Communities and Habits of Citizenship : Everyday Participation in Kondoa, Tanzania

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Communi ies and Habi s o Ci izenship : E e yday Pa icipa ion in Kondoa, Tanzania © 2022 he Au ho s Published e sion Nguyahambi, Ajali M.; Kon inen, Tiina Nguyahambi, A. M., & Kon inen, T. (2022). Communi ies and Habi s o Ci izenship : E e yday Pa icipa ion in Kondoa, Tanzania. In K. Holma, & T. Kon inen (Eds.), Lea ning, Philosophy, and A ican Ci izenship (pp. 115-134). Palg a e Macmillan. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030- 94882-5_7 2022 Communi ies and Habi s o Ci izenship: E e yday Pa icipa ion in Kondoa, Tanzania Ajali M. Nguyahambi and Tiina Kon inen 1In oduc ion This chap e builds on and con ibu es o he deba es on expe i- enced, li ed and mul i-scala ci izenship ha widens i s concep ualiza ions beyond a legal s a us and membe ship de ined by indi iduals’ igh s and esponsibili ies is-á- is a s a e. Recen li e a u e in ci izenship s udies has sugges ed mo e nuanced, mul i ace ed and con ex ualized unde s andings (Cla ke e al., 2014; Isin & Nye s, 2014; Laza & Nuij en, 2013; Shacha e al., 2017; Yu al-Da is, 1999,2008). The no el con ex ual de ini ions o ci izenship a e especially ele an o esea ch in A ica because, as a weal h o schola ship has poin ed ou , mos exis ing heo iza ion on ci i- zenship ocuses upon expe iences in Eu ope and No h Ame ica, and hus igno es he ins i u ional and e e yday eali ies o he majo i y o he wo ld (Coma o & Coma o , 2012;Isin,2015; Kabee , 2005; Kabee & Kabi , 2009; Robins e al., 2008). A. M. Nguyahambi Uni e si y o Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania T. Kon inen (B) Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland e-mail: [email p o ec ed] © The Au ho (s) 2022 K. Holma and T. Kon inen (eds.), Lea ning, Philosophy, and A ican Ci izenship, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-94882-5_7 115 116 A. M. NGUYAHAMBI AND T. KONTINEN In esponse o hese sugges ions, and in con inua ion o ou p e ious esea ch on he opic (Holma & Kon inen, 2020b; Holma e al., 2018; Nguyahambi & Chang’a, 2020; Nguyahambi & Kon inen, 2020), we in oduce a pe spec i e d awing on he wo k o John Dewey (1859– 1952), a p agma is philosophe whose ideas ha e had a huge impac in ields ela ed o democ acy and educa ion (Ga ison e al., 2016; S i zlein, 2014). Based on he Dewey-inspi ed concep ualiza ions o Holma and Kon inen (2020b; Holma e al., 2018), we unde s and ci i- zenship as some hing ha is cons uc ed by pa icipa ing in communi ies and e e yday p ac ices in he cou se o aking ca e o sha ed issues. Addi ionally, we d aw on a de ini ion o lea ning as acqui ing habi s o ci izenship h ough pa icipa ing in hese p ac ices and e o mula ing hem in esponse o dis up ions (ibid.). Building on hese de ini ions, we analyse quali a i e in e iews conduc ed in he u al loca ion o Kondoa Dis ic in Dodoma Region, Tanzania. We add ess wo main ques ions: (1) In wha kinds o di e se communi ies and p ac ices do people pa ic- ipa e in hei e e yday li es? (2) Wha kinds o habi s o ci izenship a e lea ned h ough such pa icipa ion? In wha ollows, we i s elabo a e on he pa icula concep ualiza ion o ci izenship and lea ning inspi ed by Dewey’s wo k as a con ibu ion o cu en ci izenship s udies. Then we will p o ide a sho in oduc ion o he empi ical con ex and he me hods used, ollowed by p esen a- ion o he indings o ou empi ical analysis. In conclusion, we e lec upon he implica ions o he p oposed pe spec i e o unde s anding ci i- zenship in sub-Saha an A ica in pa icula , and o con ex ualized no ions o ci izenship in gene al. 2P agma is Pe spec i e on Ci izenship In his sec ion, we elabo a e on ou pe spec i e on ci izenship and lea ning, d awing ex ensi ely on he con ibu ions o Holma and Kon inen o he book, Ci izenship p ac ices in Eas -A ica: Pe spec i es om Philosophical P agma ism (2020a). Based on Dewey’s philosoph- ical p agma ism, hey elabo a e a concep ualiza ion o ci izenship as “cons uc ed in p ac ices aking place in communi ies in ol ed in he public, hus, in sha ed ac i i ies ha ha e an aim o aking ca e o sha ed issues, and he eby ealizing ci izenship habi s bo h acqui ed and e o mula ed, hus lea ned, in he cou se o aking pa in hese commu- ni ies” (Kon inen & Holma, 2020: 228). This de ini ion is a s a ing COMMUNITIES AND HABITS OF CITIZENSHIP … 117 poin o ou explo a ion o ci izenship in he con ex o u al Tanzania and p o ides a use ul angle o he deba es on mul iple and localized de ini ions o ci izenship. A g owing body o li e a u e in he ield o ci izenship s udies a gues o expanding s a e-cen ed concep ualiza ions and p omo es he elabo a- ion o mo e nuanced and mul iple unde s andings o ci izenship (Cla ke e al., 2014; Isin & Nye s, 2014; Laza , 2012;Laza &Nuij en,2013; Maas, 2013; Shacha e al., 2017; Yu al-Da is, 1999,2008). These con ibu ions ha e sugges ed he explo a ion o mul iple scales, le els and communi ies, whe e ci izenship as he igh s and du ies o membe s is cons uc ed, and ci izenship as belonging and iden i y is nego ia ed. The discussions ha e sugges ed ocusing on “embodied” ci izenship in con as o i s “abs ac ca ego ies” (Yu al-Da is, 2008: 160), sc u inizing he “ac ual cons i u ion” ins ead o he “no ma i e ideals” o ci izenship (Laza & Nuij en, 2013), paying a en ion o how people “ac as ci izens” (Lis e , 1998) and explo ing “mul i-scala communi ies o ci izenship” (Cla ke e al., 2014: 9, 141). O e all, mo e con ex -sensi i e analysis o p ac ical mani es a ions o ci izenship has been called o . P agma is ideas con ibu e o concep ualizing ci izenship as ac ualized and enac ed by eal people in pa icula con ex s. In gene al, any p agma- is heo iza ion and inqui y depa om he social p ac ices aking place in di e en kinds o communi ies. Fo Dewey, he idea o ci izenship ela es o he no ions o public and communi y, gea ed owa ds delib- e a ing and ac ing on join ma e s. In Dewey’s app oach, he no ion o public e e s o he sphe e whe e people a end o such sha ed issues, and whe e people ake pa in di e se communi ies in he o m o g oups pa icipa ing in join p ac ices in hei e e yday li es (Dewey, 1927: 238– 366). In con as o some o he ac ion-o ien ed pe spec i es, such as “ac s o ci izenship” (Isin & Nye s, 2014), Dewey’s no ion does no explici ly de ine ci izenship as poli ical pa icipa ion, no does i necessa ily include elemen s o claim-making. Ra he , i esona es wi h iews whe ein ci izen- ship is seen as eme ging in a my iad o communi y g oups (Lis e , 1997: 29) o in a a ie y o daily ou ines, in spi e o o in addi ion o claim- making ac i i ies (Cla ke e al., 2014: 132). In a simila ein, Dewey’s concep ualiza ions guide explo a ion o he kinds o communi ies ha consis o people engaged in a a ie y o p ac ices and add essing sha ed issues in any con ex . Con ex ualized examina ion o ci izenship is especially ele an in loca ions such as Tanzania. Ob iously, much o he heo iza ion on 118 A. M. NGUYAHAMBI AND T. KONTINEN ci izenship is embedded in Eu opean and No h Ame ican his o ical and socie al con ex s (Chung, 2017;Isin,2015). As such, i does no adequa ely add ess o esona e wi h, on he one hand, he consequences o colonialism o shaping wha is labelled “ci izenship” in pa allel o speaking o “subjec s” in ela ion o colonial powe s and, on he o he , speci ic o ma ions o s a e-ci izens ela ions in pos colonial, indepen- den A ican na ions (Aminzade, 2013; Coma o & Coma o , 2012; Do man, 2014; Mamdani, 1996; Manby, 2009). The e o e, i has been a gued ha mo e nuanced concep ualiza ions o ci izenship need o s a om con ex ualized expe iences, p ac ices and pe spec i es. I has been sugges ed (Laza , 2013; Mohan y & Tandon, 2006) ha , a he han d awing om Wes e n-based assump ions o one-size- i s-all heo e ical amewo ks, explo a ion should ocus on how “people see hemsel es in ela ion o o he s, and wha his implies o hei unde s anding o ci i- zenship in he wo ld as hey know i ” (Kabee , 2005: 3). Fo ins ance, Englund (2004: 2) has poin ed ou he i ele ance o s a e-cen ic ci i- zenship o o dina y inhabi an s in A ican coun ies and ins ead sugges s sc u inizing di e se a enas whe e ma e ial and social connec edness— wha could be called economic ci izenship (Ahimbisibwe & Ndidde, his olume; Kessle -Ha is, 2001)—and membe s’ expec a ions and obliga- ions eme ge is-á- is communi ies o he han he s a e. Examples o such meaning ul communi ies include eligious g oups (Jones, 2012), p oduce co-ope a i es (King, 2015), mic o- inance schemes (Ssendi & Ande son, 2009) and communi y-based o ganiza ions (Dill, 2009). In a Deweyan pe spec i e, each such communi y is likely o add ess sha ed issues and, hus, become an a ena o cul i a ing ce ain kinds o habi s, he “acqui ed p edisposi ions o ways o modes o esponses” (Dewey, 1922: 32). The no ion o habi s o ci izenship, we sugges , e e s o a endency o hink and ac in a aken- o -g an ed manne upon issues such as pa icipa ion, igh s, obliga ions, membe ship and iden i ies. Habi s a e o med in a pa icula cul u al and social con ex (Dewey, 1927: 334–335) and h ough human expe ience o in e ac- ion be ween he sel and ma e ial and social en i onmen s (Hild e h, 2012: 922–923). The e o e, habi s a e always o med in ce ain socie al and his o ical ci cums ances (Holma & Kon inen, 2020b). Fo ins ance, S i zlein (2014: 63) shows, in he con ex o he Uni ed S a es, how habi s o democ acy in ci izenship de elop h ough in e ac ion in social g oups; howe e , gi en he con ex ualized na u e o habi s, he kinds COMMUNITIES AND HABITS OF CITIZENSHIP … 119 acqui ed depend on he cha ac e is ics o he social g oups and commu- ni ies a ac ing pa icipa ion. In addi ion o democ a ic o ac i e habi s, p ac ices such as aligning wi h au ho i y (Do man, 2014: 170) o being passi e by choice in ep essed en i onmen s (Ala a, 2020) may also be habi - o ming. Ye lea ning, in he p agma is pe spec i e, does no only e e o acqui emen and, hus, con inuous ep oduc ion o ce ain habi s. In con as , he no ion o habi enables change as a esponse o a dis up- ion o hose habi s. F om he Deweyan poin o iew, as a consequence o dis up ion he habi s o ci izenship migh come unde e lec ion in a new si ua ion whe e he old, aken- o -g an ed habi s do no wo k, and communi ies s a o expe imen wi h new ways o hinking and ac ion (Dewey, 1916: 107–108; Hild e h, 2009: 795–196; Holma e al., 2018). Guided by he concep ualiza ion o ci izenship habi s as acqui ed in he cou se o pa icipa ion in communi ies ha add ess sha ed issues, in wha ollows we sc u inize a speci ic loca ion in u al Tanzania in o de o unde s and he kinds o communi ies in which people pa icipa e and he habi s o ci izenship ha a e lea ned in he p ocess. 3In oduc ion o he Con ex and Me hods Tanzania sha es cha ac e is ics such as colonial his o y and aid dependency wi h many o he A ican coun ies. I is, howe e , a unique example o a long-las ing and somewha success ul na ion-building du ing he i s wo decades a e a ainmen o independence in 1961. Despi e ha ing mo e han 120 e hnic g oups, di ision along e hnic, eligious and acial lines is less signi ican in Tanzania han in neighbou ing coun ies (Mushi, 2009; Swilla, 2009). When he s a e has played an impo an ole in na ion-building, his o ians desc ibe how ci izenship as sense o belonging has me ely eme ged in non-s a e a enas cha ac e ized by people’s sel - o ganiza ion (Halisi e al., 1998;Mpangala,1992). Di e en pa e ns in Tanzania’s social, economic and poli ical de elopmen ha e in luenced he na u e and cu en s a us o ci izenship and con inue o do so (Amin- zade, 2013). The s a e-cen ic, one-pa y sys em o go e nance om 1961 o he mid-1980s shaped people’s unde s anding o he cu en mul ipa y sys em among ci izens, expe ienced as a op-down ini ia i e, and suppo ed pa icula unde s andings o he igh s and obliga ions o ci izens, whe ein he ole o ci izens is o suppo he s a e’s de elop- men (URT, 2011). Cu en ly, he ci izenship ini ia i es o ci ic educa ion implemen ed by non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) and ela ed o 120 A. M. NGUYAHAMBI AND T. KONTINEN democ a ic elec ions and social accoun abili y a e playing an impo an and ongoing ole in shaping ideas and p ac ices o ci izenship (See also: Nguyahambi e al., 2020). As an en y poin , we used a na ional Tanzanian NGO, SIKIKA, which is ac i e in suppo ing ci izenship e ol ing a ound social accoun abili y, and s udied one o he loca ions whe e i had implemen ed p ojec s. The da a was collec ed in h ee wa ds in Kondoa Dis ic , one o he six admin- is a i e dis ic a eas cons i u ing Dodoma Region, wi h a popula ion o abou 300,000. The main economic ac i i ies in he a ea a e a ming and he ding. The Wa angi cons i u e he dominan e hnic g oup, comp ising mo e han 91% o he popula ion in he dis ic , and Islam is he main eligious a ilia ion in he a ea, subsuming some wo hi ds o he popu- la ion. Howe e , despi e he Wa angi being he dominan e hnic g oup and Muslims he dominan eligious g oup, he e is no single illage wi h 100% Wa angi and Muslim dwelle s. The pa icipan s in ou quali a i e hema ic in e iews (n=20, 9 emales and 11 males), conduc ed in Janua y 2017, we e all Muslims and all Wa angi apa om one Maasai and one Sandawe. Mos o he in e iewees we e peasan s, al hough i e we e also occupied in small businesses. The majo i y had only p ima y educa ion, apa om h ee emale in e iewees wi h seconda y educa ion and one male in e iewee wi h uni e si y le el. These in e iews comp ised a small-scale explo a i e case s udy (Yin, 2003) conduc ed a he beginning o a wide p ojec on p ac ices o ci izenship in Tanzania and Uganda (Holma & Kon inen, 2020a). The in e iewees had been ac i e in one way o ano he in he NGO’s ini ia i es and, he e o e, exempli y communi y membe s who ha e he oppo uni y, capaci ies and mo i a ion o pa icipa e in a ious g oups. The hemes discussed included hei de ini ions o ci izenship, hei belonging o and pa icipa ion in a ious g oups hey conside ed meaning ul o hei e e yday li e, and he igh s and obliga ions hey a ached o hese g oups. All he in e iews we e conduc ed by na i e Tanzanians in Kiswahili, a language used daily by all pa icipan s and also spoken by he second au ho . In e iews we e eco ded and ansc ibed. Ou induc i e hema ic analysis consis ed o h ee ounds, wi h bo h au ho s pa icipa ing. Fi s , all accoun s a icula ed in he in e iews we e coded acco ding o hei de ailed, p ac ical con en . Second, om his con en , he in e iew sec ions discussing pa icipa ion in some kind o g oup o communi y we e ex ac ed o mo e de ailed analysis, when ypes o communi ies we e iden i ied. Thi d, we used he no ion o habi COMMUNITIES AND HABITS OF CITIZENSHIP … 121 o in e p e he kinds o ci izenship habi s acqui ed, i s by iden i ying habi s ela ed o each communi y sepa a ely, and hen combining and abs ac ing hese in o six b oade ca ego ies. The habi s we e cons uc ed based on he aken- o -g an ed ways esea ch pa icipan s desc ibed he cha ac e is ics o he communi ies, and he oles and esponsibili ies a ibu ed o hem. O e all, he analysis esul ed in iden i ica ion o six ypes o communi ies in which in e iewees’ pa icipa ed— he illage communi y, cul u al g oups, eligious g oups, sel -help g oups, economic g oups and ci il socie y o ganiza ions—and six ca ego ies o ci izen- ship habi s: habi s o poli ical ci izenship, engaging ci izenship, economic ci izenship, cul u al ci izenship, esponsible ci izenship and mo al ci izen- ship. Typically, he indi iduals we in e iewed pa icipa ed in a numbe o communi ies; hose who we e no ac i e we e no in e iewed in his s udy. I is, he e o e, likely ha ou in e iews did no cap u e all exis ing communi ies o he expe iences o hose who we e passi e, no in e - es ed o unable o pa icipa e. Mo eo e , he bo de s be ween he ypes and ca ego ies iden i ied o e lap wi h each o he ; o ins ance, he line be ween some sel -help g oups and economic g oups was blu ed. Thus, he indings p o ide an illus a i e pic u e o mul iple a enas o pa icipa- ion. In 2018 he ini ial indings we e discussed in wo eedback sessions wi h he communi ies, p o iding he in e iew pa icipan s and o he local inhabi an s wi h he oppo uni y o commen on he indings and alida e ou analysis o exis ing g oups and kinds o ci izenship. 4Communi ies and Habi s o Ci izenship In his sec ion we b ie ly p esen ou indings on he ypes o communi ies in which people pa icipa ed, he sha ed issues add essed and he p ac ices unde aken. Then we p oceed o ou indings on he habi s o ci izenship acqui ed h ough pa icipa ing in hese communi ies. Communi ies and P ac ices The in e iewees iden i ied a numbe o communi ies whe e sha ed issues we e add essed and whe e hey ac i ely pa icipa ed. Mos common was he illage communi y o which each egis e ed illage belongs, possessing equal igh s and du ies acco ding o he law: o ins ance, o o e and s and o he illage council. The illage p o ides an a ena 122 A. M. NGUYAHAMBI AND T. KONTINEN whe ein o pa icipa e in making decisions on join issues and esou ces (Snyde , 2008), and unc ions as an o icial space o add essing common issues in illage mee ings and gene al assemblies. As an example o hose men ioned, in one o he illage mee ings i was decided ha illage membe s should pa icipa e in building a pi -la ine in he illage dispen- sa y in o de o add ess a conce n o e he lack o quali y in heal h-ca e acili ies. The second impo an ype was cul u al g oups, whe e illage s s eng hen and main ain he cul u al he i age o hei e hnic g oups: o example, he Wa angi li ing in he a ea pa icipa e in g oup cul u al ac i i ies such as dance, choi s and spo s. These p o ided leisu e and ec ea ion, bu also add essed he join conce n o suppo ing in eg a ion be ween gene a ions, ansmission o cul u al knowledge and s eng h- ening cul u al iden i y in he a ea. Cul u al g oups also p esen ed an educa ional oppo uni y in which people lea ned abou hei du ies and igh s in p ese ing hei cul u al iden i y and he wel a e o hei commu- ni ies a la ge. E e yone also men ioned membe ship in eligious g oups, mainly Islamic ones. These we e impo an , no only o building spi i ual iden i ies h ough pa icipa ing in p aye s and lea ning eligious mo als, bu also o add essing p ac ical conce ns oge he . Fo ins ance, he in e iewees na a ed how membe s con ibu ed o he cons uc ion and eno a ion o mosque buildings, pa icipa ed in cleaning a eas o wo ship and educa ion and mobilized suppo o he eache s in mad asas. Sel -help g oups we e es ablished by economically and socially disad- an aged communi y membe s, especially women, in o de o mobilize esou ces, wi h he expec a ion o helping each o he du ing imes o so ow and joy, kwenye shida na aha. These g oups add essed he gene al p oblem o po e y and economic insecu i y in he ace o su p ising chal- lenges. In Tanzania, as in many o he A ican coun ies, o ming sel -help g oups da es back o p e-colonial imes (Aika uwa e al., 2014; Rodima- Taylo , 2014). They p o ide social p o ec ion om unexpec ed challenges and can help o secu e small c edi s and capi al, which membe s canno access elsewhe e due o hei limi ed economic capaci y. Membe s ha e a du y o pa icipa e equen ly in g oup mee ings and o con ibu e money o he join cashbox. They also ha e he igh , in u n, o bene i om c edi o a gi om he g oup i in sudden need. Sel - help g oups we e, he e o e, bo h economically and socially signi ican . COMMUNITIES AND HABITS OF CITIZENSHIP … 129 o ce ain eligious es i i ies. In e iewees also el ha i was hei du y o make su e ha he young ones lea ned good mo als and e hical alues in o de o hem o become e hical pe sons wi h p ope ci ic cha ac- e s which, in u n, we e linked o wide-sp ead and o en quo ed na ional alues, such as he peace, ha mony, uni y and oge he ness a ached o he idea o a good socie y in Tanzania, and he gene al p ope ies o good ci izen y. 5Conclusions We d aw h ee main conclusions om ou explo a o y analysis o commu- ni ies and habi s o ci izenship in his speci ic pa o u al Tanzania. Fi s , he employmen o he p agma is idea o s a ing explo a ion o ci izen- ship in e e yday p ac ices showed ha , in acco dance wi h Englund’s e lec ions on ci izenship in A ica (2004), ci izenship is-á- is he s a e did no play an explici ly signi ican ole in e e yday li es. Wellbeing, esponsibili ies, igh s, iden i ies and belonging we e mos ly cons uc ed in ela ion o di e se p oxima e communi ies. The s a e was p ac ically p esen a imes o gene al elec ions, in he illage and among i s leade s as he lowes le el adminis a i e uni , and as a se ice p o ide when i came o heal h ca e and educa ion. The e o e, he indings suppo he e o s in ci izenship s udies o p omo e mul i ace ed concep ualiza- ions o ci izenship ha a e o med alongside mul i-scala communi ies o ci izenship (Cla ke e al., 2014). A he same ime, we p o ided a new, p agma is app oach, one ha unde s ands he moulding o ci izenship i s and o emos as pa icipa ion in communi ies ha add ess sha ed issues a g ass oo s le els; he e, he habi s o ci izenship a e o mula ed, o be po en ially exe cised a b oade scales as well. Second, he iden i ied habi s o ci izenship e ol ed a ound ea u es such as esponsibili y, con ibu ion, nego ia ion and mu ual solida i y, and, hus, a ound a ce ain kind o ideal o good ci izenship. In con as , a con es an , claim-making ci izenship ha would e ol e a ound demanding one’s igh s o challenging exis ing powe s uc u es, was absen om pa icipan s’ accoun s. The new habi s o “engaged ci izen”, mainly in oduced by he NGOs, included some no ions o claim-making, bu we e p ac ically ealized h ough nego ia ion and es ablishing good ela ionships a he han con es a ion. The hesi ance abou shi ing om exis ing habi s o poli ical ci izenship owa ds mo e engaged ci izenship esona es wi h he idea ha gene al alignmen wi h 130 A. M. NGUYAHAMBI AND T. KONTINEN bo h he go e nmen and adi ional au ho i ies is an impo an cha ac- e is ic o A ican ci izenship (Do man, 2014;Hoon&MacLean,2014). Changing such aken- o -g an ed modes o ela ing o au ho i y migh no happen wi hin he ime- ame o NGO p ojec s, al hough hey can p o ide some dis up ions and ideas o al e na i e ways. Thi d, ou explo a o y s udy can in o m he design o in en ional e o s o p omo e ci izen engagemen as a means o enhancing local de elopmen . P e ious esea ch (Ga en a, 2016; King, 2015) has indi- ca ed ha success ul e o s o suppo ci izens’ engagemen ha e aken in o accoun he ac ha people’s own p io i ies o en conce n economic imp o emen s in hei daily li es a he han inc eased oppo uni ies o poli ical claim-making. Howe e , he lessons lea ned also show ha by s a ing wi h al eady exis ing g oups gea ed owa ds local li elihood, cul u al o eligious p io i ies, he capaci ies and mo i a ion o ha ing a oice and engaging wi h he powe holde s can g adually inc ease as well (ibid.; Ga en a & Ba e , 2012). Ou me hodological app oach o asking p ospec i e p ojec pa icipan s abou hei exis ing communi ies o pa icipa ion and hei ideals o good ci izenship, a he han s a ing wi h he in oduc ion o new p ac ices, migh acili a e p omo ion o long- e m change in ci izenship habi s. Re e ences Aika uwa, D. B., Suma i, G. A., & Maleko, G. N. (2014). Social unc ion- ali y o sel help g oups in Tanzania. Jou nal o Business Adminis a ion and Educa ion, 5(2), 99–136. Ala a, H. (2020). The e e yday and spec acle o subdued ci izenship in No he n Uganda. In K. Holma & T. Kon inen (Eds.), P ac ices o ci izenship in Eas A ica: Pe spec i es om philosophical p agma ism (pp. 90–104). Rou ledge. Allen, H. (2006). 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