Novel and experimental music technology use in the music classroom : learning performance, experience, and concentrated behavior

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY-NC 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ No el and expe imen al music echnology use in he music class oom : lea ning pe o mance, expe ience, and concen a ed beha io © 2021 And ew Danso, Rebekah Rousi, & Ma c Thompson, and he Open Science Cen e, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä Published e sion Danso, And ew; Rousi, Rebekah; Thompson, Ma c Danso, A., Rousi, R., & Thompson, M. (2021). No el and expe imen al music echnology use in he music class oom : lea ning pe o mance, expe ience, and concen a ed beha io . Human Technology, 17(1), 81-112. h ps://doi.o g/10.17011/h /u n.202106223979 2021 ISSN: 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i Volume 17(1), June 2021, 81–112 81 NOVEL AND EXPERIMENTAL MUSIC TECHNOLOGY USE IN THE MUSIC CLASSROOM: LEARNING PERFORMANCE, EXPERIENCE AND CONCENTRATED BEHAVIOR Abs ac : In ecen yea s, music echnology in he class oom has elied on gene al de ices such as he iPad. In he cu en s udy, we used a mixed-me hods app oach o examine he lea ning pe o mance, lea ning expe ience, and beha io o wo class g oups o p ima y school music s uden s (N = 42), using es ablished music echnology (i.e., he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app) and no el music echnology (KAiKU Music Glo e). Resul s show a signi ican di e ence o change in es sco es du ing lea ning (p = <.01) and a medium e ec -size is ound (d = .75), indica ing use o he iPad and Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app con ibu ed o inc eased lea ning when compa ed o he KAiKU Music Glo e. Pe cei ed ease o use a ings o bo h echnologies and obse able le els o concen a ion exhibi ed by he s uden s a e also discussed in he pape . Implica ions p o ide insigh s in o he usage and de elopmen o embodied music echnology in he music class oom. Keywo ds: music educa ion, music echnology, lea ning expe ience, lea ning. ©2021 And ew Danso, Rebekah Rousi, & Ma c Thompson, and he Open Science Cen e, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä h ps://doi.o g/10.17011/h /u n.202106223979 This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial 4.0 In e na ional License. Ma c Thompson Depa men o Music, A and Cul u e S udies, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä Finland And ew Danso Depa men o Music, A and Cul u e S udies Uni e si y o Jy äskylä Finland Rebekah Rousi Cogni i e Science, Depa men o Compu e Science and In o ma ion Sys ems, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä Finland Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 82 INTRODUCTION The c ea i e use o in o ma ion echnology (IT) in he music class oom a ely is associa ed wi h concep s ound in human–compu e in e ac ion (HCI) esea ch. Thus, HCI, IT, and music educa ion a e pe iphe al disciplines ha ha e no been bound oge he adequa ely o unde s and s uden beha io when engaged wi h embodied music echnology. This ep esen s a missed oppo uni y o unde s anding he phenomenon. In he p esen s udy, we sough o in es iga e he esea ch gap among hese pe iphe al disciplines by using HCI and IT esea ch o unde s and child en’s beha io in he music class oom while s uden s used embodied music echnology as pa o hei music class. IT is a widely in eg a ed aspec o eaching and lea ning in oday’s No dic childhood music class. Fo he s uden s, IT a ec s hei lea ning pe o mance and, c ucially, hei expe ience o music. Fo he eache , IT can suppo he eaching o music educa ion wi h echnology’s ad anced echnical capabili ies (e.g., da a s o age, access o he In e ne , a ie y o applica ions, gami ica ion), enabling ac i i ies ha a e engaging o child en. IT can also help he eache o manage he s uden s’ lea ning pe o mance. In his s udy, we aimed o unde s and be e no el and expe imen al music echnology use and in e ac ions in childhood music educa ion. Fo his, we employed a mixed-me hod app oach o examine quan i a i e and quali a i e da a. The quan i a i e da a de i ed om lea ning pe o mance es s and he quali a i e da a eme ged om subjec i e expe ience su eys and beha io al obse a ions. A mixed-me hods app oach app op ia ely suppo ed he pu pose o his s udy, which was o unde s and es ablished and expe imen al embodied digi al music echnology usage in childhood music educa ion. We achie ed his by examining s uden s’ lea ning pe o mance, hei expe ience o using he echnology in he con ex o music lea ning, and hei beha io while using ei he he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app o he KAiKU Music Glo e, a ac ile wea able de ice ha ac i a es musical no es ia ouch. The h ee esea ch ques ions di ec ed his s udy: RQ1. Wha is he di e ence in musical knowledge be o e and a e using he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app and he KAiKU Music Glo e connec ed o he iPad in child en’s music classes? RQ2. Wha a e he s uden s’ a ings o pe cei ed ease o use be o e and a e using he iPad only o he KAiKU Music Glo e in he music class oom? RQ3. Wha is he di e ence in concen a ion- ela ed beha io pa e ns o he s uden ’s while in e ac ing and playing he iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e in child en’s music classes? Wi hin his pape , a e iew o ela ed li e a u e will be p esen ed i s , which discusses concep s in embodimen and cogni i e concen a ion in pa icula . Ha ing es ablished a heo e ical backg ound o his esea ch, an empi ical in es iga ion o wo s uden g oups assigned ei he he iPad o he KAiKU Music Glo e as he p ima y de ice o music lea ning is ca ied ou . These de ices we e used in he music classes o e a 6-week pe iod PRIOR AND RELATED RESEARCH His o ically, echnology use in he music class oom has been associa ed wi h IT om b oade socie y, as compu e s and, in pa icula , MIDI (musical ins umen digi al in e ace) sequencing Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 83 s imula ed a musical e olu ion (Gall & B eeze, 2007). Acco dingly, he ollowing sec ion looks a able compu e use in educa ion, speci ically how able compu e in eg a ion has impac ed childhood music educa ion. The subsequen sec ion p o ides an o e iew o expe imen al hand- senso music echnology included and used in his s udy, KAiKU Music Glo e, and hen placing i in o a HCI heo e ical pa adigm we ha e called human music echnology in e ac ion. Play and concen a ion in childhood music educa ion a e discussed, in addi ion o a heo e ical concep om he o iginal echnology accep ance model (TAM; Da is, 1985) e iewed and used in he s udy. The Table Compu e in Educa ion As a esul o he physical p ope ies o able compu e s in e ms o hei sc een size, ligh weigh design, mul imedia suppo , ease o use, and long ba e y li e, hey can se e as op imal de ices o encou aging s uden engagemen in mul iple ac ions and ac i i ies in many class oom subjec s and lea ning si ua ions (Chu chill, Fox, & King, 2012; Hende son & Yeow, 2012). S udies ha e shown ha able usage in lea ning si ua ions encou ages high le els o s uden p oduc i i y, c ea i i y, engagemen , au onomy, and sel - egula ion in class si ua ions (Cla k & Luckin, 2013; Hende son & Yeow, 2012). O e ecen yea s, subs an ial echnological de elopmen s in music class ooms ha e in ol ed in eg a ing inno a i e de ices as pa o he lea ning p ocess in o de o encou age in e ac ion h ough ac ile inpu and hap ic eedback. The mos es ablished o hese inno a ions is he iPad, a able compu e manu ac u ed by Apple. The iPad has been widely in eg a ed in o con empo a y class ooms. Bu ne , Me chan , Simpson, and Walsh (2017) s a ed ha he iPad’s in eg a ion in o he class oom has been less p oblema ic han o he simila de ices, pas and p esen . S udies by Wa io, I e i, and De We (2016), Wang, Teng, and Chen (2015), and Hein ich (2012) demons a ed ha iPad use in class oom se ings has a posi i e impac on lea ning. Rowe, T ian a yllaki, and Pache (2016) epo ed ha he c ea i e u iliza ion o he iPad, as well as i s play ulness, ans e s seamlessly in o he expe imen a ion in ol ed in he c ea ion o music. Flewi , Kuci ko a, and Messe (2014) ound e idence ha he iPad was use ul o child en in he class oom, epo ing ha child en we e mo i a ed o use he echnology and held concen a ion o longe pe iods o ime when using he echnology. In addi ion, a di e se ange o music apps ( o he iOS and And oid ope a ing sys ems), o en eadily a ailable on able compu e s and iPads, allows he eache and s uden access o c ea i e music educa ional expe iences (Hillie , G ehe , Queenan, Ma shall, & Kopec, 2016). The senso y in e ace o he able compu e ’s ouch sc een acili a es s uden in e ac ion wi h he digi al in e ace o i s apps in an in ui i e way, (e.g., p essing on a piano key shown ia he use in e ace o enabling ges u es du ing music c ea ion). To ha end, Bu on and Pea sall (2015) ound ha child en as young as 4 yea s old p e e ed playing music in apps ha equi ed e y li le musical manipula ion—meaning he apps we e mos ly open-ended in use in e ac ion and allowed he child en eedom in music making. Consequen ly, he 4-yea olds p e e ed music-making apps ha made hem he sou ce o music making a he han he apps’ ou pu . Wi h his in mind, Bu on and Pea sall (2015) claimed ha apps used in childhood music educa ion should ha e quali ies ha enable play and open music c ea ion. Howe e , e idence is inconclusi e ega ding usage o able compu e s in he childhood music class oom, as Hu chison, Bescho ne , and Schmid -C aw o d (2012), Ruismäki, Ju onen, and Leh onen (2013), and S e on, Coch ane, and Na ayan (2018) s a ed. They epo ed ha esea ch on able compu e echnology in childhood music educa ion is ela i ely unexplo ed. Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 84 Obse a ions o able compu e use show o e use in he class oom, misuse, and lack o use con idence. In addi ion, Hein ich (2012) ound ha young s uden s using able s as pa o hei lea ning cu iculum may equi e suppo o amilia iza ion wi h he de ice’s ea u es and unc ionali y be o e ac i ely using hem. The KAiKU Music Glo e De ice The KAiKU Music Glo e is a musical MIDI con olle wi h ouch senso s (see Figu e 1). The glo e i s on one’s hand, while he senso s embedded wi hin he glo e’s inge s a e p essed wi h he o he /opposi e hand. The manu ac u e , Tac ion En e p ises Inc., has o ganized he senso s wi hin a p ac ical and e gonomic pe spec i e, and he de ices a e p oduced speci ically o pedagogical use in eaching music heo y (see, Danso, 2019; U.S. Pa en No. 9,905,207, 2018). The posi ioning o wo ows o ouch senso s is p esen ed as a po en ially e ec i e me hod o eaching he musical scale. I also is e ec i e in he eaching in e al and cho d s uc u es when bo h he eache and s uden s a e wea ing he glo e. This app oach is an a emp o op imize he p ocess o music eaching and lea ning (Paule-Ruiz, Ál a ez-Ga cía, Pé ez-Pé ez, Ál a ez-Sie a, & T espalacios-Menéndez, 2017) based on he Kodály me hod (Ha ison, 2021) ha emphasizes he use o he hand du ing singing lessons. A heo e ical p emise behind he KAiKU Music Glo e is ha he glo e encou ages he embodied lea ning o music (Myllykoski, Tuu i, Vii e , & Louhi uo i, 2015). Child en can lea n music u ilizing di e en modali ies ( isually, audi o ily, and kinaes he ically, o by combina ions o hese; Bu on & Tagga , 2011; Pe sellin, 1992). Acknowledging he in eg a ion o mul imodali y in o he embodied lea ning o music h ough he hands is a design p inciple o he KAiKU Music Glo e de ice (Myllykoski e al., 2015). Ta ge ing Figu e 1. A diag am o he KAiKU Music Glo e wi h a musical ins umen digi al in e ace (MIDI) and Blue oo h (BT) connec ed o a pe sonal compu e (PC). The KAiKU Music Glo e gene a es musical da a h ough a glo e embedded wi h ouch senso s and elec onic uni s. I connec s ia Blue oo h o Uni e sal Se ial Bus (USB) o a hos de ice (i.e., lap op o pe sonal compu e ) o p oduce musical sound. The numbe s in he diag am co espond o he ha dwa e ha he KAiKU Music Glo e implemen s: 10. A Glo e de ice. 16. Touch senso s. 18. Cen al MIDI elec onic uni . 21. Blue oo h ansmi ing MIDI code. 23. Blue oo h ecei e . 25. Pe sonal Compu e (hos de ice) (U.S. Pa en No. 9,905,207, 2018). Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 85 he hands o musical knowledge and ins umen de elopmen is no exclusi e o he KAiKU Music Glo e de ice (Vous inas, 2017). O he echnologies ecen ly de eloped also ocus on he hands o use in a pe o mance se ing. Human Music Technology In e ac ion: Placing KAiKU in Pa adigm Use in e aces may be seen as embodimen s, o “skins,” o echnological sys ems (Sampson, 2019). A his le el o design, he use encoun e s, a ec s, and is a ec ed by he sys em. Mo eo e , he in e ace ep esen s how da a is made meaning ul o he use h ough design (O’B ien & Toms, 2008). F om a phenomenological pe spec i e, how he use encoun e s hese designs is always h ough he body and i s senses (Höök, 2009; Höök & Löwg en, 2012; Rousi & Sil ennoinen, 2018). This is u he ed by how he body connec s he senso y design o he echnological in e ace o human ac ion (Bødke , 1989; Dewey, 1934/2005; Gayle , Sas, & Kalnikai e, 2019). Music is in insically connec ed no only o he e olu ion o human cul u al ac i i ies bu also is igh ly coupled wi h he de elopmen o language— he mos pe mea ing and undamen ally cogni i ely de ining communica ion echnology he e is (Jus us & Hu sle , 2005). Thus, he mul i echnological laye ing o music and i s associa ed ins umen s o ools a e connec ed wi h human ac ion and in e ac ion. F om his pe spec i e, music can be unde s ood as linguis ic and/o exp essi e communica ion echnology. Musical ins umen s a e ools acili a ing music exp ession, and IT- enabled de ices may se e as ins umen s in hei own igh o ex end (augmen ) he capabili ies o adi ional ins umen s, such as he elec onic iolin o piano, o name a ew. Fu he mo e, in addi ion o being one o he mos embedded echnologies h oughou human e olu ion, music and i s ins umen s ha e always been ully embodied and mul isenso y (Lee & Noppeney, 2011, 2014; Zimme man & Laha , 2012), in ol ing se e al human senso y channels simul aneously. Bo h he able compu e and he KAiKU Music Glo e, o ins ance, in eg a e he ac ile and hap ic expe ience o music making wi h IT. These di ec ly connec mul iple senses ( ouch, sound, sigh , pe haps e en smell, depending on he de ice ma e ials) o digi al in e ac ion, s eng hening he link be ween he mind ( hough ) and he body (physical mo emen , con ol, and sensa ions) wi hin digi ally acili a ed music p oduc ion. Al hough embodied mul isenso y expe ience always has been one o he main cha ac e is ics o he body−music expe ience (p oduc ion and consump ion), IT ex ends he adi ions and na u e o ool/ins umen -assis ed music making h ough i s in o ma ional laye ing. This in o ma ional laye ing e e s o he na u e o IT whe e o m does no always ollow unc ion and, h ough in o ma ional manipula ion, some senso y cha ac e is ics o he de ices (i.e., sound and hap ic eedback) may change en i ely. When conside ing he connec ion be ween people and echnology, o people and musical ins umen s, one may ponde he augmen ed na u e o he ool. We use ool he e o highligh he cha ac e is ic o ins umen s and echnologies as enable s o human ac ion, while simul aneously alluding o Heidegge ’s (1927/1962) ideas o ools (i.e., echnologies a e “ eady- o-hand”) as augmen a ions o he human body and cogni ion (see also Ha man, 2011). Fu he mo e, musical ins umen s may be seen as augmen ed human capaci ies o ac and a ec : Engagemen wi h a musical ins umen also is an embodied in e ac i e ac i i y among mul iple human ac o s (Leman, 2008; Yu, 2013). In o he wo ds, music and i s ins umen s can be seen as ools o social expe ience and collec i e cogni ion, linking he embodied consciousness o mul iple indi iduals h ough sound and o he senso y e ec s (Himbe g & Thompson, 2009). Leman (2008) suppo ed a p emise called “ anspa en echnology,” a means o musician-based echnology in eg a ion whe eby he Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 86 ins umen / echnology becomes seamless in i s use and expe ience om he pe spec i e o he music make . Thus, conscious cogni ion o he ins umen and i s p ope ies g adually become embodied and au oma ized in he musician’s p ac ice, ans e ing he coupling o musician and ins umen om hough o eeling (emo ional and senso y−mo o ic). Play and Concen a ion in Childhood Music Educa ion Play p o ides expe iences and oppo uni ies o lea ning. This has o med a much-discussed basis o esea ch in he con ex o educa ional echnology (Said, 2004). Mo eo e , om an HCI pe spec i e, he concep o play has been associa ed wi h inc eased equency o and sa is ac ion in sys em use (A kinson & Kydd, 1997). Addi ionally, esea che s ha e a ibu ed play o inc eased mo i a ion, challenge, and posi i e a ec (e.g., Woszczynski, Ro h, & Sega s, 2002). O he s udies ha e shown ha playing inc eases playe s’ concen a ion in hei expe ience o he ac i i y (Huizinga, 2004). “Play has a deep biological, e olu iona ily impo an , unc ion, which has o do speci ically wi h lea ning…. Many scien is s hink o much o hei wo k as play, o en linking he idea o play wi h high c ea i i y” (P ensky, 2001, pp. 5–6). People lea n om expe ience, and lea ned ma e in luences how indi iduals subsequen ly expe ience phenomena (see cons uc i is iews on lea ning, e.g., S e e & Gale, 1995; see also Hel ens ein & Saa iluoma, 2006; Pu nam, 2012; Rousi, 2013; Saa iluoma, 2003; Symeonidis & Schwa z, 2016, ega ding appe cep ion). “An expe ience” in e ms o an e en (see, e.g., Ba e bee & Koskinen, 2005) may be unde s ood as a na a i e wi h a beginning, middle, and end. How his expe ience un olds, howe e , is de e mined by how he minds o hose in ol ed (o obse ing) make meaning. The engagemen wi h de ices and so wa e o he pu poses o p oducing some hing new—whe he music, a pe o mance, and/o an in e ac ional engagemen — can be likened o play. I is a cons uc i e p ocess in which c ea i e exp ession o ep esen a ion is p oduced (McA dle & W igh , 2014). Th ough play, new li e acies a e ealized and in ol emen in he p ocess encou ages concen a ion (Koo, 2009). Concen a ion e e s o a sus ained pe iod o a en ion. F om he pe spec i e o concen a ion, meaning ul lea ning can be achie ed, as long as one o h ee o ms o in e ac ion (i.e., s uden – eache , s uden –s uden , s uden –con en ; Tsang, Kwan, & Fox, 2007) is o a high le el. Concen a ion de i es om genuine engagemen in lea ning as he s uden cogni i ely and a ec i ely is a uned o acqui ing, in eg a ing, assimila ing, and applying he in o ma ion and o he con en p esen ed wi hin he lesson ime (Danse eau, 1985). Bes e and B and (2013) a gued ha he amoun o ime and e o spen in a class oom is wo hless unless he s uden s a e lea ning, and his p ocess happens wi hin he concen a ion span o lea ne s. Ready- o-lea n: A Tool View o In o ma ion Technology in Musical Educa ion The heo y o easoned ac ion (TRA) is a model de eloped o ep esen he easons people beha e in an in en ional way (Da is, Bagozzi, & Wa shaw, 1989; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). An adap a ion o TRA is he TAM (Da is, 1985). TAM p o ides he gene al easons o echnology accep ance, cla i ying he use beha io in ol ed in choosing o use and hen using a echnology. Da is (1989) a gued ha no only was TAM o iginally designed o p edic use accep ance beha io bu also o explain i . Thus, TAM undamen ally helps esea che s and hose wo king in he IT indus y Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 87 unde s and why a pa icula sys em may be ei he accep able o unaccep able o he use . Such in o ma ion hen could be used as a basis o pu sue co ec i e de elopmen ac ion. TAM con ains wo ac o s c i ically ele an o compu e accep ance beha io s: pe cei ed use ulness and pe cei ed ease o use (Da is, 1985, 1989; Da is e al., 1989; Venka esh, 2000). Pe cei ed use ulness is he use ’s own pe cep ion ha using echnology imp o es ask pe o mance. This may indeed be likened o wha social psychologis James Gibson (1977) e e ed o as “a o dance,” whe eby designs and hei quali ies a e unde s ood o wha hey may a o d he use — ha is, how hey assis in he a ainmen o goals ha align wi h in en ion. Pe cei ed ease o use is he deg ee o e o ha he use expec s o place in o in e ac ion while using he echnology (Da is e al., 1989). Beha io al in en ion ep esen s a pe son’s a i ude owa d and pe cei ed use ulness o a sys em. This makes he concep sligh ly di e en wi hin TAM han in TRA. An a i ude and beha io al ela ionship implies ha a pe son may o m he in en ion o ca y ou beha io s ha ha e a posi i e a ec (Da is e al., 1989). TRA and TAM ha e been used widely in he social sciences and in o ma ion sys ems esea ch communi ies and include ex ended e sions, such as TAM 2 (Venka esh & Da is, 2000), TAM 3 (Venka esh & Bala, 2008), he uni ied heo y o accep ance and use o echnology (UTAUT; Venka esh, Mo is, Da is, & Da is, 2003), and UTAUT2 (Venka esh, Thong, & Xu, 2012). The la e models expand on he dimensions o a ec and emo ion, adding de ail o he expec a ional componen s o echnological engagemen (i.e., pe o mance expec ancy and social in luence) in addi ion o g ea e impo ance placed on he ole o con ex (i.e., acili a ing condi ions). Theo e ical Concep : Pe cei ed Ease o Use We chose pe cei ed ease o use om he o iginal TAM as a heo e ical concep o examine he deg ee o e o he s uden s expec ed o place in o echnology in e ac ion wi hin he music class oom. Acco dingly, pe cei ed ease o use as a concep is a good i o p o iding heo e ical and p ac ical insigh s ela i e o his s udy’s pu pose and esea ch ques ions. We applied pe cei ed ease o use o he analysis o he s udy’s esul s o cap u e he ela ionship be ween he pa icipan s’ beha io , lea ning pe o mance, and epo o hei expe iences wi h hei assigned echnologies. Figu e 2 p esen s he o iginal TAM heo e ical amewo k (Da is, 1985). METHODS We conduc ed an explo a o y, desc ip i e mixed-me hod s udy in ol ing wo elemen a y school classes in Cen al Finland. One class was assigned only he iPad wi h a music-p oducing app as he de ice o use wi hin hei music class. The o he class was assigned he KAiKU Music Glo e as a de ice, bu also used he iPad wi h he app as an appa a us o gene a e sounds only. Pa icipan s Pa icipan s comp ised wo classes o 21 s uden s each (N = 42). All pa icipan s we e s uden s, aged 8 o 9 yea s, en olled a Jy äskylän No maalikoulu in Cen al Finland and pa icipa ing in egula music classes. The a e age age o s uden s was 8.3 yea s (SD = 0.5). To p o ec he s uden s’ Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 88 Figu e 2. The echnology accep ance model (TAM; Da is, 1985). The use o echnology is de e mined by he pe son’s beha io al in en ion o use (BI) he sys em, which is in luenced by he use ’s a i ude (A), desc ibed as an emo ional esponse o a posi i e/nega i e expe ience when using he echnology. Feeding in o A is he pe cei ed use ulness (U) and pe cei ed ease o use (E). U also di ec ly in luences he use ’s BI. Ex e nal a iables may include social no ms, such as an ins i u ion’s access o echnology and in il a ion o use (Da is, 1985; Da is e al., 1989). anonymi y, each child ecei ed a numbe om 1 o 21 (each class sepa a ely) so ha he o she could be iden i ied consis en ly ac oss he h ee da a ga he ing p ocesses. Con enience sampling was used o add ess he speci ic aims ela ed o ou esea ch ques ions. Speci ically, he sampling me hod used in he cu en s udy is e e ed o as concu en mixed me hod sampling (Teddlie & Yu, 2007) in ha ou sample se iced he equi emen s o ou quan i a i e and quali a i e s ands o da a. The quan i a i e and quali a i e da a we e collec ed simul aneously, and he analysis o he quan i a i e da a in o med he analysis o he quali a i e da a (and ice e sa). The p ocedu e was con enien in ha gaining access o he school o s udy bo h classes was made eadily Ac ual Sys em Use Beha io al In en ion o Use (BI) A i ude Towa d Using (A) Pe cei ed Use ulness (U) Ex e nal Va iables (E) Pe cei e d Ease o Use (E) Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 95 The wo esea che s chose lessons om Weeks 1, 3, and 6 o ideo analysis (as hese lessons ep esen ed a beginning, middle and end poin o he s udy o analysis), employing a h ee-s age p ocess o he analysis o he ideo eco dings. The i s s age o analysis in ol ed a i s -pass induc i e coding o he da a o place iden i ied da a in o p elimina y analy ic ca ego ies. In he i s s age, he wo esea che s wo ked independen ly o iden i y segmen s o he ideo eco dings wi h occu ences o s uden e bal and non e bal beha io s sugges ing a lack o concen a ion. Following his, he esea che s nego ia ed and ag eed on he ollowing codes: bo edom, no a en ion, ask ocus, and aising hand o help. In he second s age, he esea che s concu ed on a subse o he ideo eco ding sec ions whe e speci ic s uden e bal and non e bal beha io was obse ed. The esul s o he second s age we e lis s o segmen ed desc ip ions, along wi h ime codes; hese we e iden i ied indi idually and en e ed in o a sha ed sp eadshee . This s age o analysis led o he e inemen o he p e ious iden i ied codes. F om his second s age, ou hemes eme ged: looking away om echnology, looking a ound he class oom, eache −s uden in e ac ion, and s uden s discussing he ask wi h ellow s uden s. In he hi d s age, classi ica ions o s uden e bal and non e bal beha io s ega ding hei concen a ion- ela ed beha io in he class oom we e u he e ised. A e independen analysis, we ag eed upon wo classi ica ions a his selec i e coding s age: o - ask beha io and on- ask beha io (see Table 2). Pa e ns in o - ask and on- ask beha io ha e been he ocus o much esea ch (see, e.g., Bake , Co be , Koedinge , & Wagne , 2004; Bake , D’Mello, Rod igo, & G aesse , 2010; Cozby & Rawn, 2012; Ziemek, 2006). O - ask beha io ela es o he use s’ cogni i e−a ec i e s a es as hey in e ac wi h echnology. These include bo edom (Csikszen mihalyi, 1990; Mise andino, 1996) and engaged concen a ion. Engaged concen a ion is a s a e o engagemen wi h a ask ha is in ense. Du ing his s a e, a en ion is ocused and in ol emen is comple e. Howe e , i does no in ol e he a ious ask- ela ed aspec s ha Csikszen mihalyi associa ed wi h low (e.g., clea goals, balanced challenge, di ec and immedia e eedback). Bake e al. (2010) iden i ied hese cogni i e−a ec i e s a es as looking a o away om he objec o looking a ound he oom o some hing o he han he use in e ace. Meanwhile, Ziemek (2006) associa ed o - ask ac ions wi h dis up i e beha io s, such as alking abou hings no ela ed o he ac i i y and dis up ing hei classma es. On- ask beha io is iden i ied by Bake e al. (2004) as asking o help om he eache o ano he s uden and commen ing on achie emen s. Fo ou s udy, he equencies o he occu ences o he s uden s’ non e bal esponses and e bal communica ions we e conside ed indica o s o hei concen a ion du ing class. Class oom Ac i i ies The p ocess o he music ins uc ion conduc ed was ypical o his eache and his age g oup o s uden s, o he han he in oduc ion o an expe imen al condi ion in o m o he KAiKU Music Table 2. Ac ions o On-Task and O -Task Beha io s. O -Task Beha io On-Task Beha io Looking away om, he sc een Asking o help om he eache Looking a ound o some hing o he han he use in e ace Asking o help om o he s Talking abou hings un ela ed o he ac i i y o dis up ing o he s. Commen ing on achie emen s No e. Based on he esea ch o , e.g., Bake e al., 2004; Bake e al., 2010; Cozby & Rawn, 2012; Ziemek, 2006. Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 96 Glo e and he da a collec ion p ocesses (i.e., measu emen ins umen s and ideo eco ding). This 6-week pe iod o ime was blocked o du ing he s uden s’ academic semes e , and as such he s uden s had music educa ion wi h his class oom eache p io o ou s udy. This class oom eache is speci ically a music eache in his school and hus eaches music subjec s only. All 42 s uden s pa icipa ing in his s udy ha e speci ic eache s in he ollowing subjec s: special needs eache s, language eache s, c a eache s, physical educa ion eache s, class eache s, music eache s, and eligion eache s. The class assigned he iPad had class on a Monday; he class assigned he KAiKU Music Glo e had class on a Thu sday. The eache was he same o bo h music classes; he same class oom ac i i ies we e assigned o he iPad and he KAiKU Music Glo e classes. The eache in eg a ed bo h echnologies in o he exis ing cu iculum o he lesson plans, ensu ing s uden s who pa icipa ed in his s udy did no all behind in he le el o educa ion hey ecei ed. As he echnology was inco po a ed in o he lessons, he s uden s we e able o pa icipa e in he s udy wi hou sac i icing he amoun o ma e ial co e ed. Figu e 5 b ie ly p o ides in o ma ion on he con en o he weekly lessons. The weekly classes ollowed he same p ocedu e, as shown in Figu e 6. Week 1 The eache ins uc ed he class abou inco po a ing h ee no es, C-D-E, in o ou -ba melodies. The eache hen demons a ed he loca ion o he musical no e posi ions, C-D-E, on he keyboa d (o , in he class assigned he KAiKU Music Glo e, on he de ice). The s uden s inco po a ed h ee no es, C-D-E, as pa o ou -ba melodies while using and playing hei iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. Week 2 The eache ins uc s he class abou di e en no e names ound on he musical s a e. Following he new ins uc ion, he s uden s hen con inued p ac icing playing h ee no es, C-D- E, as pa o ou -ba melodies while playing hei iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. Week 3 The eache ins uc ed he class on he loca ion o he musical no e posi ions ound on he keyboa d (o he KAiKU Music Glo e) as well as he no e names o Twinkle, Twinkle Li le S a . The s uden s lea ned, and p ac ice playing he melody o Twinkle, Twinkle, Li le S a while using hei iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. The class oom eache accompanied he s uden s’ by playing Twinkle, Twinkle, Li le S a on he elec ic keyboa d o on he KAiKU Music Glo e. Week 4 The eache ins uc ed he class on he no e posi ions ound on he keyboa d o on he KAiKU Music Glo e as well as he no e names o a adi ional Finnish Ch is mas ca ol (Joulu on aas; I ’s Ch is mas Again). The s uden s lea ned and p ac iced he melody o Joulu on aas using hei iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. The s uden s sang o accompany he melody and ha mony o he Ch is mas ca ol. This was he i s - ime s uden s accompanied he use o hei echnologies wi h singing. Week 5 The eache ins uc ed he class on he heo e ical backg ound o ime signa u es and ¾ ime. The s uden s lea ned abou ime signa u es, and ¾ ime playing. The s uden s con inued o p ac ice he Joulu on aas using hei iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. Also, he s uden s sang Joulu on aas while playing i simul aneously on hei echnologies. Week 6 The s uden s con inued o p ac ice Joulu on aas using hei iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. A imes, he young musicians we e accompanied by he class oom eache on he elec ic keyboa d, no ma e which echnology hey we e using. Figu e 5. An O e iew o Ac i i ies in Bo h Music Classes. Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 97 S uden s en e he class. S uden s comple e a sel - epo su ey. S uden s in bo h classes e ie e an iPad and headphones; s uden s in he expe imen al class also ake he KAiKU Music Glo e. The music eache p o ides s uden s an o e iew o he lesson con en . S uden s use he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app o p oduce sounds. S uden s a e ins uc ed o play and p ac ice new con en independen ly wi h headphones. S uden s a e ins uc ed o play collabo a i ely as a g oup using hei assigned echnology. S uden s ecei e eedback om he eache . S uden s e u n hei echnology. The class ends wi h all s uden s comple ing a sel - epo su ey. Figu e 6. The session p ocedu e du ing he 6-week-long expe imen . Each box ep esen s an essen ial componen in he o ganiza ion o each music lesson, obse ed and ag eed on by esea che s. The weekly lessons main ained a egula schedule and we e held in he same oom. RESULTS The esul s om he es o knowledge a e p esen ed i s , ollowed by he esponses on he pe cei ed ease o use ques ion o he use expe ience su ey, and inally, quali a i e obse a ion allies. The esul s epo and compa e lea ning ou comes be ween he iPad and KAiKU Music Glo e classes and pe cei ed ease o use esponses be o e and a e each ime he s uden s used hei assigned echnologies. S a is ical analysis in he o m o a Mann-Whi ney U es was used o examine whe he o no he di e ence in change in es sco es be ween he s uden g oups is signi ican ly di e en a e using hei assigned echnologies du ing he s udy’s du a ion. To analyze he change in pe cei ed ease o use esponses be o e and a e he s uden s used hei assigned echnologies, we used a Wilcoxon Signed- anks es o examine hei pe cei ed ease o Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 98 use su ey esponses. The quali a i e obse a ion allies we e made by he esea che s iewing ideo eco dings o he class oom lessons. The obse a ion allies we e he esul o beha io s coded by bo h esea che s. Obse a ion allies we e made by bo h he esea che s. Following he compa ison o ally o als, bo h esea che s nego ia ed and ag eed upon inal codes o beha io s and he o al ins ances o each obse ed beha io . The es o knowledge was comple ed by all s uden s in bo h classes. Be o e he s uden s used hei de ices, he es o knowledge es ablished a baseline measu emen o he s uden s’ knowledge ega ding he musical syllabus. A e using he echnologies, he same es o knowledge was comple ed by he s uden s o examine whe he he use o he echnologies had inc eased o dec eased hei musical knowledge. Pea son’s co ela ion coe icien was ca ied ou o assess he ela ionship be ween he g oup o s uden s using only he iPad o music lea ning (n = 21) and he g oup o s uden s using he KAiKU Music Glo e (n = 21) o he same pu pose. We also compu ed es o knowledge sco es a he beginning o he expe imen (Week 1) and e es sco es (Week 6). The Pea son’s da a analysis e ealed a mode a e posi i e co ela ion be ween he es and e es sco es o bo h g oups, wi h an o .73 (iPad only g oup) and an o .77 (KAiKU Music Glo e g oup). Resul s om he es o knowledge be o e and a e using he echnology a e in Figu e 7. We pe o med a s a is ical analysis o he pos es o knowledge sco es using a Mann- Whi ney U es . The pu pose was o compa e whe he he change be ween he wo g oups om p e- o pos es sco es was signi ican . The Mann-Whi ney U es indica ed ha he di e ence in change in es sco es be ween he s uden s a e using hei assigned iPad (Mdn = 7) and KAiKU Music Glo e (Mdn = 0) echnologies is signi ican , U = 115, z = 2.641, p = .008 wo- ailed, and a medium e ec -size was ound d = .75. As shown in Table 3, esul s om he daily su ey indica e he echnologies we e a ed simila ly be o e hey we e used in pe cei ed ease o use, as Week 1, Week 3 and Week 6 epo median esul s o be ween 4 and 4.50, and a small e ec size (d = .20) was ound. A e he echnologies we e used, he daily su ey esul s indica e ha bo h echnologies we e a ed lowe in pe cei ed ease o use, as Week 1, Week 3, and Week 6 epo median esul s o be ween 3 and 1.50, and a small e ec size (d = .20) was ound. In addi ion, esul s om he daily su ey indica e ha bo h de ices we e a ed simila ly in pe cei ed ease o use, pos -use, a Week 6 (iPad, Mdn = 2.00, KAiKU Music Glo e Mdn = 1.50) and a small e ec size (d = .31) was ound. Figu e 7. Medians compa ing he p e- and pos lea ning es o knowledge esul s om he iPad and KAiKU Music Glo e classes. The maximum es sco e is 31. iPad (p e es ) iPad (pos es ) KAiKU Music Glo e (p e es ) KAiKU Music Glo e (pos es ) Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 99 Table 3. Desc ip i e S a is ics o he Pe cei ed Ease o Use Responses Du ing Weeks 1, 3, and 6 o he iPad and KAiKU Music Glo e Classes. Week 1 Week 3 Week 6 I em Mean Median SD Mean Median SD Mean Median SD I hink he iPad will be easy o use oday (iPad) 3.84 4.00 1.12 3.50 4.00 1.43 3.76 4.00 1.25 Today I ound he iPad easy o use (iPad) 2.84 3.00 1.07 2.80 3.00 1.28 2.53 2.00 1.55 I hink he glo e will be easy o use oday (KAiKU Music Glo e) 4.30 4.50 0.95 3.95 4.00 0.95 3.70 4.00 1.17 Today I ound he glo e easy o use (KAiKU Music Glo e) 2.80 3.00 1.06 2.35 2.00 1.82 2.10 1.50 1.21 We pe o med a Wilcoxon Signed- anks es on he change in pe cei ed ease o use a ings. The Wilcoxon Signed- anks es indica ed he change in pe cei ed ease o use a ing be o e using he iPad a Week 1 (Mdn = 4.00) and a e using he iPad a Week 6 (Mdn = 2.00) is signi ican , T = 118, z = -2.5854, p = .009; a la ge e ec -size was ound, d = .80. The Wilcoxon Signed- anks es indica ed he change in pe cei ed ease o use a ing be o e using he KAiKU Music Glo e a Week 1 (Mdn = 4.5) and a e using he KAiKU Music Glo e a Week 6 (Mdn = 1.5) was signi ican , T = 214, z = -3.4236, p = .001, and a la ge e ec -size (d = .80) was ound. To analyze he di e ence in change be ween he s uden s’ a ings in pe cei ed ease o use o bo h he de ices om Week 1 o Week 6, a Mann-Whi ney U es on he a ings was pe o med. The Mann-Whi ney U es indica ed he di e ence in change o pe cei ed ease o use a ings be ween he s uden s who used he iPad (Mdn = 0) and he s uden s who used he KAiKU Music Glo e (Mdn = 2) ac oss he 6 weeks o s udy was no signi ican , U = 165, z = -1.384, p = .168 wo- ailed; a small e ec size (d = .40) was ound. To analyze he di e ence in pe cei ed ease o use a ings o bo h he de ices be ween he wo g oups o s uden s, a e a ing hei de ices a Week 6, we pe o med a Mann- Whi ney U es on he a ings. The Mann-Whi ney U es indica ed he di e ence in he wo g oups o s uden s pe cei ed ease o use a ing a e using he iPad (Mdn = 2) and a e using he KAiKU Music Glo e (Mdn = 1.5) a Week 6 is no signi ican , U = 217, z = -0.07547, p = .936 wo- ailed, and a small e ec size (d = .31) was ound. We conduc ed a ideo analysis o unde s and he s uden s’ beha io s while using hei assigned echnologies. Video o he classes was eco ded a 2-week in e als du ing he su ey pe iod (i.e., Weeks 1, 3, & 6), and he obse a ions we e o wo s uden s om each class, selec ed by speci ic condi ions. The s uden s’ coded beha io s e e o hei concen a ed- ela ed beha io while using hei assigned echnologies. These we e labeled as O - ask Beha io and On- ask Beha io . Two esea che s a ed and coded beha io o he selec ed s uden s a each obse a ion poin independen ly. In e a e eliabili y was measu ed o ensu e ha he da a collec ed in he s udy we e ep esen ed co ec ly. We comple ed s a is ical analysis in he o m o Cohen’s kappa (k) Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 100 o examine he eliabili y be ween he obse ed sco es o he esea che s. The esul s o he kappa we e k = .81, indica ing s ong ag eemen be ween he esea che s on hei coded ca ego ies. Tables 4 and 5 display he allies o he esea che s’ analysis o he wo ep esen a i e s uden s’ beha io in he iPad-using and KAiKU Music Glo e-using classes. Each s uden in bo h he classes we e designa ed a numbe ( om 1 o 21). Wi hin he iPad-using class, s uden s numbe ed 7 o 12 we e selec ed o ideo analysis o hei beha io , and wi hin he KAiKU Music Glo e-using class, s uden s numbe ed 3 o 10 we e selec ed o ideo analysis o hei beha io . Table 4. Tallies o he Resea che s’ Analysis o Two Rep esen a i e S uden s’ Beha io in he iPad Class. Week S uden Numbe Ins ances o O -Task Beha io Ins ances o On-Task Beha io 1 7 3 0 12 2 0 3 7 0 0 12 0 0 6 7 1 0 12 4 0 To al 10 0 No e. Each s uden in he iPad-using class was designa ed by a numbe ( om 1 o 21). S uden s 7 and 12 we e selec ed o ideo analysis o hei beha io . Table 5. Tallies o he Resea che s’ Analysis o Two Rep esen a i e S uden s’ Beha io in he KAiKU Music Glo e Class. Week S uden Numbe Ins ances o O -Task Beha io Ins ances o On-Task Beha io 1 3 0 0 10 0 0 3 3 0 0 10 0 0 6 3 0 3 10 0 3 To al 0 6 No e. Each s uden in he KAiKU Music Glo e-using class was designa ed by a numbe ( om 1 o 21). S uden s 3 and 10 we e selec ed o ideo analysis o hei beha io . Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 101 DISCUSSION The cu en s udy ound ha he s uden s using, playing, and lea ning music wi h he iPad-only sco ed highe in hei es o knowledge pos es esul . When analyzing he di e ence in change be ween he s uden s’ pos es esul s du ing he 6 weeks o lessons, a Mann-Whi ney U es showed a s a is ically signi ican esul . When he change in pe cei ed ease o use esponses is analyzed be o e using bo h echnologies, s a is ically signi ican esul s we e ound. The esul s o he quali a i e ideo analysis en a i ely sugges ha concen a ion- ela ed beha io may ha e been obse ed o be highe in he wo s uden s using, playing, and lea ning wi h he KAiKU Music Glo e, han he wo s uden s using he iPad-only. The esul s abo e p o ide e idence o discussion o he s udy in e ms o he h ee esea ch ques ions. RQ1. Wha is he di e ence in musical knowledge be o e and a e using he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app and he KAiKU Music Glo e connec ed o he iPad in child en’s music classes? As indica ed in he analysis o he pos es di e ences, he s uden s who used he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app imp o ed mo e in hei musical knowledge a e using he echnology o e he 6 weeks o lessons as compa ed o he s uden s who used he KAiKU Music Glo e. When he pos es esul s compa ing he di e ence in change a e compa ed o one ano he , he di e ence was signi ican and he e ec size was medium. These indings sugges ha use o he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app con ibu ed o inc eased lea ning mo e so han he KAiKU Music Glo e. The indings in his s udy a e in line wi h a p e ious esea ch ha also used hese da a (Danso, 2019). Howe e , a dis inc di e ence in his s udy’s use o he da a is he analysis o change in pos es sco e a e he s uden s used hei echnologies, which highligh s he po en ial signi icance o he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app’s con ibu ion o he s uden s’ inc eased lea ning. In addi ion, he inc eased lea ning o he s uden s who used he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app suppo s he li e a u e o Wa io e al. (2016), Wang, e al. (2015), and Hein ich (2012), who ound in e ac ing wi h he iPad in he class oom may ha e a posi i e impac on lea ning. On he o he hand, he di e ence may ha e esul ed om s uden s being mo e amilia wi h he iPad de ice and hus able o use i s ouch sc een mo e e icien ly, helping hei lea ning pe o mance. Mo eo e , he s uden s using he iPad as hei music-educa ion pla o m lea ned wi h he piano keys p esen ed ia he Keyboa d Touch app. Touching he piano keys p esen ed in he app may ha e suppo ed he s uden s’ lea ning be e han he s uden s assigned he KAiKU Music Glo e due o amilia i y om p io lessons in unde s anding how no es a e posi ioned on a keyboa d. In addi ion, he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app has a wide ange o musical no es (27 keys in o al) a ailable o he s uden s o play compa ed o he KAiKU Music Glo e (17 senso s in o al). This may ha e encou aged mo e eedom o he s uden s in he iPad g oup o exp ess hemsel es musically. The KAiKU Music Glo e has a ixed mapping sys em placing no es ac oss he inge s (see Figu e 3), which may ha e p esen ed a p ac ical challenge o he s uden s playing music and hei subsequen lea ning. In his ins ance, he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app used by he s uden g oup assigned he iPad could be seen as un es ic i e o he s uden s’ musical exp ession while suppo ing hei lea ning ou comes. The un es ic i e na u e o he app as he p ima y lea ning ool suppo s he indings o Bu on and Pea sall (2015), who Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 102 s a ed ha apps used in childhood music educa ion should allow child en eedom in music making. To achie e a simila posi i e lea ning ou come, he KAiKU Music Glo e may bene i om u u e de elopmen in placing addi ional senso s on he de ice and allowing use s simila access o he ange o musical no es he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app p o ides, bo h which may encou age eedom in music making. Consequen ly, he KAiKU Music Glo e may ha e been a hind ance o lea ning in he music class. This could be due o he ac ha i was oo un amilia , hus di e ing a en ion om he music lea ning in gene al. We had iden i ied his po en ial obs acle al eady be o e he s udy’s implemen a ion and a emp ed o mi iga e i wi h he amilia iza ion sessions. Despi e wo amilia iza ion sessions, we mus acknowledge ha he child en assigned o he KAiKU Music Glo e condi ion al eady had p io expe ience in using he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch app ha mi o ed he piano keyboa d and hus we e p esen ed wi h a signi ican ly di e en musical in e ace when we en e ed he class oom. Al hough he ques ion abou how p io expe ience wi h iPads (o o he able compu e s) and speci ic so wa e p og ams may ha e con ibu ed o he lowe es sco es o he KAiKU Music Glo e condi ion is an impo an issue o explo e mo e deeply, i is ou o he scope o his cu en s udy. RQ2. Wha a e he s uden s’ a ings o pe cei ed ease o use be o e and a e using he iPad only o he KAiKU Music Glo e in he music class oom? We asked he s uden s a he s a and conclusion o each lesson abou hei an icipa ed and pos - use pe cei ed ease o use o hei assigned echnology. The s uden s’ a ed bo h echnologies highe in pe cei ed ease o use ac oss Week 1, Week 3 and Week 6 be o e using he de ices, and a ed hem lowe a e hey we e used ac oss Week 1, Week 3, and Week 6. This is indica ed by wo se s o esul s. Fi s , he desc ip i e s a is ics epo ing medians o be ween 4 (iPad-only p e-use Week 1) and 4.50 (KAiKU Music Glo e p e-use Week 1) be o e he echnology we e used, and medians o be ween 3 (iPad-only Week 1, and Week 3 pos -use) and 1.50 (KAiKU Music Glo e Week 6 pos -use) a e hey we e used. Second, he analysis o he change o sco e be ween he s uden s’ a ing hei an icipa ed ease o use o he iPad and KAiKU Music Glo e use a Week 1 and he inal a ing a Week 6 a e s a is ically signi ican , in pa due o hei highe a ings be o e use a Week 1, and lowe inal a ings pos -use a Week 6.We specula e he highe a ings be o e using he iPad-only may ha e been due o he amilia i y o using he de ice p io o he s udy, and he lowe a ings a e hey used he de ice may ha e been due o ha ing o play music by using he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app in e ace while comple ing he lesson con en . On he o he hand, he s uden s a ing he KAiKU Music Glo e high be o e using i in pe cei ed ease o use may ha e been due o he no el design o he KAiKU Music Glo e, as i places musical no a ion ac oss he hand in he o m o senso s. Consequen ly, he child en an icipa ing playing music on hei hand may ha e in luenced hese esponses in a posi i e manne . Howe e , he lowe a ings in o e all pe cei ed ease o use a e he KAiKU Music Glo e is used show ha he de ice may ha e impeded playing music while comple ing he lesson con en . In line wi h Da is e al.’s (1989) concep ion o pe cei ed ease o use, we can obse e ha s uden s may ha e an icipa ed less e o in engaging he echnology be o e using hei assigned de ices a Week 1 bu hen pe cei ing mo e e o was necessa y in using hem a e he cou se a Week 6. Rega ding he iPad, some o he s uden s’ high a ings in pe cei ed ease o use Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 103 be o e and a e i s use is in line wi h he wo ks o Hende son and Yeow, (2012), Chu chill e al. (2012), and Cla k and Luckin, (2013), who indica ed ha able compu e s a e suppo i e o use in class oom se ings. Rega ding he KAiKU Music Glo e, some o he s uden s’ high sco es be o e use sugges ha no el hand-senso echnology is seen as easy o play music wi h. RQ3. Wha is he di e ence in concen a ion- ela ed beha io pa e ns o he s uden ’s while in e ac ing and playing he iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e in child en’s music classes? Se e al explana ions a e possible in analyzing he di e ence in he concen a ion- ela ed beha io o he s uden s while using, playing, and in e ac ing wi h hei assigned iPad o KAiKU Music Glo e. The eache in e ac ed mo e equen ly wi h he wo obse ed s uden s who used he KAiKU Music Glo e, as eques ed by hese s uden s. This was coded in he obse a ion allies as on- ask beha io , in line wi h Bake e al. (2004). Thus, a en a i e associa ion wi h KAiKU Music Glo e usage encou aging he s uden s’ o emain on- ask migh be iden i iable, as hey we e asking o suppo om he eache . C ucially, hese da a mus be in e p e ed wi h cau ion because he s uden s using he KAiKU Music Glo e may ha e ound he ins uc ions om he eache needed cla i ica ion, p omp ing a eques o help and co ec i e guidance abou he lesson con en and how he lesson con en was associa ed wi h playing on he KAiKU Music Glo e. I ollows ha he s uden s using he KAiKU Music Glo e may ha e needed addi ional help and suppo om he eache because o he no el y o he echnology and he echnical di icul ies s uden s expe ienced while using i . E idence o his can be seen om he esul s discussed in RQ2, whe e he KAiKU Music Glo e was a ed lowe in pe cei ed ease o use. Bu hese ci cums ances also we e no ed clea ly in he obse a ions o he esea che s. Fo example, he esea che s obse ed ha bo h s uden s using he KAiKU Music Glo e expe ienced p ac ical di icul y in s apping he de ice o hei w is s, making he glo e p ope ly co e hei hands. In hese cases, he w is s ap was sligh ly oo la ge and he s uden s eques ed he eache ’s help in igh ening he w is s ap app op ia ely. These di icul ies can be seen o impede he embodied lea ning expe ience o he child en by p e en ing—o a leas delaying— hem om engaging in he imme sion o he music-making in e ac ions. As he use in e ace skin (Sampson, 2019) o he KAiKU Music Glo e did no always i he s uden s’ hands easily, he senso y design o he echnology p omp ed he s uden s o in e ac mo e wi h he eache ins ead o playing music wi h he senso y aspec s o hei hand (Höök, 2009; Höök & Löwg en, 2012; Rousi & Sil ennoinen, 2018). This obse ed di icul y in usabili y o he KAiKU Music Glo e also may ha e been embodied in he s uden s’ ac ions, as he imp ope ly i ed echnological design p omp ed he eques o help (Bødke , 1989; Dewey, 1934/2005; Gayle , e al., 2019). Na u ally, om his a ises he impo ance o social in e ac ion and expe ience om no only he pe spec i e o music bu also hose o educa ional (music) ins uc ion and echnological usage. These a e issues ha dese e ull a en ion in hei own igh . In addi ion, he di e ences in obse ed concen a ion- ela ed beha io o he wo s uden s om each g oup may ha e been due o he s uden s obse ed being mo e amilia wi h he iPad and less amilia wi h he KAiKU Music Glo e. As no ed abo e, all pa icipan s in his s udy had used he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app in hei music classes be o e we ini ia ed Danso, Rousi, & Thompson 104 his expe imen . Thus, on- ask and o - ask beha io s could ha e been complica ed—o pe haps e en caused—by he s uden s’ s uggle o un amilia i y wi h hei assigned echnology. The compa a i ely high o - ask beha io o he s uden s using he iPad only ha we obse ed may ha e ele ance o he e idence in RQ2. Because he iPad de ice and so wa e we e easie o use and mo e amilia han he KAiKU Music Glo e, he o - ask beha io may e lec ha hese s uden s we e ee o in e ac wi h one ano he mo e o en (pee - o-pee ) and p o ided oppo uni ies o hem o play wi h one ano he . This eedom in play and social in e ac ion may ha e encou aged he s uden s o concen a e mo e in he p ocess o he lesson (Koo, 2009), which con ibu ed o genuine engagemen wi h he class oom ac i i ies and educa ional con en (Dansen eau, 1985). As an e ec o he iPad’s design, he echnology may ha e enabled he iPad-only s uden s mo e oppo uni y o a social expe ience wi h he lea ning con en . This social expe ience is desc ibed as coexpe ience by Ba e bee and Koskinen (2005), who no ed ha child en expe ienced music while using and playing wi h he echnology oge he , as well as being engaged in play and social expe ience wi h one ano he . Hence, he iPad may ha e enabled a c ea i e (McA dle & W igh , 2014) coexpe ience o playing music o hese s uden s o be occupied comple ely in. This co esponds o a simul aneous c ea i e coexpe ience o music enabled h ough design o he iPad, pe haps e idenced by i s high a ings in pe cei ed ease o use by he s uden s and hei amilia i y wi h he de ice om p io use. In his class, his could be iewed as a bene i in using he iPad u he , as i os e ed coexpe ience be ween he s uden s while main aining hei concen a ion on class oom ac i i ies. The amilia i y o echnology and coexpe ience may go hand in hand, and ha ing he s uden s become mo e amilia wi h he KAiKU Music Glo e may ha e enhanced his. In addi ion, he KAiKU Music Glo e’s sligh ly lowe a ings in pe cei ed ease o use compa ed o he iPad-only a e i was used, sugges i was p ac ically di icul o use, somewha hinde ing in e ac ion wi h o he s. Fo his eason, he ole o social lea ning in ela ion o he in oduc ion o bo h es ablished and new echnologies in he music class oom should be explo ed in g ea e de ail in u u e s udies. Mo eo e , concen a ion- ela ed beha io was qui e simila ac oss bo h classes o s uden s’ using hei assigned echnology as e idenced by hei o e all low o - ask beha io allies. Specula i ely, he espec i e low o - ask beha io eco ded by bo h classes o s uden s’ using hei assigned echnologies may associa e wi h li e a u e by Huizinga (2004), who sugges ed ha s uden s can be engaged in class oom ask ac i i y while using, playing, and in e ac ing wi h hei de ices du ing class e en i his in ol es pee in e ac ion and o he beha io s ha migh e lec loss o concen a ion. As he s uden s used hei assigned de ices, one mus emembe ha hey we e engaged in an embodied music expe ience. Thus, he expe ience i sel may be seen o ex end beyond he human−de ice in e ac ion owa d he la ge scope o he musical engagemen pe se. Because o he o e all espec i e high concen a ion- ela ed beha io , hese indings esona e wi h indings by Huizinga (2004) by epo ing ha play suppo s child en in concen a ing on lea ning when engaged wi h he in e ac ion o objec s. Associa ing pe cei ed ease o use da a wi h he cu en obse a ion da a indica es ha he s uden s’ expec a ions o he s udied echnologies may ha e a ec ed concen a ion- ela ed beha io , which in u n esul ed in hei ac ual sys em use. I ollows ha he highe pe o ming class in he es o knowledge ( he class who only used he iPad wi h he Keyboa d Touch Ins umen app) may ha e pe cei ed hei echnology as easy o use, which esul ed in less Music Technology Use in Childhood Music Educa ion 111 Wa io, R. D., I e i, B. N., & De We , L. (2016, Decembe ). An e alua ion o iPad as a lea ning ool in highe educa ion wi hin a u al ca chmen : A case s udy a a Sou h A ican uni e si y. 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