha iou s and academic capi alism whe e economic g ow h pa allels wi h de elopmen . The s i e o o e come he bina y ela ionships and make way o he di e si y in hough , wo ld iews and alues en angles wi h os e ing he u u e o he dis inc i e educa ional disciplines and es o ing hei sense o au onomy. The sea ch o mo e inclusi e and collec i e ways o hinking can d aw om hei his o y and connec ion wi h local and indigenous knowledge. The local and con ex ualized his o ies o educa ion migh p o ide holis ic examples o educa ion, embedded in he local, ela e hem o communi y and mo al alues, and show he connec ion be ween cul u e, li elihood and en i onmen . (See Heikkinen, 2017.) Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge 20 Re e ences Bake , D. P. 2014. The Schooled Socie y: The Educa ional T ans o ma ion o Global Cul u e. S an o d, CA: S an o d Uni e si y P ess. Bea on, G. 2010. Why p o essionalism is s ill ele an . SSRN Elec onic Jou nal. DOI: 10.2139/ss n.154550. Bies a, G. 2007. Why ”wha wo ks” won’ wo k: e idence-based p ac ice and he democ a ic de ici in educa ional esea ch. Educa ional Theo y, 57 (1), 1–22. Bou dieu, P. & Passe on, J. C. 1974. Abhängigkei in de Unabhängigkei : Die ela i e gesellscha liche Au onomie des Bildungssys ems. In Klaus Hu elmann (ed.), Soziologie de E ziehung. Weinheim, Basel: Bel z Ve lag, 124–158. Engelmeie , H. & Felsch, P. 2017. An iakademismus. Mi elweg, 36 (4–5), 4–13. Foucaul , M. 1980a. T u h and powe . In C. Go don (ed.), Powe /Knowledge. Selec ed In e iews and O he W i ings 1972–1977 by Michel Foucaul . Su olk: The Ha es e P ess, 109–131. Foucaul , M. 1980b. Powe s and s a egies. 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Rinne, R., Ki i auma, J. & Leh inen, J. (eds) (2000). Johda us kas a us ie eisiin. Helsinki: WSOY. Rudy, A. P. & Whi e, D. 2014. Hyb idi y. In C. Dea h (ed.), C i ical En i onmen al Poli ics. London & New Yo k: Rou ledge. Sugimo o, C. R. & Weinga , S. 2014. The caleidoscope o disciplina i y. Jou nal o Documen a ion, 71 (4), 775–794. S ichweh, R. 1994. Wissenscha , Uni e si ä , P o essionen. F ank u am Main: Suh kamp. Webe , M. 1991. Sch i en zu Wissenscha sleh e. S u ga : Philipp Reclam jun. SECTION 1 DISCIPLINE IN EDUCATION 31 Con ol jus i ied el e and gold. These desi es did no acco d wi h he ideal o he educa ional edi ica ion p ocess. The idea ha he peasan y’s economic p ospe i y would lead o he wo ship o ma e ial goods, and consequen ly, sel ishness and g eed comple ely con adic ed mo al ideals. The inne being had highe pu poses han os en a ion: li ing o bene i he na ion and o exal God’s p aise was seen as impo an , as well as p ac ical knowledge and skills. Concen a ing solely on economic wellbeing was seen as a dange o he new poli ical o de . Tex s s essed ha he aim o educa ion was o e ine he spi i o highe pu poses han pu e pagean y. Such e inemen was an especially u gen ask as na ional oman ic philosophies cons uc ed he peasan y as a symbol o he na ion- o-come: i was pic u ed as noble, humble be o e he ace o God, esilien , enacious and p oud o hei wo k – he embodimen o he ‘Spi i o he Land’ (Koski, 2006, 2011). The ci ilisa ion p ojec ini ia ed was comp ehensi e. I p omo ed he ideology o he na ion in he se ice o sublime and edi ying pu poses, p oducing indi iduals who had awoken om he da kness o igno ance, ‘showing o ’ and old- ashioned habi s. The inal aim linked he educa ional p ocess o he amilia , adi ional eligious discou se o he sal a ion o he souls: The human hea will be bes edi ied by oo ing ou e e y hing ha is low, sel ish and unclean, and ins ead, e e y hing ha is noble, sublime, ideal and hea enly. The spi i o he people’s ins i u ion is good i all he ac i i ies a e inspi ed by he wa m, bu ning lo e o he hea enly and mundane Fa he land and i all he ques ions a e judged in ligh o he e e nal u h. (Yea book o he Folk Ins i u e o Eas Ka elia, 1907) All hese dimensions we e in oduced in o p ac ice by se e al educa ional ins i u ions and o ganisa ions ounded a ound he u n o he 19 h and 20 h cen u ies: Ma a associa ions o peasan women (see Ollila, 1993), olk ins i u ions o young boys and gi ls and Pelle o associa ions o a me s. These ins i u ions wo e oge he he p ac ical, aes he ic and mo al in o wo main pu poses: he sal a ion o souls and inancial managemen (Koski, 2011). The sal a ion o souls was an aim o bo h gende s, bu in many o he ways, educa ional p ac ices we e gende ed. Men we e augh inancial managemen , mechanised ag icul u e, woodwo k and basic ma hema ics and biology. Thei Leena Koski 32 educa ion conce ned ounding co-ope a i es, dai ies, sawmills and such. Women’s educa ion, in con as , was ocused on housekeeping and p ope habi s, lea ning o do ine emb oide y, plan lowe ga dens o he aes he ic e inemen o he soul, g ow new ege ables, cook nu i ious ood o heal hy bodies and keep he home clean and idy. I was belie ed ha he idiness o he home led o pu i y o hea and hones , kind, pa ien , igo ous women wi h s ong cha ac e . F om he pe spec i e o mo al egula ion, he inne being and he ex e nal wo ld we e in e wined in he causal logics o he de ini ion o p og ess. A idy home, well-kep machine y and land, exac book-keeping and me iculously made o namen s, clo hes and ood led o and we e signs o inne e inemen o he human being. In hese p ocesses, he economic and social ela ions o capi alism we e ied o bo h adi ional and no el eligious and spi i ual o de s: he Lu he an eligion, highligh ing he idea ha e e yday cho es a e ac s o se ice o God, and na ionalism o na ional oman icism, sanc i ying he Fa he land as a gi om God (see Koski, 1998, 1999). All hese ideals in e mingled as jus i ica ions and p ac ices o mo al egula ion and esul ed in he cons uc ion o disciplina y powe . Mo al egula ion and con ol hus su ounded indi iduals om e e y di ec ion as a p oduc i e o m o powe (Foucaul , 1983), pe suading hem o change hei whole li es. The causal logics (see Koski & Filande , 2013) we e indispu able: om p ope managemen o inances and housekeeping ollowed e inemen o he soul and ice e sa. Simul aneously, all hese deeds cons i u ed ac s p aising God and ad ancing he common good o he Fa he land. Howe e , he idea o he hidden inside o he human being was p o oundly eligious, gi en he no ion ha God only knows he u h o one’s soul and ha humans will become hei ue sel es only in he he ea e . Consequen ly, he inne being was, o a deg ee, shel e ed om social and economic cons ain s. In Basil Be ns ein’s (1990, pp. 82–83) wo ds, he pedagogical con ol was ex e nal, ocused on eaching o ac acco ding o he ules. The p ac ical and he spi i ual we e wo sides o he coin, ye a ha his o ic momen , hey we e balanced o p io i ise he p ac ical o enhance he 33 Con ol jus i ied cons uc ion o he capi alis economy. The ‘spi i ual’ as such was hen s ill le o he eaching o he Lu he an Chu ch. Tu n o he 20 h and 21s cen u ies The decades a e he Second Wo ld Wa was a ime o p o ound poli ical, economic and cul u al changes in Finland, including democ a isa ion, u banisa ion, secula isa ion, expansion o educa ional o ganisa ions and g adual ans o ma ion o he ideals o mo al egula ion. The ede ini ion o mo al ideals ook place soon a e he end o he wa . The emphasis was laid on a new basis, a ached o adi ional ounda ions: Popula adul educa ion and democ acy a e pa allel phenomena. They c ea e oppo uni ies o each o he ; hey need and suppo each o he . … I is sel - e iden ha we adop democ acy as he basis o popula adul educa ion because only his will gua an ee he uni y o ou na ion, gua an ee i s high quali y, gua an ee i s u u e. (Wuo en inne, 1945, pp. 51–54) The au ho i a ian, class-based social and mo al o de s, along wi h na ionalis educa ional ideals, had become es ain s on he o eseen p og ess e en hough he ideals o he na ion and i s high quali y s ill pe sis ed. The middle class was eme ging as he social s a a holding key posi ions ela ed o poli ical and economic s abili y and p og ess. Middle-class women g adually eplaced wo king-class men as he majo g oup u ilising all sec o s o adul educa ion (Koski, 2005b), which also changed he cu icula in popula adul educa ion. In he 1960s, he iew o adul educa ionis s was ha he educa ional mode nisa ion p ojec , as well as he p ojec o he edi ica ion o he people, had been comple ed success ully. The ‘people’ had lea ned o ead and w i e, ea p ope ly, u ilise washing machines and acuum cleane s and idy hei homes, su oundings and hemsel es. The o e all educa ional le el had isen due o e o ms in compulso y educa ion, oca ional aining and uni e si ies. Howe e , a he u n o he 20 h cen u y, he educa ion o he adul popula ion was a a new u ning poin as neolibe al economics and digi al echnologies Leena Koski 34 changed he s uc u es o bo h he labou ma ke and he educa ional ma ke . Fo me educa ional o ms and ideals o disciplina y mo al egula ion had o be e-in e p e ed amid changing social condi ions. As ea ly as he 1970s, he concep s o ‘con inuing educa ion’ and ‘li elong educa ion’ we e in oduced o adul educa ion, p ima ily by he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD), as answe s o he demands o he e-s uc u ing labou ma ke and apidly changing quali ica ions. By he u n o he 20 h cen u y, he concep o li elong educa ion had become he p e ailing discou se se ing he ideals and p ac ices o adul lea ning. On he social le el, he ideals we e a ached o democ acy and equali y and, on he indi idual le el, o pe sonal g ow h. These ideals became he ounda ion o he social and mo al jus i ica ion and disciplina y egula ion o adul educa ion. The ideals we e w i en in mos impo an ex s, such as he Law on Finnish Popula Educa ion: [The pu pose o ] he p inciples o li elong lea ning [is] o a ange educa ion ha suppo s cohesion, equali y and ac i e ci izenship in socie y. The aim o popula adul educa ion is o p omo e di e si y o indi idual g ow h, wellbeing, democ acy, plu alism, sus ainable de elopmen , mul icul u alism and in e na ionali y. In popula adul educa ion, he p inciples o sel - di ec ed lea ning, communal o ien a ion and inc easing belonging o socie y a e emphasised. (Law on Popula Educa ion, 2009) The democ a ic alues connec ed o he ‘di e si y o indi idual g ow h’ and he ‘p inciples o sel -di ec ed lea ning’, de ined as sel - e lec i i y, sel - ealisa ion, sel -es eem and sel -di ec i i y as e e ences o he inne being, ha e a wo old jus i ica ion. Fi s , hey acco d wi h he economics o la e capi alism, o ins ance, in he Fede a ion o Business Li e in Finland’s educa ional policy documen s in he ea ly 2000s (see EK:n linjaukse , 2015). A decla a ion by he Eu opean Pa liamen di ec ly connec s he awakening o he inne being o economic p inciples: The aim o li elong educa ion is o example o inc ease c ea i i y, compe i i eness, employabili y, and en ep eneu ial e hos. 35 Con ol jus i ied Second, he e hos o indi idual g ow h in he law is aimed a empowe ing indi idual s uden s as ci izens by using adi ional humanis ic alues. The educa ional emphasis on he sel includes he idea ha he sel , he me, he inne being is somehow hidden, los o imp isoned and hus in need o being un eiled, ound o libe a ed (Koski, 2005a, 2014). In bo h adul educa ional ins i u es and comme cial ins i u es o e ing lea ning oppo uni ies o adul s, cou ses on inding o eeing he inne being mul iplied o e he p e ious decade. These cou ses a e based on mul iple sel - echniques, as can be seen in he ollowing examples, one a cu icula desc ip ion o a cou se o e ed in many ins i u es o popula adul educa ion in Finland and he o he a pa allel cu iculum o e ed by a comme cial ins i u e: S a o li e ins ead o jus su i ing. … This cou se is aimed a awakening c ea i i y, he use o eelings and in ellec in o de o become wha we al eady a e. Based on hei own expe iences, s uden s will wo k o ee bo h hei eelings and psychic ene gy. As a ool o he s udy o he sel is he Ges al me hod, in which i is essen ial o lea n o ecognise wha I wan and need jus now and o ac in o de o accomplish hese goals. In ou coaching me hod, he app oach is based on sol ing p oblems in an app ecia i e manne . E e y human being will be me as hei own pe son who has he po en ial o c ea e hei own success s o y – he seed o success mus only be dug up om wi hin. F om he pe spec i e o mo al egula ion, connec ing democ acy and he sea ch o he sel is a con inua ion o he adi ional ( eligious) ideas o obse ing one’s conscience in o de o lead a sinless li e and make he igh decisions (see Hun , 1999). In popula and comme cial adul educa ion, he sel is p edominan ly de ined as hidden, los , imp isoned o in s a e o becoming. The ocabula y consis s o symbols such as a seed ha , once ound and wa e ed, will bo h empowe and libe a e he desi ed quali ies om wi hin: c ea i i y, inno a i eness, compe i i eness, success, spi i uali y o some o he social in en ion o he labou ma ke a a gi en momen . Ozga and Linga d (2007, p. 70) summa ised he ideals a ached o li elong lea ning and success in he compe i i e labou ma ke : Leena Koski 36 he indi idual mus be c ea i e, p oduc i e, sociable, lexible, s ess ole an , coope a i e, emo ionally con olled and commi ed o ha d wo k. Be e ly Skeggs (1997) no ed ha he ocus on he sel is a emale middle-class p ojec . In he analysis, sel -p ojec s a e a means o dis inguishing onesel om he lowe classes in a p ojec highligh ing he alue o spi i o e ma e . Wi h he expansion o in e es in ocusing on he sel , new ades and businesses o li e coaching ha e eme ged. Mäkinen (2012, pp. 110–113) labelled hem ‘indi idualised eminism’, emphasising indi idual empowe men o indi idual success while neglec ing s uc u al injus ices. Thus, each indi idual should, and can when p ope ly coached, achie e any social posi ion. I seems ha highligh ing he sel as a symbol o he inne being, pe haps unin en ionally, se es as a disciplina y discou se aimed a educa ed middle-class women. Conclusions Wi h he bi h o bo h capi alism and popula adul educa ion in he 19 h cen u y, he connec ion o he inne being o he economic ma ke was ansmi ed h ough he idea o he p og ess o he na ion. Fo he peasan s, his idea was jus i ied by Lu he an spi i uali y aimed a e ining he human being, he immedia e su oundings and, ul ima ely, he Fa he land. In he neolibe al o ma ion o capi alism, he inne being is di ec ly connec ed o he economic ma ke . O he jus i ying discou ses connec ed o anscenden al, spi i ual and social aims a e weak and sca e ed. A he same ime, he disciplina y and egula i e p ac ices conside ing he inne being ha e been s eng hened as indi iduals ha e been pe suaded o ind he hidden sel and ans o m i as hei esou ce. The ask is na a ed as no ma i e bu s ipped o ins i u ional o anscenden connec ions; he indi idual encoun e s mo al egula ion wi hou p o ec i e s uc u es, as i naked. Indi idualised mo ali y, along wi h ‘sel -e hic’ as Heelas (1996) no ed, is aimed a ‘exo cising hose oices o au ho i y which ha e become in e nalized as he ego. ... The indi idual se es as his o he own sou ce o guidance’ (Heelas, 1996, p. 23). Howe e , he ‘ oice o he au ho i y’ and i s use as a ‘sou ce o guidance’ mus be augh and lea ned; only hen does he inne being o he indi idual, he sel , se e as a p econdi ion o social p og ess. Following Basil Be ns ein’s (1990, 37 Con ol jus i ied p. 67) analysis o pedagogic con ol, ex e nal con ol has become in e nal and implici wi h o me ly open hie a chies masking hei communica ion, blu ing he bounda ies o he inne being and he social demands. The ques o democ acy emains, howe e , a social jus i ica ion in adul educa ion. Pa icipa ion in ac i i ies o e ed by communal ins i u es o adul educa ion is unde s ood o inc ease democ a ic p ac ices. Democ acy hen seems o equal pa icipa ion in adul educa ion. The mos popula cou ses in adul educa ion, hough, ocus on a ious handic a s, physical exe cise, o eign languages, in o ma ion echnology, pain ing and o he p ac ical skills. E en hough cou ses a e o e ed o he en i e adul popula ion, pa icipa ion is clea ly bo h gende ed and class-based, domina ed by educa ed, middle-class women. Mo al egula ion aimed a popula ion con ol has been mul iplied, ex ended and a leas pa ly disengaged om adi ional ins i u ional o ganisa ions o adul educa ion and ound i s agen s in comme cial businesses and he apeu ic p ac ices. The de iciencies pe cei ed in he li es o indi iduals and he demands and ways o imp o ing hem ha e also mul iplied. Mo al egula ion no longe aims o go onwa ds and upwa ds h ough spi i uali y and he common good; ins ead, i aims o compe e and su i e in he p eca ious labou ma ke and li e. In all hese changes, adul educa ionis s ha e e o mula ed hei de ini ions o jus i y he mo al egula ion o he p e ailing social and economic s uc u es. The disciplina y p ac ices o os e ing ci izenship in adul educa ion, wi h hei his o ical eme gence and a ia ions, ha e consis en ly been a ached o an economic e hos, disguised as he balanced mo al discou ses o indi idual g ow h and social p og ess and p ospe i y. Leena Koski 38 Re e ences Alapu o, R. 1998. Si is yneis ön ambi alen i suomalaisuus. In P. Alasuu a i & P. Ruuska (eds), Elä änä Eu oopassa. Muu u a suomalainen iden i ee i. Tampe e: Vas apaino, 175–190. Be ns ein, B. 1971. Class, Code and Con ol. Vol. 1. London: Rou ledge and Kegan. Bou dieu, P. 1984. Dis inc ion. Camb idge, MA: Ha a d Uni e si y P ess. Du kheim, E. 1979. Du kheim: Essays on Mo als and Educa ion. Edi ed and wi h In oduc ions by W. S. F. Picke ing. London, Bos on and Henley: Rou ledge & Kegan Paul. Foucaul , M. 1983. The subjec and powe . A e wo d. In H. L. D ey us & P. Rabinow. Michel Foucaul . Beyond S uc u alism and He meneu ics. Chicago: The Uni e si y o Chicago P ess, 208–226. Ha a, U. 1942. Kansansi is ys yön käsi e. Vapaa kansansi is ys yö. Kansan si is ys opil- lisen yhdis yksen uosiki ja 1942. Helsinki: Kansansi is ysopillinen yhdis ys, 3–17. Heelas, P. 1996. On hings no being wo se, and he e hic o humani y. In P. Heelas, S. Lash & P. Mo is (eds), De adi ionaliza ion: C i ical Re lec ions on Au ho i y and Iden i y. Camb idge: Blackwell. Hun , A. 1999. Go e ning Mo al: A Social His o y o Mo al Regula ion. Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. Hun e , I. 1994. Re hinking he School: Subjec i i y, Bu eauc acy, C i icism. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. I ä-Ka jalan kansanopis on uosiki ja 1907. Joensuu: Pohjois-Ka jalan Ki japaino- Osake yh iö. Jackson, P.W. 1968. Li e in Class ooms. New Yo k: Hol , Rineha & Wins on. Ju ikkala, E. 1958. Suomen alonpojan his o ia. Helsinki: WSOY. Koski, L. 1998. F om God o F iendship: The changing mo al o de s o educa ional s o ies in Finnish ABC books. In D. Kalekin-Fishman (ed.), Designs o Aliena ion: Explo ing Di e se Reali ies. SoPhi: Jy äskylä, 227–245. Koski L. 1999. Mo al educa ion and he Finnish ABC books. In J. Mikk (ed.), Vää uskas a us oppeki janduses. Ta u Ulikooli pedagoogika osakonna äljaanne n . 8. Ta u, 38–57. Koski L. 2005a. The sac ed, he social, and he ‘Inne Me’ in Finnish educa ion. In J. Nyman (ed.), S udies in he Sociology o Educa ion and Cul u e. Joensuu Uni e si y P ess. Publica ions o he Dapa men o Sociology. Yliopis opaino, 72–96. Koski L. 2005b. Koulu usyh eiskunnan kynnyksellä. Osallis uminen apaan kansan- si is ys yön opin oihin 1950-lu ulla. In M. Sabou & L. Koski (eds), Kas a uksen ja kul uu in me ki ys ä e simässä. Joensuu: Joensuu Uni e si y P ess, 27–243. 39 Con ol jus i ied Koski, L. 2009. Voca ional cu iculum – Mo ali y o he wo king class? In M. Weil, L. Koski & L. Mjelde (eds), Knowing Wo k. The Social Rela ions o Wo king and Knowing. Be n: Pe e Lang, 27–50. Koski L. 2014. Minä ja maailma aikuiskas a uksen keskuksessa. In K. B unila & U. Iso-Pahka-Bou e (eds), Ma ginaalin oima! Aikuiskas a uksen 51. uosiki ja. Van aa: Kansan alis usseu a, 38–53. Koski, L. 2006. Kansansi is yksen kansaa e simässä. In J. Tuomis o & P. Salo P. (eds), Edis ä ä ja iihdy ä ä aikuiskas a us. Aulis Alanen aikuisope uksen laa ua e simässä. Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y P ess, 59–83. Koski, L. 2011. Si is ys yön ihmiskäsi ys: illi-ihmises ä aikuiseksi yksilöksi. In A. Heikkinen & P. Leino-Kaukiainen (eds), Valis us ja koulunpenkki. Kas a us ja koulu us Suomessa 1860-lu ul a 1960-lu ulle. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Ki jal li- suuden Seu a, 159–183. Koski, L. & Filande , K. 2013. T ans o ming causal logics in Finnish adul educa ion: his o ical and mo al ansi ions ew i en. In e na ional Jou nal o Li elong Educa ion, 32 (5), 583–599. Koski, L. & Moo e, E. 2001. Näkökulmia aikuisuu een ja aikuiskas a ukseen. Aikuis- kas a us, 21 (1), 4–13. Liakka, N. 1909. Kansanopis o-ope uksen ajoi amises a ”kipeimmin kai a uun”. Py - kijä, 8. Mäkinen, K. 2012. Becoming Valuable Sel es. Sel -P omo ion, Gende and Indi iduali y in La e Capi alism. Ac a Uni e si a is Tampe ensis 1732. Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y P ess. Ollila, A. 1993. Suomen ko ien päi ä alkenee… Ma ajä jes ö suomalaisessa yh eis kun- nas sa uo een 1939. Helsinki: SHS. Ozga, J. & Linga d, B. 2007. Globaliza ion, educa ion policy and poli ics. In B. Linga d & J. Ozga (eds), Educa ion Policy and Poli ics. London and New Yo k: Rou ledge, 65–82. Skeggs, B. 1997. Fo ma ion o Class and Gende : Becoming Respec able. London: Sage Publica ions. Snellman, J.V. 1929. Koo u eokse V. Tu kielmia ja ki joi uksia. Po oo: WSOY. Y jö-Koskinen, Y.-S. 1868. Yh eiskunnallisia mie ei ä. Vi ka al a ja kansanopis o . Ki jallinen Kuukausileh i 4. Wuo en inne, T.I. 1945. Demok a ia ja apaa kansansi is ys yö. Vapaa kansansi is ys yö IV. Kansansi is ysopillisen yhdis yksen uosiki ja 1945. Helsinki: Kansan- si is ys opillinen yhdis ys, 46–54. 47 De ining discipline in ana chis educa ion Ha ing admi ed and p ac ised he co-educa ion o boys and gi ls, o ich and poo – ha ing ha is o say s a ed om he p inciple o solida i y and inequali y – we a e no p epa ed o c ea e a new inequali y. Hence in he Mode n School he e will be no ewa ds and no punishmen s; he e will be no examina ions o pu up some child en wi h he la e ing i le o excellen , o gi e o he s he ulga i le o ‘good’, and make o he s unhappy wi h a consciousness o incapaci y and ailu e. (Fe e , 1913) A he same ime, acco ding o Fe e , pedagogical echnology as such was no ejec ed; a he he no ed he excessi e ole ha i was assigned in adi ional school educa ion, u ning i in o a se o i uals and useless con en ions, he pu pose o which is o con ol s uden s. Rega ding he con en o educa ion, Fe e consis en ly implemen ed he concep ion o ‘in eg al educa ion’ ha has been cen al o ana chism and was i s ly o mula ed by K opo kin in his wo k Fields, Fac o ies and Wo kshops: ‘ o he di ision o socie y in o b ain wo ke s and manual wo ke s we oppose he combina ion o bo h kinds o ac i i ies; and ins ead o “ echnical educa ion”, which means he main enance o he p esen di ision be ween b ain wo k and manual wo k, we ad oca e he educa ion in eg ale, o comple e educa ion, which means he disappea ance o ha pe nicious dis inc ion’ (K opo kin, 1913). Acco ding o K opo kin he specialisa ion o labou mus be p eceded by gene al educa ion, which combines bo h he s udy o sciences and he eaching o c a s (such kinds o educa ion we e a he Mode n School). M.A. Bakunin wen u he on his issue; he belie ed ha he di ision be ween b ain and manual wo k i sel is a i icial, hus o mula ing he p inciple o in eg al educa ion in a e y b oad way, s a ing ‘e e yone mus wo k, and e e yone mus ecei e educa ion’: The science o he sage will become mo e ui ul, mo e use ul and mo e expansi e when he sage is no longe a s ange o manual labou , and he labou s o he wo kmen, when he is educa ed, will be mo e in elligen and hus mo e p oduc i e han hose o an igno an wo kman. F om which i ollows ha , o wo k’s sake as much as o he sake o science, he e mus no longe be his di ision in o wo ke s and schola s and hence o h he e mus be only men. (Bakunin, 1869) I an Zamo kin 48 Fo Bakunin, ixing science and science educa ion wi h a ce ain social g oup is one o he main easons o he exploi a ion o he ‘uneduca ed majo i y’, so he s ongly ejec ed libe al p ojec s o s a e educa ion as he claimed ha he people did no need such science and such educa ion. Mo eo e , Bakunin belie ed ha i was e y cynical o alk abou he pu pose o science in he educa ion o he people, igno ing he social un ai ness and inequali y ha exis s in socie y, which in many espec s was main ained by his science. Fe e hough ha i is e y impo an o d aw he a en ion o his s uden s o i when hey we e on a ac o y ou . Fo example, some boys and gi ls did no wan o go in o one o he wo kshops because o he hea and smell o oxic ma e ials, which ga e Fe e he oppo uni y o discuss wi h hem he his o y o he wo ke s’ ac o ies, how hey lea ned his c a as child en, how hey also did no like he hea and unpleasan smell, bu ha hey had no o he li e op ions, and how science and indus y, ha ing eached such heigh s oge he , can coexis wi h such gla ing ac s o social un ai ness. Bo h o K opo kin and Bakunin his componen o poli ical educa ion imbued wi h he ideal o a socie y based on mu ual help and solida i y was signi ican in he p ocess o in eg al educa ion. As men ioned ea lie , he his o y o libe a ian pedagogy is ma ked by many o he ex emely in e es ing educa ional p ojec s; howe e , no all o hem should be a ibu ed o ana chism. Fo J. Suissa, a clea coun e -example he e is he amous school c ea ed by A. Neill in 1921, ‘Summe hill’. Based only on ex e nal ea u es (lack o a s ic ime able, in o mal lea ning, child en’s ee beha iou ), his school looked like Fe e ’s and o he ana chis schools, bu o Suissa i is impo an o show wha he undamen al di e ences a e. Acco ding o Suissa, one o he ai ly clea di e ences is how in he Summe hill school democ a ic decision-making p ocedu es ega ding all issues had been na owly unde s ood as being educed o simple o ing. Ana chis hinke s ha e ejec ed such an ‘elec o al’ unde s anding o democ acy and ha e had ai doub s abou he alidi y o he majo i y p inciple as he basis o he poli ical sys em. She no es ha ‘mo e signi ican , hough, a e he sub le di e ences ha de i e om he philosophical and ideological commi men s behind each o hese educa ional app oaches’. She con inues: C ucially, Neill concei ed o eedom in an indi idual, psychological sense. His chie in ellec ual in luences we e hose o he psychoanaly ical adi ion 49 De ining discipline in ana chis educa ion especially he wo k o Wilhelm Reich. So, al hough c i ical o exis ing socie y, he belie ed ha he way o wa d o a be e wo ld lay in e o m a he indi idual le el a so o mass he apy by which we would g adually achie e a socie y o sel -awa e, uninhibi ed, emo ionally s able indi iduals. In con as , he no ion o eedom behind he ana chis posi ion is one ha ca ies “conc e e poli ical conno a ions”. (Suissa, 2001) This indi idualis ic and psychological unde s anding o eedom, which is based on Rousseau’s claim abou o iginally good human na u e, should no be assigned o ana chism. On he con a y, a human being in ana chism is p esen ed as a c ea u e wi h a dual na u e, in which no only al uis ic bu also egois ic cha ac e is ics a e inhe en . In his ega d, nei he K opo kin no e en Bakunin we e naï e, as hey a e o en p esen ed; ana chism implies ha human na u e is con ex ual. Ou side he con ex o socie y, in addi ion o o he indi iduals, he ques ion o human na u e, acco ding o Bakunin, does no make any sense a all – in his ega d, he c i icises he heo y o he social con ac and he na u al s a e o men: ‘p imi i e men enjoying absolu e libe y only in isola ion a e an isocial by na u e and when o ced o associa e hey des oy each o he ’s eedom’ (Bakunin in Dolgo , 1973, p. 128). Con a y o his, Bakunin sees i he ollowing way: a e concluding he con ac , un ee man, who is in he sla e y o his animal s a e, becomes a sla e o he s a e, hus, denial o he s a e and animali y o people is possible only in he g adual sel -awa eness in socie y, and no ou side i , wi h o he people. This ema k makes clea why K opo kin saw educa ion as one o he main means o achie ing he necessa y mo al le el o es ablishing and main aining ana chis ideal in human socie y (see K opo kin, 1970). I seems ha educa ion migh become a space in which he abili y o sha e ana chis alues a ises among people e en be o e he es ablishmen o ana chy, hus becoming he p e equisi es o an ana chis e olu ion. This iew was also in he p og amme o in eg al educa ion implemen ed in he ‘Mode n School’: Fe e saw his school as a mic ocosm o he u u e ana chis socie y. Educa ion in he Mode n School was a om he poli ical neu ali y ha Neill alked abou : ‘poli ics, li e, eligion is a ma e o pe sonal choice o be made la e on in li e as he child g ows up’ (Neill, 1962, p. 354). Child en, acco ding o Neill, being o iginally good by na u e, should hemsel es de e mine hei own alues in hei indi idual de elopmen . Mo al ela i ism in ela ion o educa ion he e comes I an Zamo kin 50 in o clea con adic ion wi h Neill’s a o emen ioned unde s anding o eedom. We see no such con adic ion in Fe e ’s school: ‘ a ional educa ion, among o he hings, p ese es in humans he abili y o lo e, o hink, o s i e o ideals and hope’ (Fe e , 1913), po aying an educa ion imbued wi h his hope o a socie y o uly ee and equal people wi hou iolence, hie a chies o any p i ilege. Pedagogical pa adox and he ole o discipline in educa ion Immanuel Kan was one o he s onges ad oca es o he necessi y o discipline in educa ion. His iews on educa ion we e based on he assump ion ha he e is a undamen al di e ence be ween imma u e and ma u e human beings, ela ed, acco ding o Kan , wi h he idea o au onomy as he possibili y o using o one’s eason. I is educa ion ha p o ides his ansi ion om imma u i y o ma u i y, and, acco ding o Kan , he i s s ep o his p ocess equi es discipline. He saw discipline as a nega i e bu obliga o y pa o educa ion which p e en s a man om being u ned away om humani y by his animal impulses, his appoin ed end. Kan ’s posi ion ep esen s some undamen al pedagogical ideas which ha e become p edominan in mode n educa ional hough and which ha e exe cised a g ea in luence on mode n educa ional p ac ice. Bu his se o ideas is no unp oblema ic, and e en in Kan ’s own wo k on educa ion we can ind wha is known in he li e a u e as ‘pedagogical pa adox’. Kan desc ibes i his way: One o he bigges p oblems o educa ion is how one can uni e submission unde law ul cons ain wi h he capaci y o use one’s eedom. Fo cons ain is necessa y. How do I cul i a e eedom unde cons ain ? I shall accus om my pupil o ole a e a cons ain o his eedom, and I shall a he same ime lead him o make good use o his eedom. Wi hou his e e y hing is a me e mechanism, and he pupil who is eleased om educa ion does no know how o use his eedom. He mus eel ea ly he ine i able esis ance o socie y, in o de o ge o know he di icul y o suppo ing himsel , o being dep i ed and o acqui ing – in a wo d: o being independen . (Kan , 2007, p. 447) This pa adox a ises due o he ac ha he ela ionship be ween he s uden and he eache ceases o be only pedagogical and becomes poli ical since 51 De ining discipline in ana chis educa ion he acquisi ion o eedom by he s uden leads o he poli ical p oblem o emancipa ion. I emancipa ion is unde s ood as some hing ha is done o someone h ough a ce ain ex e nal in e en ion, hen i u ns ou o be based on a undamen al di e ence be ween he one who emancipa es and he one who should be emancipa ed. Due o his logic o emancipa ion, pedagogy is based on a undamen al dis inc ion be ween he ‘educa ed’ and ‘uneduca ed’ s a es o mind based on he powe o he emancipa o , which pu s hose who will be libe a ed in he o iginally un ee posi ion. One o he ways o look a his p oblem is o e hink he idea o disciplina y p ac ices and o y o p o ide a posi i e no ion o he e m discipline. Fo ins ance, his was he ask o Emile Du kheim in his in luen ial wo ks on educa ion, especially in Mo al Educa ion, whe e he conside s discipline as an essen ial elemen o mo ali y. Fo Du kheim i is pa icula ly impo an o analyse he no ion o discipline in educa ion no om an indi idualis ic, psychological le el bu om a sociological one, i.e. o pu i in he social con ex whe e social no ms cons i u e and help o main ain a ce ain social o de . He claims ha since mo al equi emen s a e no me ely ano he name o pe sonal habi s, since hey de e mine conduc impe a i ely om cou ses ou side ou sel es, in o de o ul il one’s obliga ions and o ac mo ally one mus ha e some app ecia ion o he au ho i y sui gene is ha in o ms mo ali y … We ha e seen, u he mo e, ha i his sense o au ho i y cons i u es a pa o ha o ce wi h which all ules o conduc , wha e e hey may be, impose hemsel es upon us, hen au ho i y has an ex emely signi ican unc ion; o he e i ac s independen ly. No o he eeling o conside a ion is in ol ed in he mo al ac . (Du kheim, 1961, p. 34) In his sense he discipline is necessa y o bo h school and socie y because h ough i we become pa o he pa icula social o de , and, hence, i always equi es some changes in pe sonal a i ude and beha iou ha somehow make one ‘disciplined’. The p inciple o au ho i y has i s own limi s. Fo ins ance, Du kheim s ongly opposed he idea o physical punishmen s in schools. Howe e , he also ejec ed he no ion ha educa ion had he ask o changing socie y. Ins ead, Du kheim saw educa ion as pa o he p ocess o socialisa ion in which discipline is he way o uni e he child wi h he la ge socie y. The unc ionalis iew o educa ion I an Zamo kin 52 and discipline gi en by Du kheim seems o be qui e easonable o desc ibing how social mechanisms wo k, bu i s ill lea es unanswe ed he ques ion o how i is possible o s uden s o become au onomous a he end o educa ion, whe e discipline akes on such a c ucial ole. Du kheim himsel a gued ha he esul o educa ion, o , in his wo ds, mo al discipline, should no be me e socialisa ion, such as engaging s uden s in o he mo al alues and ules o a communi y, bu also he achie emen o s uden s’ au onomy and sel -de e mina ion wi hin socie y. In many ways his posi ion ep oduced he disciplina y s uggles o mula ed by Kan in his pedagogical pa adox. A e y di e en pe spec i e on his opic can be ound in he wo ks o Michel Foucaul . His c i ique in Discipline and Punish helps o e eal he disad an ages o he disciplina y mechanisms no only in educa ional ins i u ions bu wi hin he whole socie y. Foucaul in his book desc ibed he bi h o p ison in o de o demons a e how disciplina y powe wo ks: How could he p ison no be immedia ely accep ed when, by locking up, e aining and ende ing docile, i me ely ep oduces, wi h a li le mo e emphasis, he mechanisms ha a e o be ound in he social body. The p ison is like a a he disciplined ba acks, a s ic school, a da k wo kshop, bu no quali a i ely di e en . (Foucaul , 1991, p. 223) The echnique o he disciplina y powe does no include jus limi s and p ohibi ions bu a he se es o p oduce some kind o ela ions ha somehow ‘make’ indi iduals, ega ding hese bo h as objec s and as ins umen s o e alua ion based on he idea o he e ec i eness. The main ins umen s o he discipline, acco ding o Foucaul , a e hie a chical obse a ion, no malising judgemen and he p ocedu e o he examina ion. I should be emphasised ha hese ools ha e a common ask: o elimina e de ia ions and o co ec beha iou . Fo ins ance, in schools we see ha i is he eache ’s ask o hold disciplina y powe o e s uden s h ough examina ion and punishmen . Foucaul pu s i his way: The a o punishing in he egime o disciplina y powe is aimed nei he a expia ion, no e en p ecisely a ep ession. The pe pe ual penal y ha a e ses all poin s and supe ises e e y ins an in he disciplina y ins i u ions 53 De ining discipline in ana chis educa ion compa es, di e en ia es, hie a chize, homogenizes, excludes. In sho , i no malizes. (Foucaul , 1991, p. 183) So, in Foucaul ’s c i ique we see he e y nega i e no ion o discipline: i ‘no malizes’ s uden s; i u ns hem in o con o mis s; i a emp s o con ol all egimes o space and ime. E en he school buildings, acco ding o Foucaul , as a ool o ‘co ec aining’, exp ess disciplina y powe . The p oblem wi h his iew lies in he ac ha i does no o e any posi i e p og amme o how i is possible (i possible) o o ganise he sys em o educa ion a oiding disciplina y mechanisms. The si ua ion is u he agg a a ed by Foucaul ’s unde s anding o powe which implies ha disciplina y powe does no ha e any single and s able sou ce (such as he eache in school); a he , i seems o be sp ead h ough he whole socie y, and ha is why i is ha d (o e en impossible) o esis his powe . Ne e heless, Foucaul ’s c i ique has some addi ional insigh s ha a e ex emely help ul o unde s anding how disciplina y powe wo ks. He pays a en ion o he polysemy o he wo d ‘discipline’, which be o e had emained unadd essed. In ac , he wo d ‘discipline’ as an ins umen o social con ol and as a b anch o knowledge seems o be he bes way o illus a e his concep o ‘powe -knowledge’. Gi en he ac ha he con en o educa ion in many ways is de e mined by he sociocul u al condi ions and can be ans o med unde hei changes, his de ini ion is closely connec ed wi h he i s : looking a knowledge as a social cons uc gi es eason o conside i an essen ial pa o disciplina y mechanisms in educa ion. Con empo a y schola Thomas Popkewi z ga e a e y pe suasi e explana ion o his p oblem, which he called he ‘alchemy’ o pedagogy as a p ocess ha u ns scien i ic and social disciplines in o modes o o de ing and egula ing people: School subjec s equi e anspo a ion and ansla ion ools ha b ing disciplina y ields conce ned wi h knowledge p oduc ion in o he social and cul u al spaces o schooling. Child en a e no physicis s o his o ians, so some hing needs o be done wi h he disciplines so child en can wo k wi h he ideas, na a i es, and app oaches o unde s anding. Like he 16 h and 17 h cen u y alchemis s and occul p ac i ione s who sough o u n base me als in o pu e gold, he school subjec s magically ansla e disciplina y ields h ough he languages o class oom managemen and heo ies o lea ning and communica ion. (Popkewi z, 2014, p. 10) I an Zamo kin 54 In o he wo ds, school subjec s a e ne e simply ma hema ics, science, li e a u e and so on bu a he elemen s o hose disciplines placed a he se ice o ce ain la ge unc ions o schooling. This idea in ac has much in common wi h wha Foucaul concluded in his wo k: disciplina y mechanisms in o de o ‘no malize’ s uden s p oduce he No m and es ablish i s powe , which, in u n, appea s h ough he disciplines. The No mal is es ablished as a p inciple o coe cion in eaching wi h he in oduc ion o a s anda dized educa ion and he es ablishmen o he ecoles no males ( eache s’ aining colleges). (Foucaul , 1991, p. 184) La e in he ex , Foucaul desc ibes how he discipline in bo h meanings (as a echnique o powe and as a se o knowledge) o ganises no only he school’s sys em bu educa ion i sel . In ac , educa ion can be ega ded as a subjec o ce ain dis inc disciplines (such as he philosophy o educa ion, his o y o educa ion, sociology o educa ion, e c.) o e en as an in e disciplina y a ea o s udies which is usually named ‘educa ional s udies’. Mos ly, i is applied in he sphe e o eache educa ion and in educa ional esea ch. Foucaul w o e abou he es ablishmen o pedagogy as an example o he connec ion be ween discipline as powe and as knowledge: The school became he place o elabo a ion o pedagogy. And jus as he p ocedu e o he hospi al examina ion made possible he epis emological ‘ haw’ o medicine, he age o he ‘examining’ school ma ked he beginnings o a pedagogy ha unc ions as a science. (Foucaul , 1991, p. 187) The o ma ion o pedagogy as a science was closely connec ed wi h he es ablishmen o compulso y schooling as an ins i u ion o indus ial socie y, designed wi hin he amewo k o a na ional capi alis s a e o se e i s pu poses. The mos ob ious example o his p ocess was he eme gence o he P ussian school, which became a model o he public educa ion sys em o many coun ies ( o example, o he USA). Inspi ed by he ideas o s a e educa ion as ‘sa ing he na ion’, P ussian pedagogues de eloped a ‘model o schooling, buil a ound cen ally con olled cu iculums, cons an agmen a ion o days in o changing classes a he sound 55 De ining discipline in ana chis educa ion o a bell, obedience and eache -di ec ed class oom g oupings. A he hea o he sys em hough was he p imacy o he S a e, and ha child en bo h belonged o and we e he esponsibili y o he S a e’ (He n, 2003). In addi ion o gene al philosophical and speci ically cul u al ci cums ances, many his o ians ha e no ed a numbe o , say, objec i e easons o he eme gence o a s a e school. I is in he in e p e a ion o hese easons, hei ‘objec i i y’, ha he essence o he ques ion lies. In his case, J. Suissa emphasises he impo ance o sepa a ing ques ions abou he causes o he phenomenon om ques ions abou he easons o i : ‘while i may be ue ha he sp ead o indus ialisa ion and he mass mig a ion o people owa ds u ban cen es c ea ed a need o p o ide ained wo ke s o he economy and hus placed a causal ole in he es ablishmen o uni e sal s a e schooling one can s ill ask ques ions abou whe e he s a e’s need o a skilled wo k o ce cons i u es a good a gumen o suppo ing s a e educa ion’ (Suissa, 2010, p. 100). Conclusion: Towa ds he ‘good’ no ion o discipline om an ana chis pe spec i e To claim ha ana chism o e s some ‘good’ no ion o he discipline is qui e a s ong hesis o ad oca e in his chap e as i equi es u he in es iga ion. Howe e , in his sec ion we will y o p esen wha makes one belie e in he possibili y o such s a emen , gi en some o he poin s o he discussions men ioned abo e. I is belie ed o be e y challenging o see educa ion wi hou discipline as e en he posi ion o a esea che in educa ion equi es some kind o commi men o he discipline. I is no always ealised how educa ional esea ch e lec s and ep oduces he disciplina y mechanisms embodied in educa ion. The mains eam philosophy o educa ion o en ails in i s a emp s o c i icise neolibe al discou se in educa ion as i sha es wi h i some basic assump ions. To educe he disciplina y mechanisms in educa ion, i is necessa y o ans o m he pe spec i e om which we see educa ion. Based on ana chis alues educa ion could be ega ded no only as a pa o social con ol in a gi en socie y bu also as a place whe e i is possible o unde mine he e y ounda ions o socie y h ough he mo emen s o local communi ies. Allowing educa ional spaces o become si es o p e igu a i e p ac ice, acco ding I an Zamo kin 56 o Suissa, is an al e na i e way o s udy educa ion, which, in u n, equi es a new no ion o he discipline. As John Dewey pu i : E en he heo e ical ana chis , whose philosophy commi s him o he idea ha s a e o go e nmen con ol is an e il, belie es ha wi h aboli ion o he poli ical s a e o he o ms o social con ol would ope a e. (Dewey, 1938, p. 32) As was demons a ed abo e, ana chis pedagogy does no ejec he idea o a di ec in e en ion in he mo al and in ellec ual de elopmen o a child, and he e o e he idea o discipline as such. A he same ime, he concep o discipline in ana chis educa ion canno be de ined p ecisely o h ee easons. Fi s ly, as ana chism is s ongly opposed o any o ms o dogma ism o p ede ined pic u es o socie y, educa ion is conside ed he e as a space whe e al e na i e ela ionships ake shape in a special way. Bo h K opo kin and Bakunin highly app ecia e human eedom and he e o e enounce he igh o ‘b eak human na u e o he sake o a mo al ideal’, ealising ha unde capi alism he al uis ic aspi a ions o people a e supp essed by he social en i onmen i sel , he e o e some in e media e s ages a e assumed. Fo ins ance, in he Fe e school, despi e he ac ha i s ana chis cu iculum explici ly exp essed such alues as an i-capi alism and an i-s a ism, he p ocess o educa ion i sel did no ollow a plan p epa ed in ad ance o some kind o a bluep in bu was a o m o expe imen a ion. Acco ding o he ana chis s, his o m o cons an expe imen a ion is ans e ed om he school o he whole u u e ana chis socie y, becoming he way o bo h o m and main ain i . Secondly, ana chis educa ion ecognises he dange o au ho i y and powe ela ions, bu hey a e no ejec ed ou igh . The same idea was de eloped by Foucaul ( o which he could be conside ed an ana chis ). The line be ween an accep able and an unaccep able o m o discipline is no easy o d aw because i is ecognised ha people a e ee and unp edic able in hei ac ions. Ne e heless, a leas wo ea u es o ‘good’ discipline o ana chism can be no ed: disciplina y mechanisms mus be explici so ha pa icipan s a e awa e o he powe ela ions hey gi e ise o, and discipline should no be unde s ood as a p epa a o y s ep o a ma u e ee s a e o a pe son bu mus assume equali y om he e y beginning. Acco ding o MacAllis e , o discipline o be conside ed an educa ional concep , i is necessa y o claim ha ‘discipline is no some hing ha happens o pupils 63 S uggles o iden i y The con ex – Whe e a e we going a e he e o m? The immedia e con ex o he ans o ma ion is he Finnish highe educa ion e o m s a ed by he new Uni e si y Ac (558/2009) in June 2009. The e o m b ings a massi e and mul iple-le el ansi ion o Finnish highe educa ion, om a es uc u ing o he whole sys em, he unding model and he s a egy di ec ion o in e na ionalisa ion, e c. Public unding is adically educed, bu unp eceden ed au onomy is g an ed o uni e si ies by endowing uni e si ies o use he iden i y change o becoming independen legal pe sonali ies o collec ex e nal unding (Uni e si y Ac , 2009) and gene a e e enue om comme cial means. Due o he s ess o e he need o esou ces o su i e, many uni e si ies ha e o change hei s a egies and p epa e hemsel es o compe e in he global ma ke . Such ansi ion is e lec ed in he policies discussed la e . Unde he e o m, h ee g oups o uni e si ies me ged in o h ee bigge uni e si ies du ing 2007–2010 (Eu opean Commission, 2016). The Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland (UEF) is chosen as he case s udy because UEF wen h ough bo h he me ge and he o e all e o m, which p o ides a ep esen a i e case. The new b anding enamed he wo me ged uni e si ies ( he Uni e si y o Joensuu and he Uni e si y o Kuopio) as he Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland (UEF). Howe e , his s udy conside s UEF as a whole o he ma e o cla i y. Unde his ansi ion, UEF published a se ies o s a egy policies abou how o ake he uni e si y in o a new e a o de elopmen , ying o make UEF s onge and mo e compe i i e. These policy documen s a e used as he da a o inspec he ansi ion. The discu si e cons uc o iden i y The heo e ical g ound o his s udy’s esea ch on he iden i y ansi ion o a uni e si y h ough discou se lies in he pos mode nis iew o ins i u ional iden i y as a discu si e cons uc and iden i y as he o ali y o he na a i es o who we hink we a e (e.g. Humph eys & B own, 2002). Iden i y is a complex concep , and he iden i y o a uni e si y, as a collec i e iden i y, is mul i- ocal om mul iple oices inside he o ganisa ion (Boje, 2001; May , 2015). Thus, o Hen y Yuan Wang 64 main ain he cla i y o he s udy, his pape in es iga es only one impo an aspec cons i u ing he collec i e iden i y – how he uni e si y po ays i sel in i s own policy discou se. The pos mode n heo e ical g ound o s udying an ins i u ion’s iden i y h ough i s discou se is how he connec ion o discou se and in ui ions is concep ualised – he ‘linguis ic u n’, wi h emphasis on he ole o language use in social cons i u ion, essen ially iews discou se as cons i u i e o ins i u ions (Fai clough & Wodak, 1997; Mumby & Mease, 2011; May , 2015). Mumby and Clai (1997) explain his poin as ollows: O ganiza ions exis only in so a as hei membe s c ea e hem h ough discou se. This is no o claim ha o ganiza ions a e ‘no hing bu ’ discou se, bu a he ha discou se is he p inciple means by which o ganiza ion membe s c ea e a cohe en social eali y ha ames hei sense o who hey a e. (1997, p. 181) Tha is o say, discou se plays a cons i u ing ole in shaping he ins i u ion’s iden i y. Ins i u ional iden i y is a socially cons uc ed meaning by i s own ins i u ional membe s who sha e he idea o wha i is, and i is no ixed bu a he a dynamic cons uc ion ( an de Wal 2007, p. 183). This s udy’s in es iga ion o he pa icula c a ed changes imposed upon he uni e si y’s iden i y exposes he deepe meaning o he di ec ion he policymake s a e leading he uni e si y owa ds and wha kind o social eali y hey a e ying o cons uc . Resea ch ques ion and policy documen s as da a The objec i e o he s udy is o make sense o he ecen Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland (UEF) ansi ion in policies and o analyse he iden i y changes o a Finnish uni e si y. The ansi ion can be seen om he compa ison o he iden i y p esen ed in he uni e si y policies be o e and a e he e o m. I e eals he de elopmen and e olu ion o a Finnish highe educa ion ins i u e. The esea ch ques ion is: how is he iden i y ansi ion o UEF e lec ed and jus i ied in i s policy discou se a e he highe educa ion e o m? 65 S uggles o iden i y No man Fai clough’s c i ical discou se analysis (CDA) amewo k is adop ed o examine he policy discou se ansi ion. Fai clough’s accoun o discou se analysis is h ee-dimensional, consis ing o ex ual analysis, discu si e analysis and social analysis. Wi hin he CDA amewo k, a se o speci ic uni e si y s a egic policy documen s du ing 2000–2015 a e he da a o his s udy, as shown in he ollowing able. Table 1. The documen s (coded as he yea hey we e published) Policy documen Code name by publish yea To a new millennium: The s a egy o he Uni e si y o Joensuu o he yea s 2000–2006 Documen 2000 S a egy o he in e na ionalisa ion o he Uni e si y o Joensuu o he yea s 2007–2015 Documen 2007 A uni e si y o he u u e – S a egy o he Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland (2010) Documen 2010 In e na ionalisa ion policy o he Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland 2012–2015 Documen 2012 In e disciplina y solu ions – S a egy o he Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland o 2015–2020 Documen 2014a (Auxilia y documen ) Implemen a ion p og amme o he s a egy o 2015–2020 Documen 2014b The new policies a e he e o m (Documen s 2010, 2012, 2014a and 2014b) o m he da a ha p esen he new s a egic p io i ies o UEF, which also p o ide he esou ce o he agmen ed na a i es o UEF’s iden i y. In addi ion, he ansi ion is seen h ough compa ison o he old policies (Documen s 2000 and 2007). I ea he new policies as a whole o he e idence a e he e o m, whe eas he old policies as a whole p o ide he esou ces be o e he e o m. The s udy only chose English documen s as he da a – he discou se in English is a medium ha e lec s how he uni e si y cons uc s i s iden i y on a global scale. The uni e si y p o ides he English documen s publicly o he global audience. Hen y Yuan Wang 66 Findings The analysis dis ils he dis inc i e discu si e p ac ices ha help o shape he new eali y, which p o ides he g ound o he iden i y ans o ma ion. The new iden i y cons uc ion is jus i ied and ul illed by h ee p edominan discu si e p ac ices: 1. jus i ied by di e en laye s o e-con ex ualisa ion; 2. legi imised by dominan an e-na a i es; 3. in e media ed by discu si e p ac ice no malisa ion. Re-con ex ualisa ion Re-con ex ualisa ion is a p ocess in which one discou se o i s meaning ans e s in o ano he con ex . Linell (1998) simply pu i as ‘ he dynamic ans e -and- ans o ma ion o some hing om one discou se/ ex -in-con ex ... o ano he ’ (p. 154). One p ominen analysis inding is ha he new Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland (UEF) s a egy policies jus i y hemsel es by no iceably e-con ex ualising elemen s om Eu opean Union (EU) policies and Finnish na ional policies. This o ms he op-down le el consis ency (EU le el–Finnish na ional le el–UEF ins i u ional le el) in policy di ec ion, which I deno e as EU–FI–UEF consis ency in his s udy. The mos ema kable ans e ed discou ses include es ablishing an inc easingly conc e e quali y assu ance sys em, he ansi o a ‘s uden -cen ed uni e si y’, he same jus i ica ion o exi he economic c isis, he encou agemen o expo ollowing he Eu opean Commission’s coun y-speci ic ecommenda ions, e c., which all indica e ha UEF’s cu en de elopmen is in line wi h EU’s planning di ec ion. Fo example, he discou se o ma ke ising highe educa ion, wi h he same p esump ion o ea ing highe educa ion as a p oduc /se ice ha can be expo ed, is ans e ed om EU policies and Finnish policies, as shown below: 67 S uggles o iden i y Table 2. Example o how educa ion expo discou se is e-con ex ualised om EU o UEF F om he EU le el: Eu ope 2020: A s a egy o sma , sus ainable and inclusi e g ow h Unleash Eu ope’s inno a i e capabili ies, imp o ing educa ional ou comes and he quali y and ou pu s o educa ion ins i u ions, and exploi ing he economic and socie al bene i s o a digi al socie y. Eu ope 2020 S a egy (2010, p. 12) F om he Finnish na ional le el: Finnish educa ion expo s a egy Educa ional know-how will be a Finnish expo clus e in he u u e. Educa ional know- how will be an inc easingly impo an pa o indus ial and se ice p oduc s and in his way, i will bols e o he expo sec o s. Educa ion expo s a egy (2010, p. 7) F om he UEF ins i u ional le el: In e disciplina y solu ions – S a egy o he Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland o 2015–2020 We p omo e he ans e o he uni e si y’s esea ch indings o suppo knowledge- based g ow h … Documen 2014a, p. 6 We a e known as a pa ne …, and as a p oduce o esea ch da a and educa ion … Documen 2014a, p. 3 As he analysis o o he co e discou ses shows, he EU c isis he o ic is ans e ed in o he Finnish highe educa ion con ex , and he same jus i ica ion o escape he economy c isis, o be ‘compe i i e’ and ‘succeed’, is adop ed o jus i y he ansi ion o he Finnish uni e si y. I sugges s ha he Finnish uni e si y’s p io i y is aligned o he economic p io i ies o he EU and he s a e in a synch onised way. The compliance o EU policies’ economic ini ia i e o ake a sha e o global ma ke and occupy a compe i i e posi ion he ein has sp ead o Finnish highe educa ion. Dominan compe i ion an e-na a i es The an e-na a i e, namely ‘be o e na a i e’, is a concep de ined by Boje (2001) o s udy hose agmen ed pieces o na a i es in an o ganisa ional con ex because, Hen y Yuan Wang 68 in o ganisa ional se ings, na a i es a e o en a icula ed only in agmen s. An e- na a i es, simply pu , a e pieces o discou ses be o e hey become a comple e s o y. The eoccu ing he o ic pa e ns ha o mula e he cons i uen an e- na a i es o he new iden i y a e he e o m a e he ‘global compe i ion’ an e-na a i es. The compe i ion- ocused s o y elling cons an ly se es as he backg ound o jus i y he ansi ion. The new policies se ou he ension o compe i ion a he e y beginning. Fo ins ance, Documen 2012 se s up he backd op ha ‘Eu ope is ailing’ be o e any s o y is being old: … acco ding o analyses by he Eu opean Commission in 2005 and 2006, only a ew Eu opean uni e si ies a e ecognised as global leade s. Indeed, Eu opean highe educa ion ins i u ions a e ailing o a ac enough s uden s, esea che s and in es men s om ou side he EU. Cu en ly, he Uni ed S a es is he leade in a ac ing he bes s uden s, while China and India a e also eme ging as i als o Eu opean highe educa ion ins i u ions. (Documen 2012, p. 3) A he e y beginning, he discou se s a es ‘ he ac ’ ha Eu opean uni e si ies a e ‘ ailing’, which gi es a sense o impe a i eness – i is an una oidable obliga ion o deal wi h he ‘ ailu e’. The compe i ion an e-na a i es also ha bou he p esupposi ion ha i is he Eu opean highe educa ion ins i u es’ p ima y du y o compe e in he global ma ke , such as Documen 2012, wi h some speci ic majo compe i o s gi en, e.g. ‘ he Uni ed S a es, China and India’ (p. 3). The discou se ‘only a ew Eu opean uni e si ies a e ecognized as global leade s’ (p. 3) implies ha Eu opean uni e si ies no only mus compe e in he global ma ke bu also should domina e he ma ke . Highe educa ion ins i u ions used o be expec ed o c adle he ci ic de elopmen and in ellec ual compe ence o he socie y, bu now ‘a high le el o expe ise and in e na ional ne wo king’ is expec ed (Documen 2010, p. 4). They ha e o ‘mee he demands o ope a ional e iciency’ (Documen 2010, p. 4), hey a e expec ed ‘ o succeed’ (Documen 2010, p. 4), o ‘a ac he bes s uden s’ (Documen 2012, p. 3) and o ‘a ac esea che s and in es men s’ (Documen 2014a, p. 3, p. 4, p. 6) and o be ‘global leade s’ (Documen 2012, p. 3). 69 S uggles o iden i y The uni e si y hence o wa d is also expec ed o inc ease he a ac i eness o he coun y and se e o help he coun y o ‘become one o he wo ld’s leading educa ion-based economies’ (Documen 2012, p. 4) and ‘inc ease he expo ’ (Documen 2012, p. 4), e.g. Documen 2012: The a ac i eness o Finland as a business, wo k and li ing en i onmen mus be inc eased … The s a egy … s i es owa ds Finland becoming one o he wo ld’s leading educa ion-based economies, which elies on he high quali y o i s educa ion sys em, as well as owa ds signi ican ly inc easing he p opo ion o educa ion and knowledge expo s in ela ion o o e all expo s by 2015. (Documen 2012, pp. 3–4) ‘Compe i ion’ is accele a ed on an unp eceden ed le el in he new UEF policies compa ed o hose be o e he e o m. Compe i ion as he mo i o he new documen s is se as he backg ound o jus i y he policy di ec ion – o jus i y he ansi ion o he uni e si y’s iden i y. Discu si e p ac ice no malisa ion The e a e p ominen discu si e ea u es in he new policies ha b ing ou a s iking con as o he old documen s be o e he e o ms. These discu si e p ac ices acili a e he ansi ion o he social changes wi h ine sub le y. Wi hou compa ison, hey a e almos unde ec able because hey appea e y na u al. Jus as Fai clough (2007) sugges s, i is h ough his na u alising and no malising o ce ain discou ses and hei backg ounded ideologies ha he enginee ing o a ce ain legi imacy is achie ed. The mos pe asi e discu si e p ac ice change is ha he new policy discou ses la gely inco po a e comme cial- and business-s yle discou ses, esul ing in hyb id quasi-ad e ising and quasi-co po a e discou ses. A new discou se ea u e om he new documen s wi h he in eg a ed business and ad e ising s yle can be ound om he indi idual wo d-choice le el, o he discu si e-s yle le el, o he o e all isual-layou le el. F om he choice o ocabula y, he e is a no able inc ease in sel -p omo ional wo ds such as ‘e icien ’ and ‘ op-le el’, which clea ly indica e he signi icance o he uni e si y; see he able below. Hen y Yuan Wang 70 Table 3. P omo ional wo ds om he op 30 mos equen ly eoccu ing wo ds lis Be o e e o ms A e e o ms Documen 2000 Documen 2010 Documen 2014a Wo d Coun Densi y Wo d Coun Densi y Wo d Coun Densi y high be e 5 5 0.16% 0.16% in e na ional high s ong signi ican compe i i e a ac i e e sa ile 35 15 8 8 8 6 5 0.98% 0.42% 0.22% 0.22% 0.22% 0.17% 0.14% in e na ional s ong e icien ac i e op-le el global scien i ic omo ows high achie emen mode n s eng hened ac i ely e iciency 23 10 7 6 6 6 6 5 4 3 3 3 3 3 1.26% 0.55% 0.38% 0.33% 0.33% 0.33% 0.33% 0.27% 0.22% 0.16% 0.16% 0.16% 0.16% 0.16% Ano he example om he quasi-ad e ising choice o wo ds is he pe asi e use o ‘we’, o example: • We a e an in e na ional, mul idisciplina y and s uden -cen ed uni e si y whose high s anda d o esea ch and appealing academic o e ing build he compe ence base o he u u e. • We make use o he expe ise o he en i e academic communi y in ou ac i i ies. • We a e an in e na ionally a ac i e uni e si y, which seeks o ind in e disciplina y solu ions o global challenges. • We a e home o Finland’s bes academic lea ning en i onmen s and mos e icien s udy p ocesses. (Documen 2014a, p. 3) The ollowing Table 4 shows he equency o he use o ‘we’ in he s a egy documen s. 71 S uggles o iden i y Table 4. Use o ‘we’ in s a egy documen s Be o e e o ms A e e o ms Documen 2000 Documen 2014a Wo d Coun Densi y Wo d Coun Densi y we 60.18% we 30 1.57% As shown in he abo e able, he pe asi e use o ‘we’ is one o he many discu si e ea u es con ibu ing o a discou se s yle shi a e he e o ms. The p onoun ‘we’ is used as a pe sonalisa ion o he ins i u ion and is used 30 imes in he la es s a egy pape , Documen 2014a. This pe sonalisa ion s yle o add essing eade s di ec ly is commonly used in ad e ising p ac ice, which is an example o he hyb id quasi-ad e ising gen e (Fai clough, 1993). Using ‘we’ as a e e ence o sel esembles a s yle o con e sa ion, as i he ex is di ec ly alking o he audience. This kind o con e sa ionalising policy discou se is ega ded by Fai clough (1994) as a ype o commodi ica ion o public discou se, which is also an indica o o he ma ke isa ion o highe educa ion (Fai clough, 1993, 1994). Inc eased isual con en is also ano he ea u e. Visual con en , as non- e bal messages, in CDA is also conside ed a pa o discou se (Fai clough, 1992). A compa ison o he da a shows ha om 2000 o 2015 he documen s become inc easingly mo e concise. Especially he new documen s a e he e o m display a clea e emphasis on he majo ea u es o UEF. In addi ion, hese majo ea u es can be conside ed as he selling poin s o UEF om he pe spec i e o b anding and ma ke ing. The s yle and layou o he new documen s, especially Documen 2014a, is mo e han ha o jus an o dina y policy documen . The o ma is ge ing close o a comme cial b ochu e ha p o ides mo e p omo ional in o ma ion and isual con en . Fo ins ance, he ollowing able compa es he same con en bu in ob iously di e en o ms: Hen y Yuan Wang 72 Table 5. Visual con en s Be o e e o ms A e e o ms Documen 2010 Documen 2014a In his able, he le (Documen 2010, p. 8) and igh (Documen 2014a, p. 2) columns show pages ha exp ess he same discou se on UEF’s emphasised esea ch a eas. Clea ly, Documen 2014a is mo e concise, wi h an a is ic design making i easie and a ac i e o ead and highligh ing ce ain impo an in o ma ion. No jus he con en bu also he s yle has d as ically changed compa ed o he old documen s; he ollowing able shows an example o he di e ence: 79 S uggles o iden i y Re e ences Boje, D. M. 2001. Na a i e Me hods o O ganiza ional & Communica ion Resea ch. London: Sage. Boje, D. M. 2008. S o y elling O ganiza ions. Los Angeles: Sage. B own, A.D. 2006. A na a i e app oach o collec i e iden i ies. Jou nal o Managemen S udies, 43 (4), 731–753. Ek, A.-C., Ideland, M., Jönsson, S. & Malmbe g, C. 2013. S udies in Highe Educa ion, 38 (9), 1305–1318. Ende s, J. & De Boe , H. 2009. The mission impossible o he Eu opean uni e si y: Ins i u ional con usion and ins i u ional di e si y. In A. Ama al, G. Nea e, C. Musselin & P. Maassen (eds), Eu opean In eg a ion and he Go e nance o Highe Educa ion and Resea ch. Highe Educa ion Dynamics, ol 26. Do d ech : Sp inge , 159–178. Fai clough, N. 1992. Discou se and Social Change. Camb idge: Poli y P ess. Fai clough, N. 1993. C i ical discou se analysis and he ma ke iza ion o public discou se: The uni e si ies. Discou se & Socie y, 4 (2), 133–168. Fai clough, N. 1994. Con e sa ionaliza ion o public discou se and he au ho i y o he consume . In R. Kea , N. Whi eley & N. Abe combie, The Au ho i y o he Consume . London: Rou ledge, 253–268. Fai clough, N. 2007. Global capi alism and change in highe educa ion: Dialec ics o language and p ac ice, echnology, ideology. BAAL con e ence, Edinbu gh. Fai clough, N. & Wodak, R. 1997. C i ical discou se analysis. In T. A. an Dijk (ed.), In oduc ion o Discou se Analysis. Newbu y Pa k: Sage. Hube , B. 2016. The ole o uni e si ies in socie y. In N.C Liu, Y. Cheng & Q. Wang (eds), Ma ching Visibili y and Pe o mance. Global Pe spec i es on Highe Educa ion. Ro e dam: SensePublishe s, 91–99. Humph eys, M. & B own, A. D. 2002. Na a i es o o ganiza ional iden i y and iden i ica ion: A case s udy o hegemony and esis ance. O ganiza ion S udies, 23 (3), 421–447. Linell, P. 1998. App oaching Dialogue: Talk, In e ac ion and Con ex s in Dialogical Pe spec i es. Ams e dam: John Benjamins. May , A. 2015. Ins i u ional discou se. In D. Tannen, H.E. Hamil on & D. Schi in (eds), The Handbook o Discou se Analysis (2nd edi ion). Chiches e : Wiley Blackwell, 755–774 . Mumby, D. K. & Clai , R. P. 1997. O ganiza ional discou se. In T. A. Van Dijk (ed.), Discou se as Social In e ac ion. London: Sage, 181–205. Mumby, D. K. & Mease, J. 2011. O ganisa ional discou se. In T. A. Van Dijk (ed.), Discou se S udies: A Mul idisciplina y In oduc ion (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage, 283–302. Hen y Yuan Wang 80 an de Wal , J. L. 2007. Fo malizing ins i u ional iden i y: A wo kable idea? In D. N. Aspin & J. D. Chapman (eds), Values Educa ion and Li elong Lea ning. Li elong Lea ning Book Se ies, ol 10. Do d ech : Sp inge , 180–198. SECTION 2 JUSTIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL KNOWLEDGE Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge (eds), Disciplina y S uggles in Educa ion Tampe e Uni e si y P ess 2019, 83–115 h p://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-952-359-002-1 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy Lessons om Finland Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde Abs ac The chap e discusses he concep o discipline in ela ion o s uggles o e knowledge p oduc ion and powe . I uses as an example he pa hways o s udies on adul and oca ional educa ion be ween he academy, poli ics and p ac ice, especially beside he s udy o gene al educa ion, which much ea lie gained an ins i u ionalised and ecognised posi ion in he academy and in educa ional knowledge p oduc ion. Applying a genealogical and ac o ne wo k- heo e ical app oach, he chap e a gues ha he disciplina isa ion o scien i ica ion o educa ional knowledge is no p ima ily an issue o concep ual and heo e ical p og ess. Ra he i indica es ela ions and powe s uggles be ween ac o s in he academy, poli ics, economy and p ac ice. Keywo ds: Disciplina isa ion; adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion; genealogical and ac o ne wo k- heo e ical app oach. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 84 In oduc ion The domina ing in e p e a ion among Finnish adul educa o s emphasises he o ma ion o adul educa ion as a ield o s udy ha ollowed a logical p og ess om p ac ice o he concep ualisa ion o p ac ice o heo y and me a heo y (Du kheim, 1956; Leh onen, 1979; Alanen, 1977; Tuomis o, 1985, 2005, o hcoming; Finge , 2001). We a gue ha he academisa ion and scien i ica ion o nei he adul educa ion no oca ional educa ion ollow he con en ional s o y. Ins ead, unde s anding he p ocess demands a c i ical sociohis o ical analysis, a s udy o he dynamics be ween di e en ields (o educa ional science) and ques ioning he an agonis ic di ision be ween p ac ice, esea ch and poli ics as well as edi ica ion and economic de elopmen in educa ion. Based on ou s udies, we a gue ha , a leas in Finland, he sciences o (gene al) educa ion, adul educa ion and oca ional educa ion had di e se oo s be o e becoming educa ional sub-disciplines in he acul ies o educa ion, es ablished in he 1970s. While he di e en ia ion in gene al educa ion may be a ibu ed o inc easing specialisa ion and p o essionaliza ion, he making o he ields o adul and oca ional educa ion was due o hei close connec ions o poli ical and economic change. Thei disciplina isa ion happened qui e sepa a ely om ha o gene al educa ion. While i is possible o map di e ences in hei unde lying heo e ical and concep ual amewo ks, we a gue ha he ac ual solu ions ha e a he been ou comes o in e wined powe s uggles in poli ics, economy, academy and p ac ice. Al hough inc easingly aking place in ansna ional se ings, such s uggles a e s ill wo h no icing when conside ing he disciplina y s a us o adul and oca ional educa ion in di e en con ex s. Ins ead o p o iding a comp ehensi e o e iew o he his o ies o he adul educa ion and oca ional educa ion disciplines in Finland,1 we ocus on he ea ly yea s and i al u ning poin s o hei disciplina isa ion o highligh he en anglemen o hei ans o ma ion wi h social, poli ical and economic 1 Al hough we a e awa e o he con o e sial no ions o ‘science’ and ‘discipline’, in his a icle we ocus on hei unc ion as ools in s uggles abou hegemony in knowledge c ea ion. We a e also awa e abou he many o he dema ca ions in/be ween adul and oca ional educa ion, such as you h educa ion/wo k, social pedagogy, managemen and HRD s udies, wo k science e c., bu assume ha ou app oach could be widened o hem as well. 85 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy p og ammes. In he nex sec ion we b ie ly discuss he main heo e ical and me hodological s a ing poin s o ou app oach. The ollowing h ee sec ions p o ide examples o he conc e e implemen a ion o hose p og ammes in analysing he disciplina isa ion o adul and oca ional educa ion. In he inal sec ion we in oduce p elimina y conclusions and discuss he po en ial o ou app oach o u u e esea ch. Figu es isualise he ac o s ini ia ing he disciplina isa ion o adul and oca ional educa ion and he shi ing posi ions o he disciplines in he changing ac o ne wo ks.2 A lis o abb e ia ions o he main ac o s can be ound a he end o he chap e . Theo e ical and me hodological s a ing poin s Among he s a ing poin s o ou esea ch is he assump ion ha esea ch ields, wi h hei dis inc i e concep ualisa ion, eme ge as pa o poli ical p og ammes (La ou , 1993; Na o zky, 2007). The e o e, we conside ha his o icising and con ex ualising – genealogical, ac o -based, ela ional – analysis is equi ed o make sense o he socie al, poli ical and economic unc ions o adul and oca ional educa ion disciplines. Ou a emp is mo i a ed by conce ns abou unde s anding and in luencing he p esen , whe e adul and oca ional educa ion a e con on ed by cu en challenges o he globalisa ion o he economy, he sup ana ionalisa ion o poli ics and ecological, economic and social c ises. This, we belie e, equi es a c i ical e ision o hei basic concep s (Pä ä i e al., 2016). The c a ing o ou ‘ e lexi e his o ical ma e ialis ’ (Na o zky, 2007) app oach has been in luenced by Michel Foucaul ’s genealogy and B uno La ou ’s ac o - ne wo k heo y (ANT), which bo h conside he eme gence and ans o ma ion o e en s as con ingen p ocesses. Ins ead o elling he s o y om he s andpoin o ideas, ‘ ounding a he s’, p og ess o eg ess, we aim o show i as a complex o ela ions be ween e en s and ac ions. 2 To emind abou he s uggle be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion, we use colo s o en a i e pa in he s uggle: yellow o gene al, blue o oca ional and g een o adul educa ion. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 86 The genealogical app oach implies ha disciplina isa ion is unde s ood as a s uggle o e knowledge p oduc ion among di e en ac o s and ins i u ions, embedded in ans o ma ion and powe ela ions o socie y, poli ics and economy. Ins ead o deba ing abou he u h o disciplina isa ion o he scien i ic quali y o gene al, adul o oca ional educa ion, we ask how ce ain bodies o knowledge became cons i u ed and s a ed o condi ion hemsel es and hei a ge s. Following Foucaul , we u n Kan ’s ques ion o wha in he appa en ly con ingen is ac ually necessa y o he ques ion wha in he appa en ly necessa y seems con ingen (Foucaul , 1971, 1980; Dean, 1994; Gu ing, 2013.) The s anda d na a i es end o ake he con empo a y p o essionalised and scien i ic p ac ice as a s a ing poin and o iew he pas as a eleological p ocess owa ds he p esen , which de e mines he selec ion o objec s in in e p e a ions. As his o ians such as Michael Wel on (1994, 2010) s a e abou his o ical s udies on adul educa ion, hei challenge is he p oblema isa ion and heo isa ion o hei objec s. In genealogical analysis, we ask wha was heo ised and concep ualised in he p oduc ion o scien i ic knowledge abou adul and oca ional educa ion, and wha was le ou . Acco dingly, he esponsibili y o his o ical esea ch owa ds he u u e is o a i m he p esen as a p og essi e mo emen (Dean, 1994, pp. 23–29). Ou in e es is specially o sea ch o s uggles which a e ma ginalised o silenced in he disciplina y na a i es e en hough hey may be mos i al o he ans o ma ion o educa ional sciences (Foucaul , 1980, p. 81). The s anda d s o y’s ins i u ional poin o iew and i s seg ega ion o p ac ice om heo y can be p oblema ised by b oadening i s empi ical app oach and use o p ima y sou ces. This can be done by con on ing p e ious esea ch wi h examples o igno ed si es and ac o s o knowledge p oduc ion. B uno La ou ’s ANT p o ides a ‘ a el guide’ o ou s udy abou disciplina isa ion h ough he ela ions o ac o s and he o ma ion o collec i es (La ou , 2005; Leh onen, 2015). ANT aces he his o y o en olmen s o ac o s in o assemblages, hei appea ances and disappea ances, and he spokespe sons o assemblages. Ins ead o deba ing wi h p e ailing discou ses abou disciplina isa ion, we ollow ac o s in he mids o he o uous his o y o disciplina isa ion (La ou , 2005, p. 103). Using ANT concep s, we ask whe he he disciplina isa ion o adul and oca ional educa ion has been an a emp o 87 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy u n o a ‘black box’ – hiding wha happens inside om ou side s – in o de o be ecognised as independen uni s ha ha e au onomy o decide who is eligible o ac in hei name and wha concep s a e used o desc ibe hei ac ion. In La ou ’s la on ology in which all human and non-human ac o s ollow he same me aphysical p inciples, black boxes can mean ac s ha a e aken o g an ed, g oups ha a e es ablished and well-o ganised o machines (La ou , 1987; Ha man, 2009). Acco dingly, he cons i u ion o disciplines can be seen as a simul aneous p ocess o ac cons uc ion and g oup o ma ion, whe e concep s, heo ies, me hodologies and pa adigms a e nego ia ed. Th ough opening black boxes, we can s udy how ac s a e cons uc ed and wha is aken o g an ed in disciplina y ans o ma ion and how g oups o people nego ia e o e he place o a discipline inside academic acul ies and depa men s. We ask who we e nego ia ing and which ac o s and ac s we e en olled in o he discipline. Following La ou , we ask how s ong he disciplina y black boxes a e, by which kind o people hey we e accompanied and wha kinds o connec ions hey had o o he collec i e ac o s in o he disciplines, in educa ional p ac ice, in policymaking o in wo king li e. (La ou , 1987; Callon e al., 1981.) As s a ed by Olli Pyyh inen and Saka i Tamminen (2011), Foucaul ’s and La ou ’s app oaches can be conside ed complemen a y since hey bo h emphasise in en ionali y as dis ibu ed o e ela ional ield o ne wo ks ha change and mo e, associa e and di e en ia e, hough Foucaul e e s o hese assemblages as disposi i s and La ou as ac o -ne wo ks. We also build on hei no ion abou compensa ing Foucaul ’s sea ch o assemblages p eceding cu en ones by La ou ’s a el guide o s udy he conc e e olding o ac o s in hei p esen . (Pyyh inen & Tamminen, pp. 136–143.) Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 88 In he mids o economic and socie al mo emen s: The sel -concep ion o eme ging adul and oca ional educa ion ‘disciplines’ (1920s–1940s) The s anda d s o y loca es he s a o educa ional science in Finland o 1852, when he i s p o esso ship was es ablished in he Uni e si y o Helsinki, quali ying eache s o gymnasia. Folk school eache s we e ained in a sepa a e semina om 1863, in close collabo a ion wi h he School Boa d (KH) in he minis y o educa ion. Ini ia i es on including olk edi ica ion in educa ional science we e pu o h in 1920, bu he p edecesso o he discipline o adul educa ion, he s udy o olk edi ica ion, s a ed in he Ci ic College (School o Social Sciences) in 1928 as pa o social sciences. A chai ollowed in 1946, and he acul y o social science was es ablished in 1949. Voca ional educa ion, al e na i ely, was p omo ed in sec o minis ies and depa men s as a componen in he p omo ion o na ional indus ies. The ollowing simpli ied igu e (Figu e 1) shows how in luen ial ac o s we e posi ioned soon a e Finnish independence (1917) and he Ci il Wa (1918), Figu e 1. Engines in he disciplina isa ion o adul and oca ional educa ion in he 1920s. 95 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy li elihood and social li e, combining amilies, households and communi ies (Heikkinen 2004; see Koski in his book). Pa adoxically, he disciplina isa ion o oca ional (adul ) educa ion p oceeded mo e holis ically bu was inc easingly domina ed by he powe s uggles be ween he na ional indus ies. S udies on he e iciency and con ol o wo k3 The scien i ica ion4 o oca ional educa ion is seemingly sepa a e om he de elopmen o gene al and adul educa ion, being di ec ly embedded in he con empo a y economic and poli ical con o e sies and domina ed by he big- expo , especially wood-p ocessing, indus y. While he di e se concep ions and p ac ices o oca ional educa ion eme ged as pa o di e en indus ial and occupa ional ields, he e was no join concep o sys em o educa ing oca ional educa o s no join heo ies on oca ional educa ion. The concep ions and p ac ices ans o med h ough ne wo ks and pe sonal alliances be ween indus ial ac o s, educa ional ins i u ions and s a e adminis a ion. Ini ia i es o s a academic s udies on oca ional educa ion, no o men ion as pa o gene al educa ion, we e no ele an be o e he 1940s. (Heikkinen, 2004, 2012; Heikkinen e al., 1999.) Howe e , i can be claimed ha he disciplina isa ion o oca ional educa ion was a e all linked o gene al and adul educa ion. On one hand, he concep o u al edi ica ion, which included occupa ion and indus y, was ma ginalised by he social-libe alis wo ke s’ edi ica ion, which became hegemonic in he s udy o olk edi ica ion (Heikkinen, 2011, 2017). This implied a ejec ion o issues ela ed o indus ial ela ions, which posed a poli ical h ea in he a e ma h o he Ci il Wa : in he eyes o he winne s, bo h he u ban p ole a ia and he newly es ablished small a me s emained un eliable (Ke unen, 2013). Du ing he 1910s–20s, Jalma i Kekkonen, he inspec o o oca ional educa ion in he Boa d o Indus y, and Hannes Gebha d, p o esso o ag icul u e, na ional economy and 3 In o de o educe he e e ence lis , mos o he sou ces accessible in p e ious esea ches, ha e been le ou . 4 In he con ex o oca ional educa ion, disciplina iza ion can also be desc ibed as scien i ica ion, since compa ed o olk edi ica ion/adul educa ion, i didn’ ha e explici space in he academy, and e en a e wa ds, ne e gained simila disciplina y independence. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 96 s a is ics and he Fennoman leade o he coope a i e Pelle o-socie y, pu o h ini ia i es abou in eg a ing oca ional educa ion and coope a i e olk edi ica ion. Bo h hoped o edi y he collec i e spi i o he c a and u al indus ies, bu hei agendas emained ma ginal in he disciplina isa ion o bo h adul and oca ional educa ion5 (Heikkinen, 2014a). On he o he hand, gene al educa ion p o ided space o he eme gence o applied psychology (sielu iede – ‘soul science’), which u ned ou o be i al in he scien i ica ion o oca ional educa ion.6 The expo indus y held a hegemonic posi ion bo h in he building o na ional indus ies and in p o ec ing he economic independence o he coun y. Wi h ep esen a i es o s a egic public sec o s – such as he ailways and he mili a y – hei leade s keenly ollowed he a ionalisa ion s a egies and me hods o managemen and pe o mance in ad anced indus ial coun ies. Thei in e es s ma ched wi h he ambi ions o esea che s, who we e eage ly looking o oppo uni ies o p omo e applied psychology in he academy, socie y and indus y. The p inciples o scien i ic managemen and psycho echnique we e adop ed o he ec ui men and de elopmen o s a , o he educa ion o supe iso s and manage s and o echnical educa ion. (Heikkinen, 2012, 2013.) Jalma i Kekkonen pu o h he i s ini ia i e o es ablish an ins i u e o con inuing oca ional educa ion, which would p omo e occupa ion-based knowledge c ea ion and he educa ion o supe iso s and oca ional eache s. Al hough i wasn’ pu in o p ac ice, an Ins i u e o he Ad ancemen o Occupa ions (AEL) was s a ed in 1922, sponso ed by he Boa d o Indus y, he Employe s Union and he Union o Ru al Indus ies. Ano he p oponen o disciplina isa ion was Be nha d Wuolle, he di ec o o he S a e Railways, a eache and p incipal o he Technical Uni e si y and an ac i e municipal policymake . While he ailed o s a a scien i ic ins i u e o wo k esea ch in he Uni e si y, he ounded a psycho echnical labo a o y a he S a e Railways in 1922, s a ed by junio esea che s o expe imen al psychology om he Uni e si ies o Tu ku, Helsinki and Åbo Akademi. I se ed as an example o he labo a o ies o 5 Ne e heless, by de eloping s udies o ad iso s and eache s in uni e si y, Gebha d was qui e in luen ial o educa ion in u al indus ies and coope a i e mo emen . 6 In ac , academic psychology was es ablished because o i s use ulness o occupa ional guidance and job placemen s. (E eläpel o 1979.) 97 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy he Finnish a my, he A ia ion Ins i u e and he S a e Ins i u e o Occupa ional Heal h as well as o ec ui men o oca ional Fac o y Schools7. (Michelsen, 2000; Ki jonen, 2008.) Toge he wi h he AEL, hey suppo ed p oduc i i y h ough a ionalisa ion, scien i ic managemen and wo k e iciency, which se he pace o he scien i ica ion o oca ional educa ion in he u u e. The al e na i e by educa ionalis Väinö Niininen, who wo ked in he psycho echnical labo a o y and augh in he AEL and a employe s’ and ade unions’ managemen cou ses, emained ma ginal. Beside psychology, he emphasised educa ional aspec s in oca ional and s a aining and sugges ed ha occupa ion should be pa o a humane, sensi i e and ai economic, poli ical and e hical li e. (Heikkinen, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015.) I was decisi e o he disciplina isa ion o Finnish oca ional educa ion ha eache and supe iso educa ion was ini ia ed join ly by s a e depa men s and indus ies ins ead o occupa ional o ganisa ions and ade unions, which o poli ical easons did no e en ha e nego ia ion igh s be o e he Win e Wa in 1940. The AEL, he Uni e si y o Technology and echnical ins i u es educa ed mos eache s and supe iso s o he echnical sec o , which was s a ing o domina e he de elopmen o oca ional educa ion (Heikkinen, 2004, 2012). Meanwhile, he discipline o gene al educa ion became inc easingly independen om philosophy and psychology. I expanded o he Uni e si y o Tu ku and o he Pedagogical Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, which was an upg aded olk school eache semina and a o e unne in didac ic and special needs esea ch. In sea ch o disciplina y homes (1950s–1960s) A e he Second Wo ld Wa , whe e Finland wi h i s ally Ge many we e de ea ed, indus y, indus ial ela ions and na ional planning we e eo ganising. Socialis pa ies and associa ions we e accep ed, ade unions we e ecognised as labou ma ke pa ne s and he Ag eemen o F iendship, Coope a ion, and Mu ual Assis ance be ween Finland and he So ie Union was es ablished. The se lemen 7 Es ablished by big expo indus y, bu subsidised by and ollowing he guidelines o he Minis y o T ade and Indus y. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 98 o e ugees om Ka elia, wa paymen s and econs uc ion domina ed economy and poli ics. The g owing demand o subjec eache s o gymnasia (academic seconda y) and he inc ease o empi ical educa ional esea ch, which p o ed use ul in he eme ging na ional planning, encou aged he expansion o gene al educa ion and eache aining o all pa s o he coun y. Al hough eache semina s emained sepa a e, calls o comp ehensi e school e o m and he academisa ion o olk school eache aining became loude (Pennanen, 1997; Ahonen, 2011). The disciplina isa ion o adul and oca ional educa ion s a ed o ake new ou es. The School o Social Sciences was es ablishing i sel as an academic uni e si y and ans o med in o he Uni e si y o Tampe e, supplying ci il se an s and p o essionals especially o public sec o and ci il socie y o ganisa ions. The Depa men o Voca ional Educa ion (AKO) in he minis y o ade and indus y ook a leading ole in he in eg a ion o na ional indus ies h ough he in eg a ion o di e en sec o s o oca ional educa ion. Figu e 2. T ansi ion pe iod om pos -WWII o wel a e s a e e o ms 1950s–60s. 99 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy Al hough he disciplina isa ion o adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion con inued in dis inc i e ac o ne wo ks, hese became inc easingly ins i u ionalised, as indica ed in he ollowing Figu e 2. Acco ding o he s anda d s o y, he hi d s age o he disciplina isa ion o adul educa ion – he heo isa ion o educa ional p ac ice – ook place by he end o he 1960s. I is also a gued ha he expansion o oca ional adul educa ion e ec ed o he concep change om he s udy o olk edi ica ion o adul educa ion science (aikuiskas a us iede) in 1966. Howe e , du ing he 1950s and 1960s, he academic in e es in and esea ch on p ac ice was ma ginal, al hough he s udy o olk edi ica ion was s ill conside ed o belong o he social sciences. The change was s ee ed by he heo e ical o ien a ion o U po Ha a, he i s p o esso o he s udy o olk edi ica ion (since 1946). He held a cen al posi ion in he hea o olk edi ica ion, including he KVS, cen al o gans o wo ke s’ ins i u es, olk high schools, s udy cen es, inspec o s in he School Boa d (KH) and he Socie y o he S udy o Folk Edi ica ion (es . 1940). Howe e , wi h a backg ound and in e es in philosophy and pedagogy, in luenced by he Anglo-Saxon concep o libe al educa ion, he emained dis an o hei adi ion. Al e na i ely, wo ke s’ edi ica ion expanded and gained an o icial s a us a e Wo ld Wa II, especially h ough social democ a ade-unions and municipal Wo ke s’ and People’s ins i u es, whose leade s – such as Wuo en inne – we e de ending he dis inc i eness o olk edi ica ion. As hey an icipa ed, concep ual change would also lead o changes in policy and p ac ice and h ea en i s independence and s a us. Al hough he concu en scien i ica ion o he s udy o gene al educa ion p esumably encou aged Ha a o mo e om concep s o olk and edi ica ion o adul s and educa ion, no connec ions we e buil wi h educa ion science, which was es ablished in he 1960s in he Facul y o Humani ies o he Uni e si y o Tampe e (Aal onen e al., 1991; Rasila, 1973). When looking a he de elopmen s in oca ional educa ion, i canno be claimed ha he e we e in e es s o ex end o, and by no means o occupy, he s udy o olk edi ica ion. The a e o e ings om Aa no Niini (di ec o o he AKO – Depa men o Voca ional Educa ion) and Oi a Kyös iö ( i s doc o al hesis on he his o y o oca ional educa ion) abou ‘occupa ional edi ica ion’ as pa allel o ‘gene al edi ica ion’ we e silenced. On he con a y, inspec o s in Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 100 he AKO began o de elop a model ins i u e o os e ing oca ional eache educa ion and esea ch. (Heikkinen, 2012.) Toge he wi h he leade s o big indus y and he AEL, i es ablished he Ins i u e o Voca ional Teache T aining in Hämeenlinna (AHO) in 1958. The ins i u e ocused on he echnical sec o s, which we e mos s a egic in imp o ing wo k e iciency in he big expo indus y, while he es o he oca ional eache aining uni s emained annexed o o he indus ial b anches. Teache s we e inspec o s and aine s om he Ins i u e o he Ad ancemen o Occupa ions (AEL), om ac o y schools and om he psycho echnical labo a o y o Finnish Railways bu also a ew p o esso s o educa ion ga e lec u e s in pedagogy and didac ics. (Heikkinen, 2012, 2013.) The es ablishmen o he AHO compensa ed o he us a ion o Aa no Niini because he AKO had no achie ed he s a us o a leading agency in con olling he na ional wo k o ce, despi e i s cen al ole du ing Wo ld Wa II and he econs uc ion pe iod. In he AHO, concep ions o oca ional educa ion we e based on psycho echnique and expe imen al psychology, wi h elemen s om humanis ic educa ion and managemen aining in he a med o ces. Besides he AKO, AEL and AHO, he Ins i u e o Leade ship (es . 1946) was pa o he collabo a ing ne wo k, which di ec ed he disciplina isa ion o oca ional educa ion, especially h ough i s i s di ec o , p e ious a my o ice An e o Rau a aa a. In his in luen ial p esen a ions and publica ions, he p opaga ed oca ional educa ion as he libe a o o he will o wo k among he human machine y – wo ke s, employees – o p oduc ion by de eloping hei posi i e disposi ions and by in eg a ing hei in e es s and alues in o he wo k communi y. I canno be claimed ha he p oponen s o oca ional educa ion we e de eloping concep s o heo ies based on oca ional educa ion p ac ice. Ra he hey c ea ed ecipes o ac i i y, which would me ge he oles o indus ial supe iso and oca ional eache and suppo e ec i e and encou aging managemen o he company. (Heikkinen, 2012.) Du ing he 1950s–60s, he e was a shi owa ds adap a ion o he expo indus y-domina ed Finland in bo h adul and oca ional educa ion. Adul educa ion in he academy was p omo ing he sel -unde s anding o he social democ a wo ke s’ mo emen in ep esen ing he p inciples o democ acy and he wellbeing o he populace. This implied, howe e , accep ing he posi ion o 101 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy ‘labou ma ke pa ne ’, whe e he o he pa ne , he employe s in he big expo indus y, allied wi h hei collabo a o s in adminis a ion. They au ho ised he main p o ide s o oca ional educa ion, also o adul s. In o he lap o educa ional science (1970s–) Du ing he 1960s–1970s, he p ojec s o Ag a ian and Small Fa me s’ Finland collapsed. Despi e e o s in egional poli ics and sub-con ac ed small en e p ises, backed by bila e al ade ag eemen s wi h he So ie Union, he collapse o small a ming was ollowed by a massi e mig a ion o Sweden and sou h-wes e n sub-u banising a eas in Finland. The poli ical ic o y o he Social Democ a s, combined wi h he b eak h ough o he adical you h, s uden and cul u al mo emen s, pa ed he way o he Finnish e sion o a ‘No dic wel a e s a e’, p o iding equali y o access and oppo uni y o heal h and social ca e and educa ion, implemen ed quickly du ing he u n o he 1970s (Heikkinen e al., 2011). In 1974, he acul ies o educa ion we e es ablished in se en uni e si ies, when p ima y school eache aining was academised. The depa men s o eache aining and gene al educa ion ep esen ed he majo i y in he new acul ies o educa ion. Despi e esis ance, he Depa men o Adul Educa ion a he Uni e si y o Tampe e (UTA) was mo ed om he Facul y o Social Sciences o he Facul y o Educa ion. The posi ions o he key ac o s in he s uggle o e posi ions o adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion a UTA a e shown in Figu e 3. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 102 Acco ding o he s anda d s o y, esea che s s a ed o s udy he scien i ic na u e and heo ies o adul educa ion in i s ma u e, me ascien i ic s age o he 1970s. One o he main spokespe sons was Aulis Alanen, lec u e and p o esso o he only Finnish Depa men o Adul Educa ion a he Uni e si y o Tampe e (1973–1991). Alanen had a backg ound in wo ke s’ mo emen s and ade unions and commi ed his ca ee o p omo ing wo ke s’ associa ional and ins i u ional ( ade-union olk high schools) edi ica ion. He s a ed o cons uc he g and na a i e o adul educa ion/ olk edi ica ion, building on he de ini ions and in e p e a ions o Cas én and Wuo en inne. While accep ing he inclusion o adul educa ion in educa ional sciences, he s ic ly dema ca ed i om schoolish and ex e nally di ec ed educa ion. (Alanen, 1977; Tuomis o, 2014.) Howe e , in p ac ice, he and o he s a in he depa men we e deeply in ol ed in policymaking. Alanen was a iend and collabo a o o key igu es in wo ke s’ mo emen s, such as Veli Leh onen (di ec o o educa ional a ai s in he cen al o gan o Finnish ade unions, SAK), and in adul educa ion adminis a ion (KH), such as Kos i Huuhka ( he au ho o he i s doc o al hesis on adul educa ion, Figu e 3. S uggle o e adul and oca ional educa ion in he 1970s–80s. 103 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy 1955) (Tuomis o, 2014). In he commi ee o adul educa ion/ aining, oge he hey we e spokespe sons o u u e e o ms, se ing he c i e ia o wha could and should be de ined as adul educa ion and be en i led o s a e suppo .8 Al hough Alanen and his colleagues also pa icipa ed widely in es ablished o ums o olk edi ica ion – he KVS, he Socie y o Resea ch in Adul Educa ion (ATS, un il 1971 he Socie y o S udy o Folk Edi ica ion), e c. – heo e ical and empi ical esea ch in adul educa ion emained na ow and ad oca i e, hough his was unde s andable because o sca ce esou ces. The me ascien i ic phase was ac ually cha ac e ised by he ba le o e he iden i y o adul educa ion as a science, whe e ‘in e na ional’ explana o y models we e popula , bo h among he de ende s o he adi ion and he c i ical opponen s om he Ma xis s uden mo emen (Kalli, 1979; Leh onen, 1979). In he echnoc a ic educa ion poli ics, adul educa ion was conside ed as a pa o he educa ion sys em, and oca ional educa ion could no longe be igno ed. Especially he Uni e si y o Tampe e and he Cen e o De elopmen o S a e Adminis a ion (Val ionhallinnon kehi ämiskeskus, VHKK) we e ollowing he ends in No dic and Cen al-Eu opean esea ch on wo k and occupa ions, he democ a isa ion o wo k and he impe a i es om in e na ionalisa ion and compu e isa ion ega ding he compe ences, social o ganisa ion and managemen o wo ke s and wo k p ocesses. Many s udies and ini ia i es we e pu o h o es ablish esea ch on wo k- ela ed adul educa ion (Tuomis o, 1982, 1986). The es ablishmen o sec o al esea ch ins i u es in minis ies liquida ed plans abou de eloping a mul idisciplina y esea ch-cen e on wo k-li e, whe e adul educa ion and compa a i e esea ch could play a c ucial ole. A he same ime cogni i e psychology became ashionable in he educa ion o social and heal h ca e p o essionals. Ins ead o adul educa ion, howe e , he psychology-led ini ia i es we e i s channelled o he social sciences (Wo k-li e Resea ch in Tampe e) and o wo k-psychology (Uni e si y o Technology in Helsinki, he VHKK and he S a e Ins i u e o Occupa ional Heal h) (Heikkinen, 2012). 8 O he key igu es o he commi ee came om he Finnish Employe s’ Union (STK), hus he commi ee was one a ena o se ling he ‘di ision o labou ’ be ween social democ a -led adul educa ion and conse a i e oca ional educa ion/adul aining, discussed a bi la e in his sec ion. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Sini Te äsahde 104 The p incipal o he AHO, Seppo Oinonen, se he goal o es ablish a esea ch cen e he e o oca ional educa ion du ing he 1960s. Also, a commi ee led by p o esso Väinö Heikkinen (UTA), who was collabo a ing in s a aining wi h he Uni ed Pape Mills (UPM), sugges ed in 1971 ha oca ional eache educa ion should be mo ed in o uni e si y, ollowing he plans abou he academisa ion o p ima y school eache educa ion. Du ing he 1970s oca ional o ien a ion s a ed in gene al and adul educa ion a UTA: he ini ia o s had a common backg ound in conduc ing a i ude su eys wi h eache ainees, in eaching and s a aining in he ac o y schools o big indus y and in he Founda ion o F ee Educa ion.9 In he e a o le adicalism in uni e si ies, bo h he leade s o he big indus y and he Na ional Boa d o Voca ional Educa ion (AKH) we e scep ical owa ds he new acul ies o educa ion. Adul educa ion and wo k esea ch we e also ejec ed, while hei collabo a o s in s a e adminis a ion migh ha e in e p e ed oca ional educa ion as wel a e-se ice and a ool o democ a ising wo k-li e.10 (Heikkinen 2012; 2007.) One may ques ion why he i s p o esso ship in oca ional educa ion s a ed in he Depa men o P ima y School Teache T aining (HOKL) a UTA in Hämeenlinna in he 1980s ins ead o in he depa men s o adul educa ion o (gene al) educa ion. The Ins i u e o Voca ional Teache T aining in Hämeenlinna (AHO) and he UPM made up he kno whe e he h eads we e pulled oge he – he STK and i s co-ope a o s in AKH in he depa men s o adul educa ion and (gene al) educa ion a UTA. The c ucial spokespe son was Ma i Pel onen, he p o esso o adul educa ion du ing 1978–84, who wo ked in he oca ional and s a aining o UPM and in AHO as well as in AKH and in STK, whe e he mo ed in 1982 as he chai o i s Council o Educa ional A ai s. Bo h Pel onen and he u u e p o esso o oca ional educa ion Pekka Ruoho ie had comple ed hei doc o a es in he Depa men o (gene al) Educa ion unde 9 The Founda ion o F ee Educa ion ac ed du ing 1973–1991, esis ing le is educa ion policy, o example by in e ening in ec ui men o s a s in acul ies o educa ion, especially in eache educa ion. (E.g. Suu a inen 2008.) 10 In Uni e si y o Jy äskylä an assis an p o esso ship in oca ional didac ics was es ablished in 1975 in Depa men o Teache Educa ion, wi h expec a ion o collabo a e wi h he Ins i u e o Voca ional Teache T aining in Jy äskylä (AJO) and he na ional Ins i u e o Educa ional Resea ch. 111 Disciplina y s uggles in and be ween adul , oca ional and gene al educa ion in he Academy Re e ences Aal onen, R. & Tuomis o, J. (eds) 1991. Valis us, si is ys, kas a us: kansan alis ukses a aikuiskas a ukseen. Tampe e & Helsinki: ATS & KVS. Aal onen, R. 1981. Läh ökoh ia aikuiskas a uksen his o ian u kimukselle. In J. Taskinen & J. Tuomis o (eds), Aikuiskas a us 80-lu ulla. Tu kimus- ja kehi ämis yön läh ökoh ia. Tampe een yliopis o: Aikuis- ja nuo isokas a uksen julkaisuja 16, 73–88. Ahonen, S. 2011. Millä opeilla ope ajia koulu e iin? In A. Heikkinen & P. Leino- Kaukiainen (eds), Valis us ja koulun penkki. Helsinki: SKS, 239–252. Alanen, A. 1977. Aikuiskas a us ie eenä. 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Kansansi is ysopillisen yhdis yksen uosiki ja. Helsinki: Kansansi is ysopil- linen yhdis ys, 18–34. Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge (eds), Disciplina y S uggles in Educa ion Tampe e Uni e si y P ess 2019, 117–133 h p://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-952-359-002-1 (Re) hinking he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex Lais Oli ei a Lei e Abs ac This wo k in es iga es he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex . I apply Foucauldian analysis, in e sec ional pa adigm, and poli ics o ci a ion o unde s and his o ical and pe sonal e en s in B azil, as well as hei epis emological backg ound: he B azilian posi i ism. I discuss how B azilian posi i ism has been impac ing poli ical decisions and educa ional p ac ices in B azil, disciplining he ype o ela ionship esea che s ha e wi h hei objec o s udy. I inish his pape a guing ha such posi i is ic ela ionship is no possible anymo e due o poli ical and educa ional ans o ma ions in ou socie y. Keywo ds: B azilian posi i ism, Foulcauldian analysis, in e sec ional pa adigm, poli ics o ci a ion. Lais Oli ei a Lei e 118 In oduc ion In his chap e , I explo e he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex . I si ua e esea ch and simila ac i i ies as educa ional p ac ices, conside ing i s inhe en educa ional p ocess o he esea che and i s educa ional ou comes ela ed o sha ing esul s and p og essing science. I begin my discussion wi h a b ie desc ip ion o e en s ha ma ked my academic li e in B azil, which culmina ed in a ‘las s aw’ ha ini ia ed a se ies o e lec ions and esea ch. Then, I p esen he analy ical ools o his in es iga ion: Foucaul ’s analysis, he in e sec ional pa adigm and he poli ics o ci a ion. I will apply hem o unde s and his o ical and pe sonal e en s in B azil as well as hei epis emological backg ound – B azilian posi i ism. I con inue he discussion p esen ing how his pe spec i e has been impac ing poli ical decisions and educa ional p ac ices in B azil, disciplining he ype o ela ionship esea che s ha e wi h hei objec o s udy. I inish his pape a guing ha such posi i is ic ela ionship is no longe possible due o poli ical and educa ional ans o ma ions in ou socie y. The e lec ion p ocess ha he philosophy o educa ion b ings o educa ional sciences is impo an because i opens ques ions abou hidden p emises o esea ch and examines he alues a ec ing academic p ac ices (Rui enbe g, 2010; Tillapaugh & Nicolazzo, 2014). I claims om he educa o - esea che o con empla e one’s own p ocess o e lexi i y while inqui ing and aising hypo heses. I eques s in es iga ions no only abou social and his o ical backg ounds bu also pe sonal psychological, cogni i e and emo ional mechanisms ha a ec esea ch. Vokey (2009) con ibu es o his discussion s a ing ha he e is no con ex - ee epis emological pe spec i e, ‘Ra he , we engage in philosophical inqui y equipped (and some imes saddled) wi h assump ions and in e es s shaped by pa icula s o ou pe sonal biog aphies, social loca ions, poli ical con ex s, and mo e’ (p. 340). Based on hese conside a ions, I de eloped his chap e inspi ed by he ‘me- sea ch’ app oach in luenced by he schola pe sonal na a i e (Jones, 2015). This app oach gi es oice o he au ho ’s expe iences o es hypo heses and accomplish pe sonal inqui y. Mo eo e , I in eg a ed my-sel , my academic backg ound and he social milieu whe e I come om – No h-eas e n B azil – one o he poo es and ‘blackes ’ egions o he coun y (IBGE, 2007) – in he p ocess o his (Re) hinking he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex 119 in es iga ion. My inal goal was o exp ess he ela ionships be ween my w i ing p ocess, he pe sonal dimensions o his in es iga ion and i s ou comes (Co ey, 2001). The ‘las s aw’ In 2016 he mas e ’s hesis de ence o a colleague cons i u ed o me he ‘las s aw’ om a se ies o e en s du ing my academic li e in B azil. He hesis was highly p aised by he supe iso and opponen s, bu s ill he e was a c i icism abou he in ol emen , as a esea che , wi h he ield o esea ch – wha he specialis s poin ed o as a bias mis ake. He esea ch app oached how he human alues o an educa ional p og amme in poo u al communi ies om No h-eas e n B azil in luenced he s uden s’ human alues who engaged in his educa ional p og amme (Ba bosa, 2016). This kind o c i icism ha caugh my a en ion can be e e ed o as wha heo is s ecognise as posi i ism’s ideal o wha science should be: neu al, na u alis and empi icis . Acco ding o T igg (2001), his philosophical app oach accused pe sonal emo ions and alues o making he esea che blind in he ace o eali y, damaging he a ional scien i ic me hod. Following he au ho , posi i ism’s in luences on human sciences de e mined how esea che s should deal wi h he objec o s udy: hey should in es iga e only ac s and no in ol e emo ions in he inqui y p ocess because he la e a e no logically deduced and we e conside ed a h ea ha could hu he legi imacy o human sciences. Wha was so in iguing o me was he ac ha he p o esso s who b ough up his kind o accusa ion agains he in ol emen o he esea che wi h he objec o s udy a e well-known in ha B azilian Uni e si y o being c i ical o posi i ism. By ‘well-known’ I mean ha in lec u es, mee ings and publica ions, he eache s commonly accused posi i ism o an obsole e comp ehension o science. These kinds o s a emen s i how Lace da (2017) desc ibed he common eac ion o B azilian academic ci cles agains posi i ism, ma ked by a s ong nega i e c i icism bu wi hou any u he con ex ualised e lec ions and discussions. Howe e , posi ioning mysel as a esea che , I in es iga ed wha was behind he con adic ion be ween discou se-p ac ices: on one side, posi i ism is conside ed Lais Oli ei a Lei e 120 ou da ed and de imen al o human sciences; on he o he side, a mas e ’s candida e’s esea ch is c i icised om he powe ul posi ion o i s e alua o s because he esea che was emo ionally in ol ed wi h he ield o s udy. I needed o del e in o he his o y o such a powe ul a gumen , ha is, he esea che canno be in ol ed wi h i s objec o s udy. Fo ha pu pose, I equipped mysel i s (hope ully I didn’ ge oo saddled) wi h my inqui y ools: Foucaul ’s analysis, he in e sec ional pa adigm and he poli ics o ci a ion. Analysing human sciences as a social phenomenon o unde s and he powe s uggles ha cons i u e hem Acco ding o T igg (2001), ‘ins ead o ying o ind ou imeless, abs ac p inciples, we look a he s a egies ha a e ac ually adop ed in di e en imes and places’ (p. 25). This p ac ical p inciple o some ends in he philosophy o science de eloped many ways o s udying he condi ions, he de ices and ools and he alues and mo i es o scien is s h oughou cen u ies. Foucaul is one philosophe who s udied science as a social phenomenon, p ecisely, as a discu si e and powe ul p ac ice. His s udies abou he A chaeology o Knowledge and Genealogy o Powe helped me o unde s and my inqui y – wi hou he p e ension o exhaus ing i . The me hodology o A chaeology o Knowledge (Foucaul , 2007a) ies o unde s and he condi ions o possibili y, i.e. he his o ical, poli ical and social b eaks o a social phenomenon, which in u n allow he p oduc ion o di e en ypes o knowledge, discu si e p ac ices and e ec i e powe ela ionships. A he same ime, he a chaeological analysis p oposes o ind he egula i y o speech, he e unde s ood as he necessa y condi ions o he appea ance o a ype o discou se-p ac ice and, consequen ly, he exclusion o o he s. Complemen a ily, he Genealogy o Powe (Foucaul , 1979, 2007b) p esen s a s udy in which indi iduals a e no ull owne s o hei own subjec i i y. Foucaul highligh s ha ins i u ions, such as p isons, indus ies and schools, a e cons i u ed by powe di isions and unbalances ‘immanen ’ o capilla y social ela ionships. Being pa o social ins i u ions and occupying a social posi ion means ha indi iduals exe cise powe by a se o de ices ha some imes a e beyond he (Re) hinking he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex 127 economic p oblems wi hou he in e e ence o pe sonal and ex e nal in luences (Bhe ing & Maio, 2010). Such impac can also s ill be seen in di e en educa ional p ac ices in B azil nowadays. Fo ins ance, acco ding o Pas ana (2007), law eaching in many acul ies ollows a posi i is ic model o ‘legal doc ines’ ha ca ies he pe spec i e o law as a ield o a ional and in allible p ac ices. Some imes hey a e hough o as i hey had no in e nal con adic ions, igno ing his o ical comp ehensions o he condi ions o possibili ies o how hese heo ies de eloped. Such doc ines pe mea e law s uden s, who s a o belie e ha by s ic ly applying legal laws, wi hou any c i ical inqui y, one can achie e social jus ice (Pas ana, 2007). Rela ed o his ield, I canno a oid aising a he o ical p oblema isa ion: wha social ac o s ha e he condi ions o applying such legal no ms, and upon whom do hese no ms all in B azil? B inging he discussion o highe educa ion, B azilian uni e si ies ha e s ong Eu opean oo s. I was only when he oyal Po uguese amily came o he colony a he beginning o he 19 h cen u y ha we had ou i s highe educa ion schools (Fá e o, 2006). Howe e , he cha ac e o he uni e si y was only s uc u ed in he middle o he 20 h cen u y – and s ill he access o hem was es ic ed o he mino i y eli e, mainly cons i u ed by men, whi e and o Eu opean descen (Ma ins, 2002). Simila p o ile was al eady poin ed ou in he posi i is eli e o in ellec uals desc ibed p e iously. In con as , subjec s who belonged o axial ca ego ies such as women, ensla ed black people and hei descendan s, indigenous g oups, poo people, e c. had o he mos pa o B azilian his o y s ic (i no null) condi ions o con ibu e wi h he discou ses and p ac ices o highe educa ion ins i u ions ( o mo e de ails abou he pa icipa ion o mino i ies in B azilian uni e si y li e, see Le a, 2003; T ag enbe g e al., 2006; San os & Quei oz, 2007; Bayma, 2012; Te a & Da id, 2016). This happened due o a lack o go e nmen policies owa ds hem, such as a i ma i e ac ions. Hence, hese axial ca ego ies we e mos ly conside ed he ‘s udy objec ’ a he han he ‘s udy agen ’ in gene al scien i ic and educa ional p ac ices in academia – which does no mean hey did no ha e hei own (ma ginalised) p oduc ion o knowledge-powe . Finally, a e decades o deba es, he B azilian Fede al Sup eme Cou decided on he cons i u ionali y o quo as o uni e si y on Ap il 26, 2012. Law 12.711 / Lais Oli ei a Lei e 128 2012 de e mined he p o ision o 50% o he places o ede al highe educa ion ins i u ions o s uden s coming om public educa ion and wi h low amily income. Also, i assigned he acancies o he candida es sel -denomina ed as blacks and b own and indigenous peoples (Bayma, 2012; Te a & Da id, 2016; T ag enbe g e al., 2006; San os & Quei oz, 2007). Fo he i s ime in ou socie y, s a ing om he second decade o he 21s cen u y, we had a la ge numbe o hose mino i ies a he bes uni e si ies o he coun y. Nowadays, hese social g oups ha e in e es s in s udying and educa ing hemsel es, hei own cul u es, habi s, i uals and social ins i u ions in he academy. Today, we do no ha e solely one kind o axial g oup s udying o he s bu a plu ali y o g oups willing o s udy hemsel es. In his social con ex , i is necessa y o con on he his o ical s anda d o he ac o s posi ioned as he ones who we e doing human sciences un il now and claimed neu ali y and li le in ol emen wi h hei ‘objec o s udy’. Today, he e is a new g oup o esea che s who come om he social ins i u ions and g oups ha used o be s udied, bu un il now did no ac as a esea ch agen . Final wo ds Cu en ly, human sciences no longe deal wi h he classical and simplis ic dicho omy o ‘man s udying man’. Beyond he hidden gene al se up o whi e he e ono ma i e pa ia chal cis-man s udying he O he (Yu al-Da is e al., 2006) – which was a his o ical condi ion ha allowed a ‘sa e dis ance’ be ween he esea che and ield o s udy – now he e a e mo e complex and speci ic se ings. The p e iously unp i ileged axial g oups a e s udying hemsel es academically, ealising a adical dicho omy o ‘subjec s udying subjec ’, because he same (o a leas e y simila ) discu si e and powe de ices a e embedded in bo h sides. These social g oups b ing o he academic ield di e en (be o e ma ginalised) heo ies and alues, seman ics, ocabula ies, e c. ha can no longe be igno ed no unde es ima ed. As an illus a ion, I men ion how Cisne os (2018) ocalised indigenous mo he ing expe iences in eg a ed wi h schola ship and ac i ism in academia by accomplishing an epis ola y quali a i e me hodology. Ano he example is he epo by Kahnawake esea che Aud a Simpson abou he e usal (Re) hinking he disciplina y ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy in educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex 129 o indigenous communi ies o discuss some opics wi h ‘ex e nal’ esea che s o a oid mis ep esen a ion o misunde s andings (Cisne os, 2018). Thence, by s eng hening such esea ch de elopmen s, hese new empowe ing social g oups ha e po en ial o c ea e o ms o ela ionships be ween he esea che and ield o s udy ha can minimise isks o opp essi e mechanisms and a icula e oices, pe spec i es and phenomena s ill unde ep esen ed. Acco ding o T igg (2001) ‘Once he a gumen is seen o be no abou pu i ying science o he ain o “ alues” bu abou which alues a e essen ial o i s pu poses and which bias us away om hem, any dis inc ion be ween ac and alue becomes i ele an ’ (p. 121). Howe e , wha is s ill lacking in such in oduc o y cou se books when i comes o discussing ‘ alue- ee’ science is ha alues a e imme sed in o gende , ace, class and o he social and powe axes – which, i no assumed and exposed, can unc ion as Disciplina y mechanisms o na u alised opp ession (Smi h, as ci ed in Mo & Cockaine, 2017). This chap e discussed he his o ical backg ound o posi i ism and how i has in luenced educa ional p ac ices in he B azilian con ex – unde s ood h ough Foucaul ’s analy ical ools, he in e sec ionali y pa adigm and he poli ics o ci a ion. I helped me o ealise how impo an he condi ions o possibili y and he his o ical disciplina y s uggles be ween social ac o s a e in he p ocess o building scien i ic and educa ional powe de ices. This in es iga ion made me hink o he ele ance o educa ional scien is s and p ac i ione s o conside how hei esea ch in luences policymake s, media and o he social appa a uses since he discu si e p ac ices o he sciences ha e high s a us in Wes e n socie ies and a s ong impac on ou daily li es (Yu al-Da is e al., 2006). Volke (2010) b ings a undamen al con ibu ion o his a gumen in he ollowing passage: […] he e is no ‘neu al g ound’ on which o s and, li e ally and me apho ically, in ela ion o ongoing his o ies o opp ession and coloniza ion. On his iew, i is a mis ake o do philosophy as i class, ace, gende , sexual o ien a ion […] does no ma e , and engaging esponsibly wi h hose ep esen ing al e na i e s andpoin s en ails being mind ul o he p i ileges we do and we do no enjoy by eason o ou social loca ion in con ex s o domina ion. (pp. 38–39) Lais Oli ei a Lei e 130 F om a global o a local pe spec i e, hese e lec ions also helped me o unde s and he speci ic phenomenon o my colleague being c i icised by he supe iso and opponen s du ing he mas e ’s de ence. She, he esea che , came om he esea ch ield she was s udying: she had p e iously engaged in he educa ional p og amme she was in es iga ing, and he pa ne also came om he poo u al communi ies a ge ed by he p og amme. E en hough he esea ch was ca ied ou h ough bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e da a analysis, accomplishing iangula ion s a egies o gua an ee he eliabili y o he esul s, he e alua o s conside ed ha he engagemen wi h he s udy ield could be ega ded as a p o- mani es o o he educa ional p og amme. I belie ed such discussion abou he ela ionship be ween he esea che and objec o s udy was al eady exhaus ed by philosophe s o educa ion and cu en me hodological deba es. Howe e , commen s coming om such a powe ul posi ion, such as e alua o s assessing a mas e ’s candida e’s wo k, un o una ely s ill happen in B azilian uni e si ies – e en con adic ing o he discu si e p ac ices in he same space. The e o e, his discussion mus be ca ied o wa d, and hose commen s mus be con on ed, so ha such opinions do no cause eg ession on educa ional p ac ices a e so many yea s o social dispu es and poli ical conques o igh s. 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Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pä ä i & Gab iele Molzbe ge (eds), Disciplina y S uggles in Educa ion Tampe e Uni e si y P ess 2019, 135–153 h p://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-952-359-002-1 Thinking ou side he box De-s uc u ing con inuing and highe educa ion1 Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e Abs ac While uni e si ies a e s ongly embedded in a his o y o disciplina y s uc u es, bo h ins i u ionally ( acul ies, ins i u es o schools) and scien i ically (“sep em a es libe ales”, s udy p og ammes), Con inuing Educa ion and T aining (CET) wi hin highe educa ion (HE) can b eak up his disciplina y iew and open new pe spec i es be ween he academic and he p o essional wo ld. In his a icle, we explo e he s uc u al, disciplina y and his o ical bounda ies o HE and CET and how bo h can come o sys ema ic, cons uc i e ela ions. Subsequen ly, we adop a mo e pedagogical pe spec i e and ocus on CET ha is p o ided wi hin he ins i u ional s uc u es o HE. Keywo ds: highe educa ion, con inuing educa ion, educa ion sys em, pedagogy 1 This chap e d aws on some ideas de eloped in he Ge man a icle: Eugs e /Weil (2015): “G enz all Wei e bildung: Fo schungso ien ie ung in de En s uk u ie ung.” In Pe e T emp (ed.), Fo schungso ien ie ung und Be u sbezug im S udium. Hochschulen als O e de Wissensgene ie ung und de Vo s uk u ie ung on Be u s ä igkei . Be elsmann Biele eld, p. 63–82. The a icle is e- amed and e ised ega ding disciplina y s uggles in he his o y o educa ion. Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e 136 In oduc ion Highe educa ion (HE) is based on a his o y o disciplina y s uc u es, bo h ins i u ionally (e.g. wi h acul ies, ins i u es o schools) and scien i ically (e.g. ‘sep em a es libe ales’, s udy p og ammes) (de Ridde -Symoens, 2002, p. 85). In he con ex o Swi ze land HE e e s o o mal lea ning, which leads o a quali ica ion and o s udy p og ammes embedded in a disciplina y s uc u e (see CRUS e al., 2011). In con as , con inuing educa ion and aining (CET) e e s o non- o mal and in o mal lea ning ou side he o mal educa ion sys em bu is ne e heless pa ly egula ed, legally amed and sys ema ically linked. The a ionales o CET can b eak up he disciplina y iew on HE and open new pe spec i es on he ela ion o he academic and he p o essional wo lds. CET i i a es HE – ins i u ionally by d awing on he p o essional wo ld besides o mal academic s uc u es as well as scien i ically by challenging gene a ed knowledge and heo ies wi h p o essional p ac ices. Unde he ins i u ional umb ella o HE, some non- o mal CET p og ammes and cou ses a e p o ided wi hou being pa o he o mal s udy p og ammes. The opic o his a icle deals wi h a concep ual layou o he ole o CET o e ed wi hin HE in Swi ze land. Fo he analysis we d aw on concep and policy pape s ha a e aming educa ion. Re e ing o he Swiss con ex – wi h a ocus on he Ge man speaking pa – canno be mo e han an example highligh ing a gene al p oblem in he ins i u ional and sys ema ic ela ions o CET and HE. We use he e m ‘ou side he box’ in he sense o decons uc ing a sys em app oach owa ds HE o show he concep ual inconsis ency wi hin HE. ‘Ou side he box’ means ha he CET o e ed by uni e si ies belongs o he en i onmen o he o mal HE sys em and he eby o ms i s own sel - e e en ial sys em. The HE sys em and he sys em o CET in HE a e connec ed in ha hey a e each o he ’s en i onmen , bu hey pe sis as au onomous sys ems – bo h concep ually and in policy documen s. We aim a an analy ical and concep ual iew by explo ing he s a us and posi ion o CET in HE in Swi ze land and looking a possible consequences. Swi ze land has ound a way o adop ing s uc u es o CET om HE – s ill in a e y ague sense ega ding he con ibu ion o CET o HE. In he ollowing sec ions, we s a wi h he con ex ualisa ion o CET and HE in he Swiss educa ion sys em. The p og ession a ionale om a bachelo ’s (BA) o Thinking ou side he box 143 which is a he a closed sys em and a p econdi ion o academic ca ee s exclusi ely wi hin HE. Fo CET a uni e si ies, i is no su p ising ha i ollows he logic o academic le els. The a he s ong hie a chy o deg ees and ins i u ions in Swi ze land migh be a eason o he ‘in en ion’ o he CAS–DAS–MAS-s uc u e. CAS– DAS–MAS closely ela e o he logic o BA–MA–PhD, while a he same ime hey ma k a di e ence by using ‘ad anced s udies’. ‘Ad anced’, wi h i s poly alen meanings, also e e s o ‘mo e han highe educa ion’, and his posi ions in he p o essional ield and he ela ion o p ac ice as esou ces o CET. In his sense, hese CET deg ees a e ou side he academic deg ee box. They a e a b idge be ween he academic disciplina y o de o knowledge and he p ac ice o p o essional li e. Two posi ions wi hin he educa ion sys em demons a e why u he educa ion canno be loca ed de ini ely. Since he 1970s in he Swiss con ex , CET has been discussed as he ‘ ou h pilla ’ o he educa ion sys em (qua e na y educa ion), ela ing o p ima y, seconda y and e ia y educa ion. The main e e ence documen o his a emp o posi ion u he educa ion is he S uc u al Plan o he Ge man Educa ion Sys em, whe e u he educa ion is de ined as a con inua ion o e-s a ing o o ganised lea ning a e inishing a di e en ly ealised i s phase o educa ion (Deu sche Bildungs a , 1972, p. 197). CET is posi ioned he e as a con inua ion o ini ial deg ees and as a pa o he educa ion sys em o he i s ime. Al e na i ely, also du ing he 1970s, CET was s ongly ela ed o he concep s o li elong lea ning (see K aus, 2001). By his, CET was posi ioned as accompanying he educa ion sys em on all le els and deg ees. This second app oach is cu en ly leading he a ionales, e.g. by he Fede al Depa men o S a is ics, and pu s CET in he posi ion o o e ing non- o mal o in o mal educa ion only (see BFS, 2010; Weil, 2011, p. 46). Alongside, CET is assigned o he gene al idea o li elong lea ning and does no o en esul in gene ally ecognised deg ees and ce i ica es (Egge , 2012; K aus, 2001). Wi h his analysis, CET a uni e si ies is pe se hinking ou side he box because e en when using a s uc u al hie a chisa ion o deg ees, i does no ollow he unc ions o HE, no is i necessa ily linked o i s s uc u es. O cou se, hemes and s a can be simila in CET and HE, bu ega ding he pa icipan s, CET ela es mo e o he expe ience in he p o essional ield, and i canno ul il Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e 144 he same unc ion o esea ch and knowledge as HE does. This b ings he chance o e lec ing on he HE s uc u es and gene a ed heo ies by s uc u ally b inging in he aspec s o he p o essional ield. (2) Resea ch o ien a ion is a claim o CET a uni e si ies. Uni e si ies a e esea ch ins i u ions; hey a e de ined by esea ch and eaching, plus, as men ioned abo e, u he educa ion and se ice. Wi hou esea ch no scien i ic knowledge could be augh and lea ned, nei he in ini ial no in u he educa ion se ings o se ices. Wi hou esea ch, scien i ic knowledge would s agna e. One main objec i e o HE eaching is o enable he s uden s o do esea ch by hemsel es and o con ibu e o he de elopmen o knowledge. Resea ch is a b oad concep and can also be loca ed a di e en ins i u ions ou side a uni e si y, bu i can only claim o alida e he knowledge gene a ed by e e ing o he scien i ic communi y. In his sense, science equi es speci ic o ganisa ional o ms Figu e 2. Posi ioning o u he educa ion wi hin HE (Eugs e & Weil, 2015) Thinking ou side he box 145 o assu e scien i ic knowledge and o de ine he speci ic esea ch me hods ha can be classi ied as such (see also T emp, 2005). In con as , o CET a uni e si ies i is no he p ima y objec i e o p oduce esea ch indings. CET migh be a ge ed on a esea ch-based discussion o hemes ha gain ele ance o science-based occupa ional ields. In his sense, CET o e ed wi hin an HE se ing o e s a iewpoin om ou side he box o uni e si y esea ch (see Figu e 2). I can enable a discou se ha akes place a he edge o o ganisa ional and disciplina y bo de s by b inging scien is s ( om inside he box) oge he wi h quali ied p o essionals ( o m ou side he box) in o de o e lec he ele ance o esea ch esul s o applied ields o science. Fu he mo e, CET a uni e si ies can help o deepen he knowledge o scien is s in speci ic ields ou side hei main domain. This can ha e e ec s on he p oceedings wi hin he sys em by i i a ions ha a e igge ed by he discussions jus ou side he sys em. CET a uni e si ies does no ha e he unc ion o p oduce new knowledge, bu , by being o e ed closely o HE, i akes esea ch esul s, me hods and p ocesses in o accoun . Fo he c ea ed lea ning en i onmen s in CET his means a c i ical e lec ion abou applicabili y, alidi y and ele ance o esea ch esul s. I can o e a look a esea ch om he bo de o he box – s ill close enough o unde s and i s p inciples and al eady close enough o he p o essional wo ld o b ing in ques ions o p ac ical ele ance and applica ion. This posi ion o CET b ings in a e lec i e po en ial o HE by applying o ques ioning knowledge. Al e na i ely, he ole o CET could easily be used o se ice only, wi hou d awing on he e lec i e unc ion o HE. A ma ke logic o cus ome o ien a ion and p o i could o e lap academic p inciples e en s onge han in ini ial HE because, by being ou side he box, CET is no necessa ily commi ed o he scien i ic communi y o he academic s anda ds. An addi ional c i ical poin could be he imi a ion o o mal aspec s by CET p og ammes, which migh diminish he oppo uni ies o exis ing ou side he box. Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e 146 (3) The p o essional wo ld and esea ch o ien a ion a e a chance o de-s uc u ing ins i u ional and disciplina y bounda ies O e ing CET b ings a bene i o HE ins i u ions because his adds a pe spec i e o ecu en educa ion o ini ial s udy p og ammes, which p o ides educa ional pe spec i es beyond he academic deg ees (see also Schie ne , 2011). Howe e , he logic o CET is a ypical o HE. Ra he han me ging bo h ields o ea ing hem sepa a ely, esea ch and eaching need links be ween he a ionale o HE and CET. Especially he ansdisciplina y gene a ion o knowledge wi hin a non- hie a chical o ganisa ion, as s a ed by Gibbons (1994), shows a need o ansla ion suppo , which is close o ‘ he box’ bu no pa o i . CET in HE could ul il ha unc ion. CET can use new and c ea i e o ms ou side he ini ial HE deg ee s uc u es. I is less in luenced by he ins i u ional se ings o uni e si ies han ini ial s udy p og ammes, o a leas i could use ha posi ion. Addi ionally, he ela ion o he labou ma ke can be used s eadily as u he educa ion has s ong links o he p o essional ield. The ange o possible lea ning en i onmen s widens and does no necessa ily ha e o ollow s ong ins i u ional ules (see Figu e 3). The e o e, a de-s uc u ed CET o e s new pe spec i es ou side he box o HE. I enables new ques ions, which migh no be possible wi hin he ins i u ional se ing o ini ial s udy p og ammes. In addi ion, he e is less p essu e o inno a i e esea ch esul s in CET, bo h o he p og amme and o he pa icipan s. The p o essional wo ld becomes an explici e e ence poin o he e lec ion o science and academia a he han a ansla ion om heo y o p ac ice (see Figu e 3). Pa icipan s om he p o essional wo ld can use hei posi ion ‘ou side he box’ o look a science and academia and ask ques ions ha a e no p ima ily esea ch ocused. They can be in eg a ed in o esea ch in ce ain s uc u al and pedagogical condi ions. The e o e, esea ch o ien a ion means mo e han he he o ic o ‘ esea ch-based eaching and lea ning’. I also seems c ucial ha he e lec ion o he knowledge-cons uc ion, which is si ua ed in he se ing o HE by he means o p ac ice, is he cha ac e o CET in HE. The pa icipan s o CET in HE enable a sel - e lec ion abou he knowledge-cons uc ion o he scien is s, which is possible only wi hin he speci ic discou se o CET in HE. The au ho i y o his e lec ion belongs o he pa icipan s who i i a e and challenge he logic o he science sys em. This i i a ion is caused by a displacemen o Thinking ou side he box 147 he pe spec i e on he discou se. The main poin he e is no o s eng hen he usabili y o knowledge bu o use he change o pe spec i es o an i i a ion o he discou se. Scien i ic indings can be discussed c i ically wi hin CET se ings, which consis o pa icipan s socialised in he scien i ic ield. Wha is in e es ing om he pe spec i e o science is he e o mula ion o knowledge. This is he g ea challenge o science: i succeeds in gene a ing knowledge bu makes ha dly any a emp o pu i in o a di e en pe spec i e o he han he disciplina y logic, and he e o e he e migh be a a he low ans e abili y o di e en con ex s. The chance o CET wi hin HE is o enable his ans e abili y, bu i also is a agile balance as CET should no shi in o he ole o becoming inc easingly mo e like ini ial HE p og ammes. Consequences ‘ou side he box’ As a conclusion, we ga he he indings om he h ee p oposi ions ega ding consequences o con inuing highe educa ion (CHE) and possible impac s ha migh ela e back o he ini ial sys em o HE. We conside a ci cula unde s anding, in which CET is a esou ce o shaping he se ing o esea ch- based eaching in a disciplina y-o de ed ins i u ion. The e o e he e m CHE Figu e 3. De-s uc u ing po en ial o u he educa ion wi hin highe educa ion (Eugs e & Weil, 2015) Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e 148 signals he in o mal s uc u e wi hin he HE sys em. By ocusing on genuine pedagogical consequences and less on economical o socie al consequences, cu icula , academic con en - ela ed and didac ic a eas a ise as h ee main aspec s o e lec ion (see Lindens ein Walshok, 2012). Cu icula consequences CHE is no only abou he ecep ion o esea ch esul s classi ied in disciplina y s uc u es: as s a ed abo e, CHE has he po en ial o i i a e esea ch and b ing in an ‘ou side he box’ pe spec i e beyond disciplina y and ins i u ional s uc u es. In his espec gene a ing ques ions, es ing applicabili y, o e coming disciplina y bo de s o enqui ing in o esea ch can be an impo an unc ion o CHE. I o e s possibili ies o p ac ice e lec ions on esea ch esul s. CHE ope a es wi h a po en ially p i ileged connec ion o he p o essional wo ld. A he same ime his could lead o a unc ionalis app oach owa ds HE, wi h isks o unc ionalising o h ea ening HE unc ions o academic eedom, objec i i y o he alidi y o eaching and esea ch. I CHE can clea ly ake he ole o changing pe spec i e ‘ou side he box’, we can also d aw new ques ions o he ini ial s udy p og ammes because beside he genuine esea ch he e is o en an impo an ela ion o he p o essional ield. Rega ding cu iculum his could mean a clea e ocus on he unc ion o pa icula cu icula elemen s, such as on p ac ical s udies, in e nships o si e isi s. They can ga he lea ning and e lec on oppo uni ies o he academic se ings as lea ning si es. The cu iculum as he se o ela ions be ween he di e en elemen s o lea ning uni s is mo e han he sum o hese lea ning uni s. The e is a need o ecip ocal e ec s be ween p ac ical s udies and he eaching o he scien i ic basics in. Bo h he empo a y exposu e o academia and o he p o essional wo ld can ela e o each o he in a cons uc i e way due o clea posi ioning in he cu icula o s udy p og ammes. Con en - ela ed consequences Resea ch o ien a ion as a cha ac e is ic o HE also ans e s o CHE se ings in e ms o con en - ela ed issues. Al hough esea ch esul s migh be he con en Thinking ou side he box 149 o CHE, he unc ion o gene a ing knowledge is no on issue o hese se ings as hey a e only pa ly based wi hin academia and he scien i ic communi y. Ne e heless, CHE can e lec on esea ch con en and he p ocesses, o on how con en has been gene a ed, alida ed and dis ibu ed. The e lec ion on esea ch p ocesses and p oduc s ela ed o he pe spec i es o he p o essional ield can c ea e possibili ies o mi o academic esea ch. CHE o e s he esea ch unc ion o HE a way o gain a look a he blind spo s o scien i ic sel - e lec ion. Fo HE, CET in gene al and CHE in speci ic gi es he possibili y o e lec on gene a ed con en wi hin o in ela ion o he complexi y o meanings o he p o essional ield. F om an i e a i e o ecu en pe spec i e, u he educa ion se ings could al eady be an icipa ed in he con en (and i s gene a ion) in HE esea ch and eaching. Addi ionally, eedback unc ions could lead o making use o he c i ical e lec ions o esea ch as well as o eaching and lea ning se ings. By he p ac ice o CHE, a special and unique so o discou se a ises ha i i a es he in e nal logic o he box in a cons uc i e manne . E en i gene a ing knowledge (con en ) in HE is bound o disciplina y adi ions and discou ses, CHE can o e come hese bounda ies by also e e ing o he logic o he p o essional ield. Didac ic consequences These assump ions also lead o a didac ic dimension by means o c ea ing eaching and lea ning se ings ha ha e a ela ion o he p o essional wo ld and enable e lec ing on and challenging esea ch. CHE can d aw on bo h he p o essional wo ld and he wo ld o academia as e e ence poin s ega ding eaching concep ions and p ac ices. A didac ic o CHE uses he ‘ou side he box’ posi ion as a possibili y o c i ical e lec ion on esea ch p ocesses and knowledge and uses his as a possibili y o es ing he applicabili y o knowledge. As a didac ical consequence, CHE se ings need o p o ide he necessa y backg ound knowledge and c ea e oppo uni ies o con as ing and e lec ing on knowledge and i s applica ions. In o de o each such didac ical goals, CHE has o pick he luidi y o scien i ic knowledge ou as a cen al heme. S uden s in CHE p og ammes will be exposed o he inconsis encies o knowledge ans e and knowledge p oduc ion. Only by Ma kus Weil & Bal hasa Eugs e 150 deba ing such ques ions can he in ol ed lec u e s b ing he p o essional ield in o an in e communica ion wi h science ha is p oli ic o bo h sides. The didac ic o HE bene i s om he de elopmen s in CHE as i opens a much mo e di e se ange o eaching and lea ning se ings. I can link o libe al, oca ional and/o poli ical u he educa ion and make use o concep s om in o mal and non- o mal lea ning, e.g. he me hods used o lea ning while wo king. This migh gi e lea ning how o become an academic a new pe spec i e by p ac icing esea ch and using his as lea ning oppo uni ies mo e sys ema ically. Concluding e lec ions O e all, he e is a po en ial in hinking ou side he box o HE i CHE is no only used as a cash cow on he educa ional ma ke . A clea posi ioning and quali y claim o CHE could ca e ully d aw oge he cu icula , con en - ela ed and didac ic aspec s in o de o c i ically e lec upon he con en , me hods and s uc u e o HE. Ne e heless, opening he box could also b ing wi h i he isk ha he p o essional wo ld also ca ies along unin ended e ec s such as ma ke o ien a ion o u ili a ianism. This migh al eady be a eali y o uni e si ies no only by he means o CHE. Academia could c i ically e lec on ha ela ion and ake his as a u he esea ch pe spec i e. While he clea posi ioning o CET unc ions and he use o e e ence poin s di e en han hose o HE, we could also ques ion whe he CHE is well posi ioned so close o HE o i i gene ally should be posi ioned independen ly ou side he ins i u ional umb ella o HE. In his ega d, he h ee p oposi ions alloca e and subs an ia e he unc ions o CHE as p econdi ions o a c i ical and independen ole o HE. All in all, CHE migh be a challenge o disciplina y bounda ies by he de ined ela ions o he p o essional wo ld. Naming and de ining ‘ he box’ o HE (endo- pe spec i e) can p o ide pe spec i es ‘ou side he box’ (exo-pe spec i e), bu his dicho omy could also be challenged. Ne e heless, he disciplina y and his o ical bounda ies o CET and HE can come o cons uc i e ela ions when he p ima y app oach is no me ging all unc ions and blending he pu poses and ad an ages o esea ch and he p o essional wo ld bu a he using hei ad an ages o shaping clea e pe spec i es and ela ions. 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Financing and ins i u ions as key elemen s o he u u e o adul educa ion 255 s a e expendi u e and o mal AE, o a high ex en d i en by he libe al coun ies, and wi hou an impac on o e all pa icipa ion. Finally, agains widesp ead expec a ions, he wel a e egimes do no seem o c ea e consis en AE poli ics and ins i u ions. Discussion and conclusions The esul s o he es ima ion o he inancing o adul educa ion (AE) in a compa a i e pe spec i e we e highly unexpec ed o us as esea che s and o he Aus ian s akeholde s also, as he Aus ian expendi u e u ned ou no o be compa a i ely low (as expec ed) bu on he con a y compa a i ely high, in pa icula wi h espec o he con ibu ions o indi idual ci izens. A he same ime he indica o s abou pa icipa ion and policies con i med a a he un a ou able pa e n in compa ison wi h he o he coun ies. How can hese esul s be ela ed o he disciplina y s uggles? A i s poin conce ns he quali a i e s. quan i a i e s uggles in compa a i e esea ch. Indeed, we ha e o conside he explo a i e na u e o he obse a ion and analysis as a ca ea ; c i iques can simply poin o he necessa y cons uc ions and ans o ma ions o he da a. The combina ion o he di e en sou ces o in o ma ion has en ailed much ecalcula ion and s anda disa ion (e.g. by ans o ming in o ma ion abou di e en yea s in o 2009) and migh be a sou ce o e o . Mo eo e , he es ima ion o he esou ces only co e s one poin in ime (2009), which migh be mo e o less ep esen a i e o he si ua ion in he selec ed coun ies. Thus, a deepe ins i u ional analysis would be necessa y o alida e he obse ed pa e ns. Ano he ques ion would be how much he No dic egime has al eady been in ac libe alised. Howe e , he a emp can also demons a e i s how much impo an and necessa y in o ma ion is lacking and second how many di icul ies exis in sol ing he challenges in his a ea o compa a i e esea ch. A basic ques ion behind he p ojec was whe he he poli ically delibe a e s a e inancing o educa ional ins i u ions acco ding o educa ional pu poses and he public good would be mo e app op ia e o he de elopmen o AE han he push owa ds he poli ical suppo o incen i es and ma ke mechanisms acco ding o he indi idual p e e ences o he (po en ial) pa icipan s, leading o he Lo enz Lassnigg & S e an Vog enhube 256 comme cialisa ion o lea ning and educa ion. This ques ion is clea ly ela ed o he disciplina y s uggles in he social sciences. T adi ional mains eam economic iews and he in luen ial economic heo y o poli ics would suppo he second al e na i e. Acco ding o he socio-economic app oach ega ding wel a e egimes, he No dic egime would ep esen he i s al e na i e and he libe al egime he second, wi h he co po a is Aus ian egime lying somehow in be ween he wo, wi h some po en ial in ei he di ec ion. The indings do no suppo hese expec a ions and, i he es ima ions a e alid, poin o mo e complex pa e ns. A c i ical opic ha u he dis inguishes be ween he wo al e na i es is whe he adul s s ill need educa ion (o jus lea ning), and i his di e ence exis s, who should be he educa o s. This opic is closely ela ed o co e ques ions o educa ional esea ch. The lea ning-cen ed ma ke app oach assumes ha adul s a e al eady educa ed. They know wha hey need o lea n and in p inciple will also be able o ind ways o do his – he pu poses o lea ning a e in his app oach assumed o be qui e ins umen al, wi h lea ning o wo k and p o essions as he main pu pose. The educa ional app oach assumes al e na i ely ha educa ional pu poses s ill exis in AE ha go beyond he ins umen al ones and conce n lea ning o ( he wide aspec s and dimensions o ) li e, ep esen ed by he social, poli ical and cul u al ields, including mo al and e hical delibe a ion and he wide ields o human knowledge p oduc ion. These al e na i es canno eally be explo ed wi h he ough in o ma ion abou wel a e egimes, inancing and pa icipa ion. A main componen ela ed o hese aspec s is he con ex ual unde s anding o he AE ins i u ions and policies and o hei adi ions, which is only e y indi ec ly ep esen ed by he quan i a i e measu emen . Wi h espec o esea ch and heo y, a main pa h o easoning o e ecen decades was o unde pin he abs ac mac o-le el heo ising and esea ch by analyses a he mic o and meso le els, in pa icula by s udying he ba ie s and mo i a ions a he indi idual mic o le el and by including his dimension in o mul i-le el models (Boe en, Nicaise, & Bae , 2010). Compa ed o he abo e- men ioned bounded agency app oach, his esea ch has guided he a en ion owa ds he a ional choice ideology and owa ds he s eng hening o ma ke beha iou a he ‘cos ’ o mo al and e hical beha iou . Mo eo e , his model has ocused on he in e ac ion be ween he indi iduals (mic o) and he ins i u ions (meso), and, despi e o some ex en being in eg a ed, he mac o le el was o some Financing and ins i u ions as key elemen s o he u u e o adul educa ion 257 deg ee pushed aside. A be e unde s anding o he in e play be ween he mac o le el and he o he s s ill seems o be an un esol ed challenge. Neolibe alism is a key concep in he disciplina y s uggles on compa a i e esea ch and needs o be used in a cla i ied way (Mudge, 2008). In his ein he ques ion migh be asked o wha ex en he ma ke i sel is concei ed as an al e na i e educa ional ins i u ion ha eplaces mo al and e hical easoning h ough a a ional cos -bene i calcula ion among al e na i e p e e ences. The decisions abou pa icipa ion and also mo e gene al policy decisions a e modelled acco ding o human capi alis cos -bene i calcula ions, wi h he inclina ion o ans o m he a ious and mul idimensional po en ial e ec s o AE in o a o m o ‘wide bene i s’ o accommoda e o he cos -bene i a ionali y. The human capi al app oach wi h i s basic logic o discoun ing cos s and bene i s has much sugges i e powe , such ha i has in aded mos hinking abou AE by imposing he basic amewo k o supply and demand o he oo s o easoning, and u he mo e poin ing o he impo ance o incen i es (o sanc ions) in o de o in luence he ac o s’ assumed a ional beha iou . Rees (2013) ies o escape his logic and p oposes much mo e de ailed analyses, s a ing wi h a combina ion o he wel a e egime app oach wi h he a ie ies o capi alism app oach, which has dis inguished he libe al ma ke economy om he coo dina ed ma ke economy. Aus ia would all oge he wi h he No dic coun ies in he coo dina ed egime. 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