Human Technology, 2006 VOLUME 2, NUMBER 2 (The entire issue)

Volume 2, Numbe 2, Oc obe 2006 Pe i Saa iluoma, Edi o ISSN: 1795-6889 An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s Volume 2, Numbe 2, Oc obe 2006 Con en s F om he Edi o in Chie : Looking a he Na u e o Ideas Th ough pp. 154-157 New Lenses Pe i Saa iluoma O iginal A icles: P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ching and pp. 158-186 Designing E e yday Sma En i onmen s F ans Mäy ä, Anne So onen, Ilpo Koskinen, K is o Kuusela, Jussi Mikkonen, Jukka Vanhala, and Ma i Zak zewski E alua ions o an Expe ien ial Gaming Model pp. 187-201 K is ian Kiili C ea ing a F amewo k o Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a pp. 202-224 Complex Sys em Min u Linja-aho An Accep ance Model o Use ul and Fun In o ma ion Sys ems pp. 225-235 Thomas Chesney Book Re iew: Taking ICT o E e y Indian Village: Oppo uni ies and Challenges pp. 236-237 A anu Ga ai & B. Shad ach Re iewed by Pe i Saa iluoma Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s Edi o in Chie : Pe i Saa iluoma, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland Boa d o Edi o s: Jóse Cañas, Uni e si y o G anada, Spain Ka l-Heinz Ho mann, Cen e o Ad anced Eu opean S udies and Resea ch, Ge many Jim McGuigan, Loughbo ough Uni e si y, Uni ed Kingdom Raul Pe ie a, Uni e si y o he Philippines and A eneo de Manila Uni e si y, he Philippines Lea Pulkkinen, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland Howa d E. Syphe , Pu due Uni e si y, USA Human Technology is an in e disciplina y, schola ly jou nal ha p esen s inno a i e, pee - e iewed a icles explo ing he issues and challenges su ounding human- echnology in e ac ion and he human ole in all a eas o ou ICT-in used socie ies. Human Technology is published by he Ago a Cen e , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä and dis ibu ed wi hou a cha ge online. ISSN: 1795-6889 Submissions and con ac : [email p o ec ed] Managing Edi o s: Ba ba a C aw o d and Te hi Pennanen www.human echnology.jyu. i An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN: 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i Volume 2 (2), Oc obe 2006, 154–157 154 F om he Edi o in Chie LOOKING AT THE NATURE OF IDEAS THROUGH NEW LENSES Wha se s humans apa om o he animals is no he use o echnology: Many mammals a e inno a i e in making simple ools o assis in li e. Bu i is he shee scale o echnological de elopmen ha dis inguishes humans. O e he millennia, people ha e in en ed echnologies, used hem, and enhanced hem. The once-inno a i e echnologies become mundane elemen s o e e yday con empo a y li e as human socie ies p og ess. The echnological de elopmen s o he las decades ha e d ama ically al e ed mos humans’ way o li e and pe cep ions o he my iad elemen s o he immedia e and dis an en i onmen . I would no be an exagge a ion o iew humans as s anding a he cusp o p o ound social changes ha a e in line wi h hose ollowing he in en ion o w i ing o he s eam engine. The e o e, now is a good ime o s op o a momen and ponde he o ces ha make such new de elopmen s possible. Wha should we pay speci ic a en ion o when we a emp o make sense o whe e we ha e succeeded as a species, and whe e we ha e ailed? Ce ainly his complica ed, mul i ace ed, and in angible ques ion canno be answe ed in he nex h ee pages, o e en in a housand imes ha many: The e a e simply oo many in e ela ed o ces ha o m he necessa y condi ions o p og ess. Bu I can isola e one pa icula ly ele an o ce o con empla e, one ha unde sco es he human ole amid he mul i ude o o he ac o s: Tha o ce is he ecep ion o new ideas. Humans a e a c ea i e so , con inually imagining new ideas o add ess common and uncommon p oblems in daily li e. Bu he success o an idea depends no solely on i s concep ion: An equal pa ne o he po en ial o an idea is i s social accep ance. The lack o ideas is ce ainly no an ideal si ua ion, and one mus emembe ha e en a bad idea is be e han no idea a all. Many bad ideas ha e been e hough , ewo ked, and ein en ed in o p e y good ideas. Bu new ideas a e also a double-edged swo d: While inno a i e hinking may p opose a solu ion o a pe cei ed p oblem, he in en o o en inds ha his o he “big idea” © 2006 Pe i Saa iluoma and he Ago a Cen e , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä URN:NBN: i:jyu-2006516 Pe i Saa iluoma Cogni i e Science, Depa men o Compu e Science and In o ma ion Sys ems Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland Looking a he Na u e o Ideas Th ough New Lenses 155 causes p oblems oo. Fo example, he ques ioning begins wi h he assessing he o iginali y o he idea, and hen mo es o include logis ical ques ions such as how o make he idea a eali y, o economic and philosophical ques ions such as whe he he e is comme cial o human alue o i , as well as en i onmen al ques ions such as whe he his solu ion ha ms exis ing biological, in e pe sonal, o mechanical sys ems, and on and on. These ques ions a ise, howe e , only i he idea has some g ea e ou le han he in en o him- o he sel . Fo example, he e olu iona y ideas on gene ics ou lined in Mendel’s laws could no assis a me s in hei hi -o -miss hyb id a ming p ac ices o he mid-1800s because he concep s we en’ gene ally known (O’Neil, 2006). Decades la e , Mendel’s wo k was edisco e ed and, h ough expe imen a ion o e he las cen u y, has been e ined in o common p ac ices ha allow o success ul and eplicable c oss-b eeding p ac ices. O he imes, i is simply a ma e o o he s no being in ellec ually sophis ica ed o as u e enough o unde s and he alue o he idea. Cen u ies be o e he Renaissance, he idea o expe imen al a ia ion was in en ed. The s udy o phenomenon by means o sys ema ic a ia ion o and measu emen o he e ec s on he phenomenon was de ised by he Py hago eans o he 5 h cen u y B.C. o p o e ha numbe s a e he essence o he wo ld. This may ha e been e olu iona y hinking, bu no one unde s ood wha o do wi h i be o e Galileo Galilei (1638/1954) adop ed i and began his s udy o he beha io o a pendulum using sys ema ic a ia ion. Thus a e y old idea applied wi hin a new con ex helped open he pa h o mode n science and indus y. Un o una ely, many gene a ions o po en ial c ea i i y buil upon he Py hago eans’ inspi a ion ha e been los . Ce ainly ideas a e no good simply because hey ha e been c ea ed. The his o y o humankind is li e ed wi h ins ances o enginee ing and social science ideas ha ailed o ne e ose beyond disappoin ing le els (Pe oski, 1994). As a esul , many people emain skep ical abou new ideas. On he o he hand, i all new ideas we e deemed aluable simply because hey a e new, ou mode n socie ies would be qui e oubled and dange ous places o li e. So, wha should we do abou new ideas? The ul ima e challenge, o cou se, is deciding whe he an idea is good, is no good bu has po en ial o de elopmen , o is simply inapp op ia e o in alid. Some o he decisions a e ela i ely mino ; all o us make hese nea ly e e y day, occasionally wi hou much hough . Some decisions a e la ge , conscious, and can in ol e o he people. Some imes we ind he decision on an idea di icul , and a e happy o le o he s be esponsible o deciding i s goodness. And some decisions a e so la ge ha only a ew people can play a ole in hei ou come. Ye , ou gene al a i udes owa d ideas, as indi iduals wi hin a socie y, ha e subs an i e impac on e e y assessmen o an idea by decision make s wi hin ou socie y. Ou laziness owa d he p ocess o conside ing ideas om a ious pe spec i es can doom o he wise use ul and bene icial ideas, which can ha e a long-las ing social impac . The example o Galileo emains alid oday: P og ess can mo e onwa d i we de elop he igh ideas a he igh ime. Had Galileo no accep ed his esponsibili y o iew he app op ia eness o an idea—pas o p esen —pe haps ou wo ld migh s ill be awai ing a new Galileo, bu awai ing om wi hin a a mo e p imi i e socie y. One o he bene i s o mode n ICTs is ha hey enable us o communica e as e and u he han a any ime in human his o y. The good news in his is ha ideas— he good, he bad, he unde eloped—can each new “Galileos” a ound he wo ld pe haps in minu es, as compa ed o cen u ies. The bad news is whe he mode n socie ies a e uly p epa ed— Saa iluoma 156 men ally, c i ically, ale ly— o his new cul u e o disco e y. I we u n blind eyes and dea ea s o new ideas, i we a e unable o unwilling o seek ou new concep s and isions, i we canno be imagina i e in explo ing new applica ions o old o unde de eloped ideas, hen p og ess is slowed and we may miss an oppo uni y o de elop ou socie ies and ou u u es. Su ely i a socie y is unable o ecognize, e alua e e ec i ely, and adop in a ious ways new ideas and new ways o hinking, hen imp o ed communica ion is o li le use. An ICT socie y can be seen as simply a echnical e olu ion and li le else i i s membe s canno unde s and ha he echnologies hemsel es a e only pa o he equa ion. Equally impo an is he men al e olu ion ha mus accompany echnology: he c ea i e abili y o use he mechanisms o enhance social well being. ICT socie ies a e new idea socie ies only when he new ideas a e allowed o make p og ess possible. Howe e , o make p ac ical and c ea i e use o new ideas, some old a i udes owa d ideas mus all away. Fo cen u ies, some ha e iewed knowledge (i.e., augmen ed ue opinions) as e e nal u hs. All o science has poin ed owa d disco e ing hese u hs and o e alua ing any hing new wi hin a amewo k buil a ound hese pilla s o ou cul u e. Wha e e did no coincide wi h wha we held as u h was p omp ly disca ded. Ye his app oach limi s he po en ial o inno a ion and p og ess. Pe haps wha is needed oday is simply a new app oach, a new way o hinking. Wi hou ejec ing he es ablished laws, we can look a ideas mo e dynamically. By using mul iple lenses we can begin o imagine di e en possibili ies o inno a ion, po en ial solu ions o cu en ly unsol able p oblems (Laudan, 1977). Bu mos impo an ly, we mus be able o look a ideas wi h an eye owa d omo ow. This p esupposes ha we a e wise enough o ecognize ha no all ideas a e in usable o m oday. We mus be able o see he po en ial in an idea: The decision should no be “This idea is useless o us oday,” and hen no only allowing he idea o die bu also become o go en; a he , he decision should be “This idea is okay,” and so i is allowed o p og ess. We mus allow o he e olu ion o ideas, o he e- ooling o ideas, o he aking o cu en ideas o new le els, o seeing how mo e han one unde de eloped idea can be uni ed wi h o he ideas o o m a g ea e good, and e en allowing an imp ac ical idea o oday o su i e long enough o i o ha e alue and use in a mo e ecep i e and app op ia e u u e. We mus make decisions abou ideas, bu we mus do so om a mo e open-minded, imagina i e, and hough ul s ance. Ou socie ies a e p og essing a an inc edible pace: We mus ind a way o cap u e he po en ial o ideas o oday ha will p o ide he necessa y po en ial o de elopmen and p og ess in ou socie ies o omo ow. Ou cu en issue o Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s shows how looking a cu en p ac ices and esea ch a bi di e en ly can enhance new knowledge and c ea e new ad an ages. Each o he a icles e lec s he au ho s’ inspi ed hinking in aising he unde s anding o a concep o a new le el o di e en applica ion. The i s a icle, by Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, and Zak zewski, looks a he human expe ience o sma home echnologies o he u u e. Howe e , since hese echnologies cu en ly do no exis , hey inno a i ely c ea ed small expe iences o help he use s gain a eel on a limi ed scale o wha embedded sma echnologies could be, especially in he com o o home en i onmen s ha he s udy’s in o man s ha e. And hey app oached his esea ch om mul iple scien i ic disciplines, Looking a he Na u e o Ideas Th ough New Lenses 157 he eby allowing new ideas and hei po en ial o be collabo a i e. Looking a he concep o low in ela ion o games is he ocus o he a icle by Kiili. Building on p io esea ch in he gaming wo ld, he seeks ou he elemen s o low ha migh ha e implica ions o c ea ing educa ional games. The hi d a icle by Linja-aho looks a he lea nabili y o complex sys ems. She posi s ha he p ocess o lea ning is mo e complex han he cu en li e a u e indica es, and p o ides guidelines o assis de elope s in c ea ing sys ems and aining ha a e mo e lea nable, pa icula ly o no ices. Finally, Chesney ex ends he cu en esea ch on he echnology accep ance model (TAM) by es ing he ela ionships be ween pe cei ed enjoymen , ease o use, use ulness, and in en ion o use o “dual” sys ems, hose in o ma ion sys ems used o bo h u ili a ian and pleasu able pu poses. Resea ch such as his demons a es he social bene i o looking a cu en science and cu en human needs h ough he lenses o many disciplines, as well as c ea i i y, open- mindedness, and he po en ial o he u u e. Good ideas a e needed o human p og ess, bu e en good ideas can be enhanced, e hough , and aken o a new le el when socie y looks a he ideas om a new s ance. REFERENCES Galilei, G. (1954). Dialogues conce ning wo new sciences (H. C ews & A. de Sal io, T ans.). New Yo k: Do e Publica ions. (O iginal wo k published in 1638) Laudan, L. (1977). P og ess and i s p oblems: Towa ds a heo y o scien i ic g ow h. Be keley: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess. O’Neil, D. (2006). Mendel’s gene ics. Re ie ed on Oc obe 17, 2006, om h p://an h o.paloma .edu/mendel/mendel_1.h m Pe oski, H. (1994). Design pa adigms: Case his o ies o e o and judgmen in enginee ing. Camb idge, UK: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. All co espondence should be add essed o: Pe i Saa iluoma Uni e si y o Jy äskylä Cogni i e Science, Depa men o Compu e Science and In o ma ion Sys ems P.O. Box 35 FIN-40014 Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, FINLAND [email p o ec ed]u. i Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN: 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i Volume 2 (2), Oc obe 2006, 158-186 158 PROBING A PROACTIVE HOME: CHALLENGES IN RESEARCHING AND DESIGNING EVERYDAY SMART ENVIRONMENTS Abs ac : Based on he esul s o a 3-yea in e disciplina y s udy, his a icle p esen s an app oach in which p oac i e in o ma ion echnology was in oduced in o homes, and discusses he de i ed design p inciples om a human-cen e ed pe spec i e. The applica ion o p oac i e compu ing in homes will ace pa icula ly sensi i e condi ions, as amilia and eliable household elemen s emain s ongly p e e ed. Since he e is conside able esis ance owa ds he inc ease o in o ma ion echnology in homes, bo h he calm sys em beha io s and he deg ee o a ie y in aes he ic designs will play majo oles in he accep ance o p oac i e echnology. I p oac i e echnology will be an embedded pa o a home’s s uc u es and u ni u e, i needs o blend wi h he no mal, cozy s anda ds o a eal li ing en i onmen and aim o enhance he homeyness o he key social and aes he ic quali ies o homes. Keywo ds: p oac i e compu ing, use -cen e ed design, home echnology. © 2006 F. Mäy ä, A. So onen, I. Koskinen, K. Kuusela, J. Mikkonen, J. Vanhala, & M. Zak zewski, and he Ago a Cen e , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä URN:NBN: i:jyu-2006517 Anne So onen Hype media Labo a o y Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland F ans Mäy ä Hype media Labo a o y Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland Ilpo Koskinen Depa men o P oduc and S a egic Design Uni e si y o A and Design Helsinki, Finland K is o Kuusela Depa men o P oduc and S a egic Design Uni e si y o A and Design Helsinki, Finland Jussi Mikkonen Ins i u e o Elec onics Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Finland Jukka Vanhala Ins i u e o Elec onics Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Finland Ma i Zak zewski Ins i u e o Elec onics Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Finland P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 159 INTRODUCTION: CHANGING ECOLOGIES IN HOMES In a way, i could be a qui e nice idea ha he e would be co ee eady and wai ing when you wake up, o i he ligh s would be au oma ically swi ched on. Bu on he o he hand, he e is a ce ain enjoymen in doing i you sel : closing he cu ains, lowe ing he Vene ian blinds, and swi ching o all he con ap ions. And, in a way, when you hink abou i , I ha e no need o any change. (M, 351) Mode n homes a e becoming inc easingly laden wi h a ious echnologies, anging om new-gene a ion ki chen u ensils and domes ic appliances o home compu e s, digi al ele isions, and wi eless media se e s. The sales o consume elec onics in indus ialized coun ies like he USA appea o ise o eco d heigh s e e y yea (Consume Elec onics Associa ion [CEA], 2006.). One ision o he u u e epea edly e oked by he elec onics indus y is he c ea ion o he sma home, a new kind o echnologically enhanced li ing en i onmen . Ye , he e a e di e en e sions o wha “sma ness” means in his con ex , depending upon whom you ask. Planning a home a ound a complex en e ainmen cen e may ep esen sma o some, whe eas o he s emphasize home secu i y sys ems, o e en mo e ambi ious home au oma ion solu ions, whe e nume ous home elemen s, such a ligh ing, doo locks, o window shades, a e p og ammed o beha e in ce ain ways. Home au oma ion is no nea eali y in mos homes, no e en in he highly echnological Wes . Addi ionally, he e is also some esis ance owa ds he whole idea, as he quo e abo e om one indi idual om ou s udy illus a es. One can ques ion whe he he e exis s an ac ual need o which a sma home (as i is cu en ly ma ke ed) would be a solu ion. Pe haps, he e o e, he issue should be app oached om a di e en angle. I appea s ha we al eady a e li ing in ela ionship wi h a ious de ices and echnologies, and ou li ing is in luenced by hem e en while we make decisions and apply hese echnologies in ways ha shape hei alue and use ulness o us. These kinds o in e dependen connec ions, and he ne wo ks hey o m, can be concep ualized as ecologies. While ecology is adi ionally de ined as a s udy o o ganisms and hei en i onmen s, his concep has e ealed i s use ulness beyond he ield o biology o encompass o he en i ies and hei en i onmen s, such as communi y ecologies, in o ma ion ecologies, and media ecologies, among o he s. Fo example, Na di and O’Day (1999, p. 49) de ine in o ma ion ecology as “a sys em o people, p ac ices, alues, and echnologies in a pa icula local en i onmen .” They emphasize ha , when s udying in o ma ion ecologies, he spo ligh is no so much on he echnology as i is on human ac i i ies ha a e se ed by he echnology. One o he main conclusions om ou esea ch is ha because he ela ionship be ween humans and hei echnology is complex, we need o de elop a mul idisciplina y app oach o s udy ou inc easingly in ensi e and in ima e ela ionship wi h echnology. I is insu icien o ega d he people who a e adop ing o ejec ing new echnologies as jus passi e consume s, since hei a i udes and p ac ices ha e a powe ul e ec on he success o ailu e o pa icula de ices o se ices. I also would be a ailu e o o e look he impo an ways in which he design, dis ibu ion, and ma ke ing o new echnologies a e a ec ing he ela ionship be ween he humans and he echnology. As esea ch and de elopmen p ac ices become mo e closely in o med by use s udies, he clea -cu sepa a ion and opposi ion o he ealm o p oduc ion om ha o consump ion is no longe necessa ily alid. Fo example, assuming ha p oduce Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 160 oles a e dis inc i e om consume oles migh ha e been app op ia e o an indus ial socie y, bu as much o mode n p oduc ion in ol es designing in o ma ion sys ems and media con en ha is collabo a i ely p oduced, in ol ing ne wo ks o people in a ious oles, he opposi ion be ween consume and p oduce does no s ay as clea . As pa icipa ion and in e ac ion a e becoming he new s anda d o design, he e is an inc easing need o e ol ing u he he p ac ices o codesign and cop oduc ion, whe e use s and designe s a e concei ing and de eloping new concep s and p oduc s in a mo e collabo a i e and in e ac i e manne . The s a ing poin o ou esea ch was he need o p o ide a human-cen e ed iew on he de elopmen o p oac i e echnologies o homes. P oac i e echnology is ela ed o a pa icula in o ma ion- echnology-indus y-d i en ision o he u u e, whe e omnip esen compu ing, senso s, and o he echnologies ha e been de eloped o he poin whe e hey an icipa e ou needs and ac on ou behal (Tennenhouse, 2000; Wan , Pe ing, & Tennenhouse, 2003). The e a e ob ious comme cial easons o companies like In el and IBM o ocus on such a p ocesso -sa u a ed iew o he u u e. Bu when such iews a e aised o he agendas o esea che s and de elope s, hese isions also may ca y some sel - ealizing powe . I was ou aim o con on he concep o p oac i e compu ing, adap i o conc e e local en i onmen s in eal homes, and he eby p oduce a be e unde s anding abou he ela ed accep abili y, usabili y, and easibili y issues should such echnologies indeed be adop ed and ins alled in homes. In his way, ou esea ch is bo h a con ibu ion o he c i ical s udies o science and echnology, as well as a call o mo e e hical and sus ainable ways o de eloping new home echnologies. Ac ually, ce ain easons exis o why we migh ha e need o such echnologies in he u u e. Some claim ha he aging o popula ion will necessi a e he de elopmen o sma home en i onmen s (e.g., Baillie & Scha z, 2006; Dewsbu y, Taylo , & Edge, 2001). Howe e , as we a gued in ou book, The Me amo phosis o Home (Mäy ä & Koskinen, 2005), he e a e se ious e hical conside a ions ha mus be aken in o accoun i human con ac , independence, and au onomy a e becoming eplaced by p oac i e echnologies, as compa ed o assis i e echnologies, whe e humans hemsel es ake ac ions wi h he help o echnology. We claim ha he pe haps mos c ucial need o p oac i e echnologies in homes will be ela ed o he in o ma ion ecologies hemsel es and wi h hei e olu ion. I is al eady becoming an obse able eali y and common p oblem ha he omnip esen media and communica ion echnologies also c ea e s ess and inc ease he complexi y o li e a he han jus help us o cope (Edmunds & Mo is, 2000). As in o ma ion ne wo k connec ions become mo e p e alen in such ubiqui ous de ices such as ele isions, s e eo sys ems, and games consoles, as well as in mobile phones and ca s, he e also will be a ela ed su ge in e-mail, ins an messaging, and o he communica ions, much o i likely unsolici ed (spam) o o he wise undesi able. As a esul , he o e all cogni i e load on indi iduals mus be aken in o accoun in e e y con ex . Essen ially, ou in o ma ion ecologies a e apidly becoming o e -sa u a ed o e en pollu ed by nonessen ial in o ma ion (Koski, 2001), and pe haps mos needed will be p oac i e echnologies o con ol and supe ise all he o he echnologies ha a e igh ing o ou limi ed ime and a en ion. Thus, one o ou di ec i es o p oac i e home echnology design was ha , i adop ed, hese echnologies should enhance he homeyness o homes: o suppo and p o ec hose quali ies ha a e cen al o people in hei homes, including peace, elaxa ion, in ima e human ela ionships, and shel e om he p essu es o mode n li e. P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 167 domes ic echnologies. Media echnologies we e pe cei ed as au hen ic echnologies while ki chen and ba h oom appliances we e ega ded mo e as i ings o hose ooms han as echnology pe se. This can be explained by he a ious p esump ions and expe iences ha people associa e wi h hese echnologies. Domes ic appliances a e o en pe cei ed as simple de ices ha one can use wi hou e o o he s udy o manuals, e en hough many o hem in ol e complex elec onic and digi al con ols. People also expec ha hese s and-alone appliances do no c ash easily (as do compu ing sys ems), and his eliabili y has enabled people o o ge ha hese echnologies a e complex en i ies (Edwa ds & G in e , 2001). Pe haps he mos impo an hing, howe e , is ha media echnologies a e pe cei ed as s a us de ices ha ell abou he echnological s anda d o one’s home. This ela es also o he s e eo ypical no ions abou “whi e goods” ( e e ing o mos appliances) as eminine and “b own goods” ( e e ing o mos elec onics) as masculine. As ime-sa ing echnologies ela ed o domes ic wo k and hygiene, whi e goods a e ypically associa ed wi h cleanliness, simplici y, anspa ency, and u ili y. Al e na ely, b own goods a e o leisu e and en e ainmen , and hey seem o signi y complexi y, cle e ness, opaci y, and ich con en (Cockbu n & O m od, 1993, pp. 100-104). Because o i s elusi eness, a pe son’s expe ience o he domes ic a mosphe e is challenging o s udy empi ically (Penna z, 1999). In ou in e iews, people equen ly had no wo ds o desc ibing ele an elemen s o hei domes ic a mosphe e, bu he asks o he p obes package made he p ocess easie o app oach. By means o he p obes ki , people could conc e ize and illus a e which aspec s p oduced homeyness in hei homes. Tasks also encou aged people o conside bo h he pe sonal and amilial signi icance o domes ic echnologies and hei uses. Thus, he asks illumina ed sha ed and pe sonal meanings wi hin he domes ic en i onmen . Fu he , he p obes made people ques ion some aken- o -g an ed aspec s o domes ic li e o echnologies. In his espec , he p obes oge he wi h he in e iews opened up new ways o esea che s no only o pe cei e he domes ic echnologies in he in o man s’ exis ing con ex s bu also o idea e p omising di ec ions ha p oac i e echnology could ake in o de o suppo a cozy ambience and sociali y wi hin he home. The Pillow S udy While he p obes s udy was unde way and he esea che s’ unde s anding o he homes was ge ing deepe and mo e mul idimensional, he i s p o o ype s udy phase was s a ed. A e es ablishing ha echnology use o enhance he sense o homeyness would be a key design goal, ou eam decided o expe imen by in oducing sma echnology in he shape o a pillow. This was based on ou analysis o pillows and cushions as in ima e and pe sonal elemen s, ubiqui ous in homes, and, in hei so ness, also as hings ha appea o be si ua ed a he opposi e end o he men al spec um o s e eo ypical concep ions o he high- ech home o he u u e (Mäy ä & Koskinen, 2005) ha we we e in e es ed in challenging. Ra he han s ess ul and ha d, pillows a e associa ed wi h com o , elaxa ion, and so ness. On he o he hand, many adi ional sma home concep s ely on he use o sc eens and o he explici in e ac ion in e aces o acili a e he con ol o hese complex en i onmen s. Based on ou p es udy and p obes in es iga ion, he decision was made o ake he design esea ch in o a di ec ion ha would explo e ambien and angible in e aces. Cushions and pillows we e pe ec objec s om his pe spec i e. Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 168 A simple echnical p o o ype was implemen ed, which ope a ed as an embedded con ex - awa e in e ace. I consis ed o a pillow i ed wi h hidden elec onics: ba e ies, powe supply, mic ocon olle , ampli ie wi h oice inpu and ou pu (loudspeake ) connec ed o a eco ding and playback ci cui , and a se ial (RS-232) anscei e . The las componen was essen ial o he ope a ion o a RFID (Radio F equency Iden i ica ion) connec ion ha was used o p o ide he pillow wi h a c ude means o sensing i s su oundings. As soon as a RFID ag was wi hin ange o he eade , he embedded elec onics emi ed a p e eco ded sound. The pillow was co e ed by ake animal u , and he sounds i p oduced imi a ed animal sounds. This was ela ed o he hypo hesis ha he limi ed sophis ica ion le el o he es sys em would be sui ed be e by a pe cep ion o animal in elligence a he han by human in elligence, which he use o human oices o in e ac ion would ha e sugges ed. The es use s we e p o ided wi h se e al hings. Fi s , hey we e gi en se e al beanbags wi h embedded RFID ags, each o which elici ed a di e en sound associa ed wi h i om he eade when i was b ough wi hin ange. A pillow wi h he embedded eade was also p o ided. The pa icipan s also ecei ed a loose se o ins uc ions de ailing a ious ways o in e ac ing wi h he beanbags and pillow. And, inally, hey we e p o ided a ideo came a o eco d he un o e en s (see Figu e 3). The pillow was ield- es ed wi h h ee amilies wi h child en. The e we e some echnical issues in he es ing ha limi ed he sensi i i y and ange o RFID eade , and i was no possible o combine he di e en sounds as eely as was o iginally in ended. Ne e heless, some basic in e ac ion be ween he subjec s and he p o o ype was possible. The main inding om he es ing in eal homes was ha in eg a ing in e ac ions wi h sma home echnologies can indeed be pe cei ed wi h posi i e a ec i hey a e embedded in amilia and so home elemen s such as cushions o pillows. The in o man s appea ed qui e c ea i e in hei uses and ideas o u he de elopmen o such echnologies. When in e iewed, he child in o man s sugges ed uses whe e a sma pillow could become he “emo ional companion” o he occupan s o hei home. Such an in e ace o a sma home could com o i s use and p o ide companionship and access o Figu e 3. A child in o man uses a beanbag o expe imen wi h he sounds ha he pillow p o o ype makes. P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 169 house se ices as he occupan elaxes, hugs, o es s on he pillow while wa ching ele ision o eading. In his concep , ouch and sound, and he me e p oximi y o he pillow, p o ided a he na u al and nonin usi e modali ies o con ol in he shape o a pillow. The adul in o man s sugges ed ha a p oac i e sys em, in gene al, should p o ide se ices as a sec e a y o manage , assis ing he amily membe s in he challenges o o ganizing hei daily li es. Fo example, a u u e e sion o he pillow companion could make sounds o emind o mo i a e child en o do hei homewo k be o e hei a o i e ele ision show s a s, o e en somehow communica e mo e complex messages, like ale ing hem when books a e due o be e u ned o he lib a y. Such ypically messy e e yday in o ma ion managemen sys ems ha consis s o di e en eminde s, no es, calenda ma kings and mobile phone calls could be simpli ied i a sma home could o e i sel as a help ul companion o his kind o uses. The Fi s I e a ion o Design P inciples A e he p obes and pillow s udies, we had enough expe ience and in o ma ion o o mula e an ini ial se o p oac i e home echnology design p inciples. These se ed as a basis o u he esea ch, as we pu sued o implemen hem in scena io and p o o ype s udies, and o collec eedback abou hem om ou in o man s. The p inciples a e p esen ed in Table 1. Following he c ea ion o hese p inciples, we de e mined wo basic di ec ions ou esea ch could ha e aken: ocus on he in e ac ions and cohabi a ion in a home augmen ed wi h Table 1. The Design P inciples o P oac i e Home Technology (Mäy ä & Koskinen, 2005). 1. The p inciple o consis ency. I a unc ion o elemen is delega ed o be con olled by a p oac i e sys em, ha unc ion o elemen should demons a e simila beha io s consis en ly. Main P inciples 2. The p inciple o pe sonaliza ion. Sma home echnology should ollow he “ ules o he house,” e lec ing p ac ices and p e e ences adop ed and ollowed by his pa icula indi idual o amily wi hin hei p i a e space. 3. The p inciple o embedded media in e ace. The main goal and ask o p oac i e echnologies in homes a e p o iding il e ing and con ol in nego ia ing he cha ged bounda y be ween he home-as-shel e and he need o s aying in con ac wi h he wo ld “ou he e.” 4. The design p inciple o animism o ad anced p oac i e unc ions and se ices. The easies and mos na u al way o in e ac wi h a p oac i e home would be o ea i as i i had some kind o pe sona o o he social in e ace o i s own. Addi ional P inciples 5. The p inciple o open-ended angible designs. P oac i e se ices a e joined wi h physical objec s o a o d mul imodal, senso y- ich in e ac ions, as well as o p o ide usable and aes he ically pleasing in e ac ions o u u e homes. Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 170 s ongly p oac i e echnology, o ollow he “weak” in e p e a ion o p oac i i y. A s ongly p oac i e home sys em ope a es in he backg ound and comple ely wi hou human awa eness, combining inpu om a ious senso sys ems, applying compu a ion in o he si ua ion, and ad ancing om hese in o au onomous ac ions. As a human in e ace design esea ch issue, his was no as in e es ing a case as he “weak” al e na i e, which is a bi close o he si ua ion o in e ac i e compu ing. He e, he s a e and ope a ions o sma echnology need o be con eyed o he human occupan : The sys em will no i y he use and o e al e na i es, bu he choice o accep ing o cancelling ac ions emains wi h he occupan , a he han comple ely emo ing he use “ om he loop.” Weak p oac i i y is no as e icien as i s al e na i e i he p ima y conside a ion is educing he use s’ cogni i e load. Howe e , based on ou in e iews and o he use s udies, he human-supe ised di ec ion o sma home echnologies was conside ed mo e accep able and e hically sound han he o ally unseen and au onomous ope a ion o echnologies in homes. The design o weakly p oac i e home echnologies is ela ed o he esea ch in o “calm echnology,” as app oached om wi hin he ield o ubiqui ous compu ing (see Weise , 1993; Weise & B own, 1996). The challenge can also be ph ased in e ms o an ambien display o and access o in o ma ion: The inc easing compu ing powe and complexi y o dis ibu ed and ne wo ked sma componen s o a u u e home a e coun e balanced by he design p inciple o he “disappea ing compu e ,” an en i onmen whe e collec ions o a i ac s link oge he and p o ide new beha io s and unc ionali ies o use s while also supposedly easing he e e yday li e and demanding only pe iphe al awa eness (see The Disappea ing Compu e , 2002-2003). The equi emen s, howe e , appea o be pa ly con adic o y owa ds each o he , a leas in he cu en phase o de elopmen in echnology and ela ed use cul u es. A Scena io S udy o Ligh and Sound Ligh and sound we e chosen as he ocus a eas o he second phase o ou esea ch, based on he use s’ esponses in ou ea lie p obes, p o o ype, and scena io s udies. In he scena io me hod, possible p oac i e home designs and applica ions we e discussed wi h he help o illus a ions ha desc ibed a ious use si ua ions in he u u e. Twel e households pa icipa ed in he scena io s udy phase. One o scena ios p esen ed a concep whe e he sma home would moni o he sound le els in he home and in o m occupan s, ia changes in he home ligh ing, when he noise ises o a ce ain le el. By inc easing he inhabi an s’ awa eness o sound le els, he p ocess also would guide hem o change hei beha io and lowe he sound le el (see Figu e 4). In his phase, a home echnology sys em ha akes ac ions ela ed o he ligh ing and soundscape o home was pe cei ed as a mo e easily accep able way o implemen ing p oac i e beha io s han a scena io in which a sys em would y o in e human in en ions o o p o ide, o example, en e ainmen sui able o he gi en si ua ion. To some deg ee, his can be ela ed o he eluc ance o a e sion o he subjec s owa ds change in amilia and eassu ing con ex s. Bu equally impo an was he subjec s’ gene al lack o con idence capaci y in a compu ing sys em pe cei ed as oo limi ed o s a making deduc ions abou he human mind and in en ions, pa icula ly in complex and in ima e social si ua ions in ol ing se e al people and hei (some imes con lic ing) p e e ences. The assessmen o ou in o man s, based on p e ious expe ience, could be desc ibed as ealis ic. P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 171 Figu e 4. An illus a ed scene om a la e nigh social, wi h he sma home p o iding sound le el eedback ia changing colo s o a able lamp. The Ligh and Sound P o o ype S udies Based on he esul s om he scena io s udy, he esea ch g oup decided o expe imen wi h home ligh ing as a po en ial ield o an ambien in e ace design o sma homes. The i s cons uc ed p o o ype was a la ge s anda d lamp2 (see Figu e 5). The lamp was econs uc ed a ound wo pai s o 36W luo escen ubes, each pai chosen om opposi e colo empe a u es. The ubes we e aligned in opposi e in e nal co ne s o emi an e en ligh when all ubes we e li . The luo escen ubes we e buil wi h a dimming capaci y and he on/o swi ch was ope a ed by he mic ocon olle inside he lamp. In addi ion, mul icolo ed ligh -emi ing Figu e 5. The la ge lamp p o o ype in use in an in o man ’s home. Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 172 diodes (LEDs) we e ins alled in he in e io . The luo escen ubes and mos o he elec onics o he han some con ol elec onics isible a he op o he lamp we e co e ed by he pape shade. This s udy in ol ed es ing in wo households. A ligh le el senso was ins alled on op o he lamp so he ligh ou pu could be adjus ed be e o he changing ligh le els in he en i onmen . When in use, he LEDs would ligh up simul aneously and in in ensi y di ec ly p opo ional o he sensed sound le el. The LEDs aded away wi hin ew seconds i u he loud sounds we e no measu ed. The mic ophone connec ed o he mic ocon olle a he op o he lamp p o o ype sensed he su ounding ambien and di ec sounds, which he mic ocon olle hen used o ligh he LEDs. The conc e e esea ch ques ion a his poin was ocused on he in e ace be ween he sma en i onmen and i s occupan s. Ou hypo hesis was ha a amilia design ( he well- known lamp s yle) would ease he adop ion o new echnologies, while new unc ionali ies ela ed o ligh eac ing o he sound le el would p omo e new beha io s. In ac ual use, howe e , he sound- eac ing beha io o he p o o ype p o ed so sub le ha i did no p o oke s ong eac ions o new beha io s among ou in o man s. We ealized ha in o de o de i e in e es ing answe s o ou esea ch ques ions, he p o o ype needed o ha e mo e di e si y bo h in e ms o i s design and beha io . S ill, his i s - ound lamp-shaped p o o ype had demons a ed ha sma unc ionali ies could be hidden in, o made mo e easily adap able in o, a egula home en i onmen when embedded in amilia o ms (Kuusela, Koskinen, Mäy ä, & So onen, 2005). A e analyzing he use s’ expe iences and lessons om he design o he i s sound- le el eac i e lamp expe imen , a new collec ion o lamp p o o ypes was designed and implemen ed. The design- ela ed esea ch ques ions we e made easie o con ol and ocus on by applying clea ly dis inc lamp designs while he basic beha io o sound le els causing ligh ing changes was kep he same. The ou lamp designs (Figu e 6) eac ed o sound le els by changing he in ensi y and colo o he ligh . These sys ems we e ins alled in wo homes in Tampe e and one home in Helsinki. Each lamp s ayed one week in each home, one lamp a a ime. To collec in o man s’ expe iences and see how p esupposi ions changed wi h eal con ac wi h his kind o echnology, he people we e in e iewed be o e and a e he s udy. In he ea lie scena io s udy phase, mos o he pa icipan s assumed ha a sound- eac ing lamp sys em’s ed colo indica ing he loudes sound le el could be ob usi e because i would d aw a lo o a en ion, and in o man s claimed ha some imes i would be impossible o a oid loud oices o noises a home. Howe e , du ing he 4-week lamp- es ing pe iod, none o he in o man s pe cei ed he ed colo as oo ob usi e, e en hough he ou p o o ypes di e ed in hei design and in ensi y o ligh . In ac , some pa icipan s hough ha i he e a e powe ul oices a home, he lamp should come o he cen e o one’s awa eness and, in ha sense, he ed colo wo ked well. Thei poin was ha lamps emained in hei usual ole un il, by becoming ed, hey e ec i ely unc ioned as decibel me e s o a while. The lamp p o o ypes indica ing an app oxima e olume le el we e in e es ing in he sense ha hey made in isible in o ma ion isible. The pa icipan s old how su p ised hey we e du ing he i s es days when he lamps u ned ed when hey we e laughing o sneezing. Thei expec a ion had been ha he p o o ype would indica e only s eady sound le els in he home, and i s eac ion o sudden loud oices was a su p ise. Howe e , as ligh ing a i ac s, he p o o ypes became isible pa s o he spa ial o de and echnological ecology o he home and simul aneously ope a ed as expe ience p o o ypes, p o iding he P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 173 pa icipan s wi h an idea how i eels when echnology s ee s you a en ion o in isible senso ial issues. The ole o domes ic echnology is o en ambiguous because domes ic appliances and media echnologies domina e he domes ic space. Ye hei oles as aes he ic elemen s a e no ypically es ablished in deco a ion magazines (Rou a inne, 2005). Ou lamp p o o ypes blu ed he dis inc ion be ween deco a ion and echnology i ems: They we e in e p e ed as bo h. Some pa icipan s conside ed he lamp p o o ypes p ima ily deco a i e elemen s while o he s pe cei ed hem mo e as decibel me e s. The appea ance and placemen o he p o o ypes we e el much mo e impo an in one home whe eas in o man s om ano he home ocused mos ly on he ways he p o o ypes eac ed o di e en oices and noises. A play ul a i ude o in e io deco a ion was p ominen in he i s case, whe eas mo e con en ional a i udes owa ds me e ing de ices we e cen al among he in o man s om he la e home. In any case, i he isual design o he lamp was el pleasing, i also inc eased o some ex en he pa icipan s’ in e es in he decibel measu ing ac ion. Figu e 6. The ou di e en sound- eac ing lamp designs. Clockwise, om op le : “IKEA,” “G anny,” “Gige ,” and “Glow.” Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 174 A young couple de e mined, al eady in he scena io phase, ha hey would like o use a decibel lamp sys em in hei home and, a e he es ing pe iod, his opinion s eng hened. Howe e , hei esul s demons a ed ha hey would no ake jus any sma lamp, bu only hose i ing in hei in e io deco . Fo ins ance, hey a gued ha he G anny e sion ep esen s a da ed s yle hey do no wan in hei home. Al hough hey el he echnology in e es ing, he isual design o his p o o ype made i inapp op ia e o hei home. Reasons o disliking ce ain domes ic echnologies we e di e se and people’s mode o li ing, phases o li e, and socio-his o ical backg ounds played a cen al ole in hei easoning. Al hough he e we e some di e ences in p e e ences o s yle among household membe s, hey all sha ed an opinion abou he p o o ype hey wan ed leas . Ambien Home Au oma ion S udy In ying o ob ain ac ual use in o ma ion abou p oac i e home sys ems, we ound ha esea ching di e en ways o implemen ing sma home in e aces is no enough. We needed o se up a la ge scale es en i onmen , whe e eal homes we e augmen ed wi h senso s and p og ammable beha io s ha would p o ide esiden s wi h an o e all expe ience o wha i means o be li ing in a p oac i e home en i onmen . A he same ime, nume ous echnological, esou ce, and e en e hical cons ain s se limi s on how s ong and ac i e a hold on people’s li es ou p o o ype sys em could ha e. The key ocus was on he accep abili y o p oac i e echnology in eal homes, which was s udied by p o iding ou in o man s conc e e and pe sonal expe iences o he unc ionali y o a la ge p oac i e sys em wi hin hei homes. P ima ily we wan ed o p o ide ou in o man s wi h an example o how di e en de ices could au onomously in e ac wi h each o he in hei homes, he eby highligh ing p oac i i y as a ea u e o echnology ha ac s on ou behal and an icipa es ou needs. We also wan ed insigh in o how he expe ience o domes ic space po en ially changes wi h new ambien elemen s. The s a ing poin o implemen a ion o his esea ch phase was ha i had o be able o be ins alled as s aigh o wa dly as possible in o eal homes. We wan ed o minimize he need o ins all new appa a uses in homes, so he idea was o use exis ing ligh ing and o he de ices ha a e amilia elemen s o he use s. Also, he design o de ices o hei accep abili y was no he ocus o his phase; a he we emphasized he new unc ionali ies and how hey a e pe cei ed and accep ed when combined wi h he amilia exis ing de ices wi hin he home. One e ec o his decision was ha i dec eased he se o possible unc ions ha could be used in he p o o ype. We chose only e y basic asks and unc ions o p oac i e augmen a ion, such as ligh ing con ol and he waking and e i ing ou ines. Fu he mo e, all he de ices had o be emo ed wi hou a ace a e he es , which p esen ed he eam wi h a u he challenge in esea ch design. Since all pe manen moun ing me hods had o be ejec ed, we we e o ced o use a se o empo a y moun ing me hods (such as suc ion cups and adhesi e pads). The con ol in e ace (Figu e 7) was designed o esemble a clock adio and he eby o i easily in a bed oom. This s udy in ol ed wo households. We chose a comme cial home au oma ion sys em known as X103 o mee ou equi emen s since i o e s he possibili y o using exis ing echnology and o e o i ing some compulso y new de ices. One ad an age in he X10 is ha i uses exis ing elec ical powe lines o communica ion be ween de ices. Howe e , he comme cial so wa e o X10 P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 175 Figu e 7. The con ol in e ace uni de eloped o he X10-based home au oma ion p o o ype sys em. The uni was a black box, app oxima ely he shape and size o a common clock adio, wi h se e al bu ons and a LCD sc een a ailable o use s o make changes o he mo ning and e ening ime p ese s o he home au oma ion sys em. appea ed o be oo igid, so we eplaced i wi h an open-sou ce so wa e called Mis e house.4 By combining he X10 ha dwa e wi h a PC, Mis e house o e ed a simple use in e ace, as well as some basic means o p og amming and necessa y objec and me hod lib a ies ( he key elemen s needed o objec -o ien ed p og amming). The logic o e en s and unc ions we e p og ammed wi h Pe l.5 The basic unc ionali ies o he sys em we e ligh ing con ol and ou ines assis ing in waking up and going o sleep. These we e pe o med by adjus ing he ligh ing le els o he home acco ding o he ime o day and mo ion senso in o ma ion. (See Figu e 8 o an illus a ion o he se up.) In addi ion o ligh , ambien sound was used bo h in he mo ning and e ening: he sound o bi ds singing in he mo ning, and he sound o he sea in he e ening. Ou philosophy o choosing sleep as he pa o li e subjec ed o p oac i e con ol was ela ed o he ac ha people al eady use sound and ligh as pa o echnologies o con olling hei s a e o awa eness and a ousal, as he ubiqui y o ala m clocks p o es. The going- o-sleep sequence was he mo e expe imen al pa o ou se up, based on he p emise ha u u e home echnology will adop a mo e s ongly p oac i e s ance owa ds he heal h o use s as well. The elaxing, ambien sounds and dimming ligh s ha became ac i a ed when a p ese “sleeping ime” a i ed we e designed o ha e a double unc ion: Fi s , o signal he inhabi an s ha i is ime now o go o bed and, second, o c ea e a elaxing and sleep inducing e ec in he a mosphe e o he home. The ligh ing o he home was adjus ed acco ding o mo ion senso in o ma ion. The ime o day also a ec ed he ligh s in he ba h oom and hallway: In he day ime, he lamps ope a ed a hei maximum, bu a nigh , he lamps could be b igh ened o only hal o he maximum powe . The pu pose was o a oid he blinding e ec ha occu s when he use en e s hese a eas om a da k bed oom. On he basis o ou ea lie in e iews, subjec s emphasized he ex eme impo ance ha he a mosphe e o a home be wa m and homey. Finnish homes a e o en u nished wi h wa m Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 176 Figu e 8. An imagina y loo plan showing he placemen o de ices a ached o he p oac i e home sys em. The ope a ional elemen s a e named in he loo plan. colo s, so ex iles, and ligh wood u ni u e. Especially in he e enings o when people expec gues s, hey wish ha he ligh ing o he home has a wa m one. In ha sense, he home en i onmen di e s immensely om, o example, an o ice en i onmen . When we hink o he isions o sma home as popula ized in he media and ad e isemen , he a mosphe e is o en pic u ed o be a he cold and cen e ed on a ha d echnological, almos businesslike, elemen (see Jokinen & Leppänen, 2005). The isiona y illus a ions o sma homes a e domina ed by a ious elec onic componen s enclosed in black o g ey boxes, la ge displays, and gleaming glass su aces. We see he e a con adic ion be ween he isions o sma home in e io s p esen ed o he public and he ac ual appea ance o oday’s Finnish homes. In ou esea ch, we sough o challenge his s e eo ypical image o sma homes and o look in o whe he b inging new unc ionali ies o he home necessa ily means ha he a mosphe e o he home has o change. We belie e ha new de ices can gi e he use he eeling ha hese echnologies a e designed and in ended o be used p ecisely in common, e e yday home en i onmen s. This is an impo an pe spec i e because, in ou s udy, he in e iewees we e no willing o comp omise he cozy eeling in hei homes. The e o e, his was and should be aken in o accoun when designing no el de ices and sma se ices o homes. In he beginning o 1990s, Ma k Weise (1993) p esen ed he idea o ubiqui ous compu ing. I is unlikely ha ou in o man s we e amilia wi h he p inciple, ye , he a emp o embed echnology was well known among hem. The in e iewees exp essed he wish o ha e echnology only i was implemen ed as embedded, unob usi e de ices, as is demons a ed by he ollowing quo e: P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 183 echnologies. The e o e, he echnologically obus , ail-sa e, and nonin usi e cha ac e o sma home echnologies is a key p io i y. We also ound ha some unc ionali ies in homes a e cu en ly mo e easible o p oac i e implemen a ion han o he s. Fo example, ambien elemen s, such as ai condi ioning, hea ing, secu i y, and, o a ce ain ex en , ligh ing and ambien sound, a e ea u es ha inhabi an s ha e a a he low h eshold o delega ing o p oac i e echnology’s con ol. Howe e , ou in o man s we e skep ical abou he po en ial o sma echnology aking a s ongly p oac i e, in en ion-an icipa ing ole in hei pe sonal li es. When a pa icula eal-li e si ua ion needs o be in e p e ed and eac ed o in a co ec way, e en knowledgeable humans such as amily membe s some imes ha e p oblems in deducing he igh way o ac . Misunde s andings a e a common pa o human li e. Whe he people would indeed be able o accep such applica ions i he echnologies ac ually we e accu a e in hei p edic i e ope a ions emains o u u e esea ch o sol e. Using a eam o p o essionals ope a ing a speci ically igged house emo ely and co e ly would be a “Wiza d o Oz” app oach (Gould, Con i, & Ho anyecz, 1982) in o s udying human-le el in elligence as expe ienced in a p oac i e home se ing p o o ype. Bu his kind o esea ch, o cou se, would include i s own conside able challenges. The main de i ed lessons o esea ch p ac ice ocus pa icula ly on he necessi y o in e disciplina y collabo a ion and mul iple me hodologies i changes o and de elopmen s in echnologies a e in es iga ed. A s udy ha u ilizes only in e iews as i s me hod, o example, and ies o deduce some conclusions abou he accep abili y o u u e echnologies om in o man s who ha e expe ienced only cu en echnologies is inhe en ly un eliable. The p econcep ions o he subjec s and a ious popula ideas will ha e a domina ing e ec on esul s o such a s udy. Bu i human science esea che s, designe s, and enginee s wo k oge he o ealize some conc e e expe iences o such u u e echnologies o use s, and he use s ha e enough ime o li e wi h hese echnologies and he eby domes ica e he p o o ypes as pa s o hei li es, hen he esul s will ha e much mo e ele ance o all pa ies in ol ed. (Fo a ulle explana ion o he domes ica ion o echnology, see Pan za , 1996, and Sil e s one & Hi sh, 1992.) The subjec o p oac i e echnology has p o ed o be a complex and con o e sial issue o s udy. Me hodologically, i was challenging o in es iga e because he phenomena needed a e indispu ably in elligen se ices ha would be able o deduce human needs and in en ions and he eby genuinely an icipa e and ake ac ion in a p oac i e manne on ou behal . Ye , mos o hese in elligen se ices emain beyond he capabili ies o cu en s a e-o - he-a in o ma ion echnologies. Ra he han a emp ing o implemen such high- powe ed compu a ional sys ems, he esea ch goal he e was ocused on he human in e ace and coexis ence o humans and “li ing” echnologies in he con ex o eal homes. Embedded p ocesso s, senso s, and ne wo k capabili ies we e applied o e e yday objec s such as pillows, lamps, and ala m clocks in o de o lea n mo e abou he accep abili y o a ious sma unc ionali ies, he ela ion be ween design and echnology wi hin a home con ex , and abou he applicabili y o ou me hodology. F om a esea ch angle, he esul s appea p omising, and appa en bene i s a e o be gained by in ol ing eal use s in he di e en s ages o a esea ch p ocess, bo h as in o man s and codesigne s, by in i ing and elici ing hei ideas o he po en ial applica ions o eme ging echnologies. The combina ion o cul u al p obes, scena io s udies, minidesigns, and implemen ed p o o ype sys ems p o ided he Mäy ä, So onen, Koskinen, Kuusela, Mikkonen, Vanhala, & Zak zewski 184 in e disciplina y esea ch eam wi h a sui ably wide se o ools om which o de i e ich da a and o build he basis o knowledge and heo y o ma ion. Fo a de elope o designe o sma echnology, he lessons o his esea ch pa icula ly ocus on he p oac i e home echnology design p inciples and hei unde lying case s udies ha we ha e c ea ed du ing ou esea ch. I would be mos welcome o see examples o indus y app oaches whe e he use s’ key p io i y o “ eeling homey” ha we ha e epo ed he e a e implemen ed as he d i ing p inciple o sma home designs. A di e en kind o inding is de i ed om a mo e ac ion- esea ch-o ien ed angle. As he in o man s became mo e amilia wi h he oppo uni ies o e ed by con empo a y home echnology du ing hei pa icipa ion, one amily ac ually decided o pu chase and ins all a home au oma ion sys em. Thus, in a leas one case, he pa icipa ion in esea ch led o changes in in o man s’ li es. In mo e gene al e ms, he inc easing speed o he de elopmen and complexi y o home au oma ion and elec onics has aised an appa en need o a “home echnology consul an ,” who would help people o make in o med decisions, based on hei unique needs, abou which echnologies would be genuinely aluable in hei case. The e is also a le el o “ echno-poli ics” ha can be de i ed om his esea ch, which conce ns mos di ec ly he decision and policy make s. Con empo a y ci izens a e in sha ply unequal si ua ions conce ning he ma ke ing and a ailabili y o home au oma ion and p oac i e echnologies. The possibili y exis s ha , wi hou public discussion and p oac i e measu es by means o ecommenda ions o e en egula ions, he e migh be de elopmen s ha a e ei he une hical o p o ide a ious g oups in socie y unequal oppo uni ies o aking ad an age o echnology’s bene i s. The e has been ac i e in e es and encou agemen om public esea ch policies owa ds echnical and comme cial exploi a ion o oppo uni ies opened up by ambien in elligence and ad anced compu e sys ems. Ou esea ch poin s ou how impo an i is o lis en o ac ual use s, bo h on he echnological and egula o y le els, ega ding he de elopmen o new echnology, and in ol e hem when deciding on he di ec ions and uses o hese echnologies o he u u e. The consequences, a e all, a e going o in luence e e yone in he socie y. ENDNOTES 1. Quo a ions a e ci ed wi h he in o man ’s gende and age. All in e iews we e conduc ed in Finnish wi h na i e-speaking Finns. In o man s’ quo es ha e been ansla ed in o English by he au ho s. 2. The lamp is a model om IKEA, an in e na ional chain o home u nishings. 3. X10 home page (2006). Downloaded Augus 24, 2006, om h p://www.x10.com. 4. Mis e House home page (2006). Downloaded Augus 24, 2006, om h p://www.mis e house.ne . 5. Pe l is a p og amming language ha has become pa icula ly popula in implemen a ions o di e en In e ne se ices; see h p://www.pe l.o g/abou .h ml. REFERENCES Baillie, L., & Scha z, R. (2006). A ligh weigh , use -con olled sys em o home. Human Technology, 2, 84– 102. Re ie ed Augus 24, 2006, om h p://www.human echnology.jyu. i/a icles/ olume2/2006/baillie- scha z.pd P obing a P oac i e Home: Challenges in Resea ch and Design 185 Bell, G., Bly he, M., & Senge s, P. (2005). Making by making s ange: De amilia iza ion and he design o domes ic echnologies. ACM T ansac ions o Compu e -Human In e ac ion, 12, 149–173. Buchenau, M., & Su i, J. F. (2000). Expe ience p o o yping. In D. Boya ski & W. A. 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Re ie ed Augus 24, 2006, om h p://www.ubiq.com/hype ex /weise /acm u u e2endno e.h m Au ho s’ No e The au ho s wan o hank Academy o Finland o unding his esea ch, as well as colleagues in his and ela ed esea ch p ojec s, pa icula ly Ka ja Ba a bee, Olli So amaa and Te e Vadén, who made signi ican con ibu ions du ing he i s yea o his esea ch. This esea ch has been conduc ed as pa o he P oac i e Compu ing Resea ch P og amme (see www.aka. i/p oac ). All co espondence should be add essed o: F ans Mäy ä Hype media Labo a o y FIN-33014 Uni e si y o Tampe e FINLAND ans.m[email p o ec ed] Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN: 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i Volume 2 (2), Oc obe 2006, 187–201 187 EVALUATIONS OF AN EXPERIENTIAL GAMING MODEL Abs ac : This pape examines he expe iences o playe s o a p oblem-sol ing game. The main pu pose o he pape is o alida e he low an eceden s included in an expe ien ial gaming model and o s udy hei in luence on he low expe ience. Addi ionally, he s udy aims o ope a ionalize he low cons uc in a game con ex and o s a a scale de elopmen p ocess o assessing he expe ience o low in game se ings. Resul s indica ed ha he low an eceden s s udied—challenges ma ched o a playe ’s skill le el, clea goals, unambiguous eedback, a sense o con ol, and playabili y—should be conside ed in game design because hey con ibu e o he low expe ience. Fu he mo e, he indica o s o he ac ual low expe ience we e dis inguished. Keywo ds: low expe ience, educa ional games, game design, engagemen . INTRODUCTION Compu e games a e a qui e new o m o media (Salonius-Pas e nak & Gel ond, 2005), bu oday hey ha e al eady es ablished hemsel es as an e e yday phenomenon. In addi ion o p o iding en e ainmen and di e sion, games sa is y he basic equi emen s o lea ning en i onmen s ha ha e been iden i ied by No man (1993) and can p o ide an engaging en i onmen o lea ning as well. Un o una ely, educa ional games ha e been used p ima ily as ools o suppo ing he p ac ice o ac ual in o ma ion lea ning. In ac , i can be a gued ha mos educa ional games oo o en esemble digi al exe cise books and do no u ilize he powe o games as in e ac i e con ex - ee media. The eason o his may be ha he ield o educa ional echnology lacks esea ch on how o design game en i onmen s ha os e knowledge cons uc ion and deepen unde s anding (Mo eno & Maye , 2005) and p oblem- sol ing while engaging and en e aining he use a he same ime. Howe e , Kiili (2005a) p oposed an expe ien ial gaming model ha may end his end since i helps designe s o unde s and he lea ning mechanism in games by in eg a ing © 2006 K is ian Kiili and he Ago a Cen e , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä URN:NBN: i:jyu-2006518 K is ian Kiili Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology Po i, Finland Kiili 188 pedagogical elemen s in o he design p ocess and dis inguishes he ac o s ha make game playing enjoyable. The low heo y is emphasized as a design p inciple because i p o ides a uni e sal model o enjoymen , de ailing he common aspec s o he p ocess ha akes place when anyone expe iences enjoymen . Kiili (2005b) e alua ed he expe ien ial gaming model h ough he IT-Empe o game, which was employed in a usabili y cou se. Kiili (2005c) e ised he expe ien ial gaming model o be e add ess he needs o educa ional game designe s. The e ised e sion o he model is illus a ed in Figu e 1. The expe ien ial gaming model can be used o design and s udy educa ional games and gaming in gene al. I consis s o a gaming cycle and a design cycle. The gaming cycle p o ides a desc ip ion o he gaming p ocess and he lea ning p ocess in games. I aims o ocus he e o s o designe s owa d enhancing he mos impo an ac o s ha in luence he gaming expe ience and lea ning wi h games. Meanwhile, he design cycle desc ibes he main phases o game design and wo ks as a guideline in he design p ocess. The design p ocess is p esen ed abs ac ly because i may a y among he di e en game gen es. The model emphasizes he impo ance o conside ing se e al low an eceden s in educa ional game design: challenges ma ched o he skill le el o a playe , clea goals, unambiguous eedback, a sense o con ol, playabili y, game ulness, ocused a en ion, and a ame s o y. The ambi ion o designing he so o games ha enhance expe iencing low is jus i iable because p e ious esea ch indica es Challenges (p oblems) Ac i e expe imen a ion Re lec i e obse a ion Schema a cons uc ion P ein a i e idea gene a ion Idea gene a ion Flow -Challenges- -Game ulness- -Playabili y- Ac i e expe imen a ion Re lec i e obse a ion Schema a cons uc ion P ein a i e solu ion gene a ion Solu ion gene a ion Flow (Need analysis) Si ua ed lea ning objec i es -F ame s o y- -Focuseda en ion- Posi i e a i udes Re lec i e e alua ion Implemen a ion Design knowledge -Clea goals- -Senseo con ol- -Unambiguous eedback- Design Cycle Figu e 1. The expe ien ial gaming model de eloped o b idge he gap be ween game design and pedagogy. (A ulle desc ip ion is p o ided in Kiili, 2005c). E alua ions o an Expe imen al Gaming Model 189 ha low has a posi i e impac on lea ning, explo a o y beha io , and he a i udes o playe s (Ghani, 1991; Kiili, 2005b; Skadbe g & Kimmel, 2004; Webs e , T e ino & Ryan, 1993). A mo e de ailed desc ip ion o he model is p o ided in Kiili (2005c). In his pape , he use ulness o he expe ien ial gaming model is s udied h ough a p oblem-sol ing game. Two main goals can be dis inguished. The i s goal is o alida e he main low an eceden s included in he expe ien ial gaming model and o s udy hei in luence on he low expe ience. Second, his s udy aims o ope a ionalize he low cons uc in a game con ex and o s a a scale de elopmen p ocess o assessing he low expe ience in game se ings. Al hough Csikszen mihalyi (1991) de ined low as a mul idimensional cons uc consis ing o nine dimensions, he elied p ima ily on he challenge–skill balance o measu e low (Jackson & Eklund, 2002), which is no an adequa e measu emen me hod alone. Thus, his pape ocuses on de eloping a low scale ha akes all ele an low dimensions in o accoun . This pape begins wi h a b ie discussion o he low expe ience and he me hodology used o measu e low be o e u ning o he e alua ions o he expe ien ial gaming model. FLOW EXPERIENCE Flow desc ibes a s a e o comple e abso p ion o engagemen in an ac i i y and e e s o he op imal expe ience (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991; Ghani & Deshpande, 1994). Du ing he op imal expe ience, a pe son is in a psychological s a e whe e he/she is so in ol ed wi h he goal- d i en ac i i y ha no hing else seems o ma e . Csikszen mihalyi (1991) de ined he phenomena o low s a e as ha ing nine dimensions. The i s i e dimensions can be conside ed low an eceden s and he es indica o s o low expe ience (Kiili, 2005c). 1) Challenge–skill balance. When expe iencing low, a pe son pe cei es a balance be ween he challenges o he ac i i y and his o he skills, wi h bo h ope a ing a a pe sonally high le el (Jackson & Ma sh, 1996). In he o he wo ds, a pe son’s skill is a jus he igh le el o cope wi h he si ua ional demands. 2) Ac ion–awa eness me ging. The low s a e is so in ol ing ha , du ing i , ac i i y becomes spon aneous and au oma ic. This dimension is p oblema ic om he poin o iew o educa ional games because he ul ima e aim o educa ional games is o suppo knowledge cons uc ion, which equi es cogni i e p ocessing (Kolb, 1984; Winn, 2004). Thus, in his con ex , he ac ion–awa eness dimension should be applied o he playabili y o he game a he han o he en i e gaming ac i i y. Pilke’s (2004) a gumen ha he goal o low- inducing in e ace design is o design good usabili y and ise e sa suppo s his iew. 3) Goals o an ac i i y. The goals should be clea ly de ined in o de o be able o achie e low (No ak, Ho man, & Duhachek, 2003). Howe e , he goals o some ac i i ies canno be always clea , as in he case o c ea i e ac i i ies. S ill, a pe son can de elop a s ong pe sonal sense o wha he/she in ends o do. 4) Unambiguous eedback. Unambiguous eedback is ela ed o he goal dimension because i allows a pe son o know how he/she is succeeding in a speci ic goal. A easonable eedback sys em is easie o de elop i he main goal is di ided o subgoals. 5) Con ol. A sense o con ol is expe ienced wi hou he pe son ac i ely ying o exe i . Csikszen mihalyi (1991) has s a ed ha his is mo e a sense o he possibili y o con ol Kiili 190 a he han he ac uali y o ha ing con ol. A pe son senses when he/she can de elop skills su icien enough o educe he ma gin o e o o close o ze o, which makes he expe ience enjoyable. Acco ding o Ghani and Deshpande (1994), his sense o con ol is one o he mos impo an low an eceden s in games. 6) Concen a ion. Concen a ion on he ask a hand is he mos equen ly exp essed low dimension (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991). While in low, a pe son concen a es o ally on he ac i i y and is able o o ge all unpleasan hings beyond he game. Because low-inducing ac i i ies equi e a comple e ocusing o a en ion on he ask a hand, he pe son has no cogni i e esou ces le o i ele an in o ma ion p ocessing. 7) Loss o sel -consciousness. The sel disappea s om one’s awa eness du ing low because when a pe son is ho oughly eng ossed wi h an ac i i y, ew cogni i e esou ces a e a ailable o allow he pe son o conside ei he he pas o he u u e. In o he wo ds, low allows no men al oom o sel -sc u iny (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991). 8) The ans o ma ion o ime. Acco ding o Csikszen mihalyi (1991), he sense o ime du ing he low expe ience ends o bea li le ela ion o he ac ual passage o ime as measu ed by he absolu e con en ion o a clock. Time seems ei he o “ ly” o o “d ag.” Csikszen mihalyi (1991) a gued ha losing ack o he clock is no a majo an eceden o low and i may be jus a by-p oduc o he in ense concen a ion equi ed o he ac i i y a hand. 9) Au o elic expe ience. Au o elic expe ience e e s o an ac i i y ha is “done, no wi h he expec a ion o some u u e bene i , bu simply because he doing i sel is he ewa d” (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991, p. 67). Acco ding o Kiili (2005c), his is he mos impo an inal esul o low in educa ional gaming: S uden s unde ake s udying ac i i ies no necessa ily wi h he expec a ion o some ex e nal u u e bene i , bu simply because playing he game is enjoyable, a ewa d in i sel . This na u e o he low expe ience suppo s he ideology o li e- long lea ning and is a p iceless goal in educa ion. Whene e people e lec on hei low expe iences, hey men ion some and o en all o hese cha ac e is ics (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991). The combina ion o hese elemen s causes a sense o deep enjoymen ha is so ewa ding ha people eel i ’s wo hwhile o expend a g ea deal o ene gy o expe ience i . Measu ing Flow Expe ience Flow has been s udied in p e ious esea ch using se e al me hods. These me hods can be di ided in o wo main app oaches. 1. The ac i i y–measu emen me hod begins wi h in ol ing pa icipan s in a selec ed ac i i y. A e wa d, pa icipan s e alua e hei expe ience ei he h ough an in e iew o by comple ing a su ey ins umen (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994; Pilke, 2004; Skadbe g & Kimmel, 2004; Webs e e al., 1993). 2. The Expe ience Sampling Me hod (ESM) ga he s in o ma ion du ing ce ain ac i i ies. Pa icipan s a e in e up ed o a sho pe iod h oughou he day ac i i y o e alua e hei expe ience wi h a su ey ins umen (Csikszen mihalyi, La son & P esco , 1977; Csikszen mihalyi & LeFe e, 1989; Csikszen mihalyi & Nakamu a, 1989; Ha i z & Mannell, 2005). In spi e o some c i icism, bo h app oaches ha e been success ully u ilized in low s udies. An impo an ques ion in he i s app oach is whe he he esponden s can eliably e alua e E alua ions o an Expe imen al Gaming Model 191 low a e , a he han du ing, an ac i i y. On he o he hand, he ESM can be c i icized o in e up ing a pa icipan ’s expe iences and no mal beha io , which may dec ease he ecological alidi y o he s udy (Loomis & Blasco isch, 1999). Howe e , i is appa en ha di e en ac i i ies and con ex s equi e di e en me hods o use. Al hough he ESM p o ides con inuous in o ma ion abou he expe iences o he pa icipan s du ing an ac i i y, i is no he app op ia e app oach o sho expe imen s like he small p oblem-sol ing games u ilized in his s udy. Fo ha eason, he i s me hod was selec ed in his s udy. The mos signi ican challenge o his s udy was o ope a ionalize he low expe ience app op ia ely. Ope a ionaliza ion o he Flow Expe ience Fo he pas wo decades, esea che s ha e s i ed o unde s and how he low model i s he expe iences o people (Voelkl & Ellis, 1998). The nine dimensions o low ou lined by Csikszen mihalyi (1991) ha e been used as a amewo k o ope a ionalize low in a ious con ex s. In spi e o ha , mos o he o med ope a ionaliza ions o low b anch o qui e dis inc i ely om one ano he . Fo example, Ghani and Deshpande (1994) used a 15-i em scale measu ing only he dimensions o enjoymen , concen a ion, challenge, con ol and explo a o y use. Explo a o y use e e s o amoun o expe imen a ion wi h ools a ailable. On he o he hand, Webs e e al. (1993) s udied he expe iences o an accoun ing i m’s employees who a ended a cou se wi h a 12-i em low scale measu ing he amoun o con ol, ocused a en ion, cu iosi y, and in insic in e es hey expe ienced. In spo and physical ac i i y se ings, low expe ience has been assessed using he Flow S a e Scale (FSS) ques ionnai e de eloped by Jackson and Ma sh (1996). This 36-i em ins umen p o ides scales o all nine dimensions o low ou lined by Csikszen mihalyi (1991). In e nal consis ency es ima es o he nine FSS scales we e epo ed o be easonable. Al hough he ope a ionaliza ions o low di e ge om one ano he , almos all low measu ing ins umen s include he challenge–skill dimension ha has been a gued o be he mos impo an low an eceden (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991). Howe e , Chen, Wigand, and Nilan (1999) ha e a gued ha esea che s s udying he low phenomenon in a Web en i onmen oo o en ope a ionalize he pe cei ed challenge oo gene ally. Resea che s end o igno e he o iginal concep o low as a cons uc ha induces human beings o g ow in he sense o ul illing po en iali ies and going beyond hose limi s (Csikszen mihalyi, 1975). Thus, i is no easonable o assume ha we can de elop digi al en i onmen s whe e use s expe ience low h oughou he en i e ime hey a e in e ac ing wi h o in he i ual en i onmen . In ac , he s a es o anxiousness and us a ion should be unde s ood mo e as he igge s o d i ing o ces ha mo i a es a use o s i e o he low s a e a he han as a plague ha should be elimina ed en i ely. Ano he impo an ques ion is how alid use s’ e alua ions o pe cei ed challenge a e. In ac , Chen e al. (1999) ound in hei s udy ha a g ea numbe o he pa icipan s we e con used wi h he ques ions measu ing challenge. These esul s indica e ha he ways o measu ing he skill–challenge balance should be s udied mo e exhaus i ely. In spi e o e o s o ope a ionalize low in di e en con ex s, se e al esea che s main ain ha much wo k emains o be done in he ope a ionaliza ion o he key concep s o low be o e alid empi ical esea ch can be conduc ed (Chen e al., 1999; No ak, Ho man, Kiili 192 & Yung, 2000). One aspec ha should be conside ed, in pa icula , is he pa i ion o low dimensions in o low an eceden s and he low s a e. I can be a gued ha i is no always app op ia e o blindly use all nine dimensions o low be o e conside ing he aims o one’s s udy. Is he aim o s udy he low s a e o he ac o s con ibu ing o he low expe ience? In his pape , bo h low an eceden s and he low s a e a e s udied. The low dimensions a e di ided o an eceden s and low s a e acco ding o p e ious esea ch (Kiili, 2005c). METHOD Pa icipan s Pa icipan s (N = 221) we e ec ui ed by e-mail om uni e si y s uden s and s a and hei amilies. The gende b eakdown was 56% males and 44% emales. The ages o pa icipan s we e dis ibu ed as ollows: 9% we e o e 30 yea s old, 72% we e 21–30 yea s old, 14% we e 16–20 yea s old, and he es we e 11–15 yea s old. Fi y pe cen o he pa icipan s played digi al games almos daily, 22% played once a week, and he es played a ely o no a all. All we e na i e speake s o Finnish. Ma e ials The game used in his s udy was based on a Japanese c osswo d, which is a puzzle also known as nonog am, g iddle , and pain -by-numbe s. The puzzle gen e was selec ed o his s udy because sol ing men al puzzles is one o he oldes o ms o enjoyable ac i i ies (Csikszen mihalyi, 1991). Gene ally, he aim in Japanese c osswo d is o sol e he image enc yp ed wi h numbe s. The numbe s a e clues ha can be in e p e ed by using logical deduc ion in o de o colo he co ec squa es o he g id. As Figu e 2 shows, clue numbe s a e loca ed a he le and op o he g id. Each numbe indica es he numbe o con iguous cells o be colo ed (leng h o he illed block). The blocks o cells o be colo ed a e a anged om le o igh and om op o bo om acco ding o clues. A leas one emp y cell mus exis be ween he illed blocks. The expe ien ial gaming model’s design phase was u ilized o ex end he adi ional Japanese c osswo d in o a new game called Day O . The c osswo d was embedded wi hin a s o y line ha gi es meaning o he puzzle o be sol ed. The ac ual game space consis ed o 15 columns and 9 ows (Figu e 2). The image o be e ealed was he Finnish s eamship Piipa inen. The game, which was conduc ed in Finnish, s a s wi h an in oduc ion implemen ed as an anima ion ha desc ibes he o dina y wo ld o he main cha ac e (he o), who is a p o essional chess playe . He has jus won he wo ld championship i le in chess and is enjoying his aca ion by ishing in a na ional pa k. Suddenly mili a y oops kidnap him and anspo him o hei base. The he o is compelled o help mili a y o ice s sol e an enc yp ed message ha con ains in o ma ion abou he loca ion o a bomb ha e o is s ha e p imed o go o in 20 minu es. The he o hesi a es bu decides o coope a e because he o ice s in o m him ha his son is wo king in he e y ha bo whe e he bomb is loca ed. E alua ions o an Expe imen al Gaming Model 199 ac i i ies a e no unde aken by he playe wi h he expec a ion o some u u e bene i , bu a he because he playing o an educa ional game i sel is he ewa d. This ype o a i ude suppo s he ideology o li e-long lea ning and is a p iceless goal in educa ion. This s udy is a pa o an ongoing a emp o de elop a usable and alid scale o assessing he low expe ience o playe s in educa ional games. The esul s o he expe imen desc ibed in his pape demons a e ha he cons uc ed FSG ins umen p o ides a sa is ac o y ool o assessing he gaming expe iences o playe s. Howe e , his wo k is s ill in i s e y ini ial s ages and he FSG ins umen needs u he de elopmen and alida ion wi h mo e complex educa ional games. REFERENCES Chen, H., Wigand, R., & Nilan, M. S. (1999). Op imal expe ience o web ac i i ies. Compu e s in Human Beha io , 15, 585–608. Csikszen mihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond bo edom and anxie y. San F ancisco: Jossey-Bass. Csikszen mihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology o op imal expe ience. New Yo k: Ha pe Pe ennial. Csikszen mihalyi, M., La son, R., & P esco , S. (1977). The ecology o adolescen ac i i y and expe ience. Jou nal o You h and Adolescence, 6, 281–294. Csikszen mihalyi, M., & LeFe e, J. (1989). Op imal expe ience in wo k and leisu e. Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social Psychology, 56, 815–822. Csikszen mihalyi, M., & Nakamu a, J. (1989). The dynamics o in insic mo i a ion. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Handbook o mo i a ion heo y and esea ch (pp. 45–71). New Yo k: Academic P ess. Ghani, J. A. (1991). Flow in human–compu e in e ac ions: Tes o a model. In J. Ca ey (Ed.), Human ac o s in managemen in o ma ion sys ems: Eme ging heo e ical bases. Ablex, NJ: Ablex Publishing Co p. Ghani, J., & Deshpande, S. (1994). Task cha ac e is ics and he expe ience o op imal low in human–compu e in e ac ion. The Jou nal o Psychology, 128, 381–391. Ha i z, M. E., & Mannell, R. C. (2005). Endu ing in ol emen , si ua ional in ol emen , and low in leisu e and non-leisu e ac i i ies. Jou nal o Leisu e Resea ch, 37, 152–177. Jackson, S. A., & Eklund, R. C. (2002). Assessing low in physical ac i i y: The Flow S a e Scale-2 and Disposi ional Flow Scale-2. Jou nal o Spo and Exe cise Psychology, 24, 133–150. Jackson, S. & Ma sh, H. (1996). De elopmen and alida ion o a scale o measu e op imal expe ience: The low s a e scale. Jou nal o Spo & Exe cise Psychology, 18, 17–35. Kiili, K. (2005a). Digi al game-based lea ning: Towa ds an expe ien ial gaming model. The In e ne and Highe Educa ion, 8, 13–24. Kiili, K. (2005b). Con en c ea ion challenges and low expe ience in educa ional games: The IT-Empe o case. The In e ne and Highe Educa ion, 8, 183–198. Kiili, K. (2005c). On educa ional game design: Building blocks o low expe ience. Tampe e, Finland: Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology P ess. Kolb, D. (1984). Expe ien ial lea ning: Expe ience as he sou ce o lea ning and de elopmen . Englewood Cli s, NJ: P en ice Hall. Loomis, J., & Blasco ich, J. (1999). Imme si e i ual en i onmen echnology as a basic esea ch ool in psychology. Beha io al Resea ch Me hod, Ins umen s, & Compu e s, 31, 557–564. Mille , G. (1956). The magical numbe se en, plus o minus wo: Some limi s on ou capaci y o p ocessing in o ma ion. Psychological Re iew, 63, 81–97. Kiili 200 Mo eno, R., & Maye , R. E. (2005). Role o guidance, e lec ion, and in e ac i i y in an agen -based mul imedia game. Jou nal o Educa ional Psychology, 97, 117–128. No man, D. A. (1993). Things ha make us sma : De ending human a ibu es in he age o he machine. New Yo k: Addison-Wesley. No ak, T. P., Ho man, D. L., & Duhachek, A. (2003). The in luence o goal-di ec ed and expe ien ial ac i i ies on online low expe iences. Jou nal o Consume Psychology, 13, 3–16. No ak, T. P., Ho man, D. L., & Yung, Y. F. (2000). Measu ing he low cons uc in online en i onmen s: A s uc u al modeling app oach. Ma ke ing Science, 19, 22–42. Pilke, E. M. (2004). Flow expe iences in in o ma ion echnology use. In e na ional Jou nal o Human Compu e S udies, 61, 347–357. Salonius-Pas e nak, D. E. & Gel ond, H. S. (2005). The nex le el o esea ch on elec onic play: Po en ial bene i s and con ex ual in luences o child en and adolescen s. Human Technology, 1, 5–22. Skadbe g, Y. X., & Kimmel, J. R. (2004). Visi o s’ low expe ience while b owsing a web si e: I s measu emen , con ibu ing ac o s, and consequences. Compu e s in Human Beha io , 20, 403–422. Webs e , J., T e ino, L. K., & Ryan, L. (1993). The dimensionali y and co ela es o low in human-compu e in e ac ion. Compu e s in Human Beha io , 9, 411–426. Winn, W. (2004). Cogni i e pe spec i e in psychology. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook o esea ch on educa ional communica ion and echnology (79-112). Mahwah, NJ: Law ence E lbaum. Voelkl, J. E., & Ellis, G. D. (1998). Measu ing low expe iences in daily li e: An examina ion o he i ems used o measu e challenge and skill. Jou nal o Leisu e Resea ch, 30, 380–389. Au ho ’s No e This esea ch was unded by he Academy o Finland (201879). All co espondence should be add essed o: K is ian Kiili Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Po i P.O. Box 300 FIN-28101 Po i, Finland k is ian.kiili@ u . i Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i E alua ions o an Expe imen al Gaming Model 201 Appendix Flow Scale o Games ( ansla ed om Finnish o English) Please answe he ollowing ques ions in ela ion o you expe ience wi h he Day O game you jus played. These ques ions ela e o he hough s and eelings you may ha e expe ienced du ing playing. Think abou how you el and answe ollowing ques ions. When you ha e answe ed all he ques ions, p ess he Send Fo m bu on. Thank you! Ag ee Disag ee 1 I was challenged, bu I belie ed my skills would allow me o mee he challenge. 5 4 3 2 1 2 I could use he use in e ace o he game spon aneously and au oma ically wi hou ha ing o hink. 5 4 3 2 1 3 I knew clea ly wha I wan ed o do and achie e. 5 4 3 2 1 4 I was awa e how I was pe o ming in he game. 5 4 3 2 1 5 My a en ion was ocused en i ely on playing he game. 5 4 3 2 1 6 I el in o al con ol o my playing ac ions. 5 4 3 2 1 7 I was no conce ned wi h wha o he s may ha e been hinking abou my playing pe o mance. 5 4 3 2 1 8 My sense o ime al e ed (ei he speeded up o slowed down). 5 4 3 2 1 9 I eally enjoyed he playing expe ience. 5 4 3 2 1 10 The challenge ha he game p o ided and my skills we e a an equally high le el. 5 4 3 2 1 11 The use o he use in e ace was easy o acqui e. 5 4 3 2 1 12 The goals o he game we e clea ly de ined. 5 4 3 2 1 13 I could ell by he way I was pe o ming how well I was doing. 5 4 3 2 1 14 I was no e o o keep my mind on game e en s. 5 4 3 2 1 15 I had a eeling o con ol o my ac ions. 5 4 3 2 1 16 I was no wo ied abou my pe o mance du ing playing. 5 4 3 2 1 17 The way ime passed seemed o be di e en om no mal. 5 4 3 2 1 18 I lo ed he eeling o playing and wan o cap u e i again. 5 4 3 2 1 19 I had o al concen a ion while playing he game. 5 4 3 2 1 20 The playing expe ience le me eeling g ea . 5 4 3 2 1 21 I was o ally imme sed in playing he game. 5 4 3 2 1 22 I ound he expe ience ex emely ewa ding. 5 4 3 2 1 23 Read he desc ip ion o low expe ience and answe o he ollowing s a emen : I expe ienced a clea low expe ience du ing playing. 5 4 3 2 1 Desc ip ion o low: The wo d low is used o desc ibe a s a e o mind some imes expe ienced by people who a e deeply in ol ed in some ac i i y. Fo example, a oo ball playe may expe ience low when no hing else ma e s bu he game i sel and i is going e y well. Ac i i y ha induces low o ally cap i a es a pe son o some pe iod o ime, in which case ime seems o dis o and no hing else bu he ac i i y seems o ma e . Flow may no las o a long ime on any pa icula occasion, bu i may come and go o e ime. Flow has been desc ibed as being an in insically enjoyable expe ience. 24 I you expe ienced low, wha ac o s in he game con ibu ed o low expe ience? 25 I you did no expe ience low, wha ac o s in he game dis u bed achie ing a low expe ience? An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN: 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i Volume 2 (2), Oc obe 2006, 202–224 202 CREATING A FRAMEWORK FOR IMPROVING THE LEARNABILITY OF A COMPLEX SYSTEM Abs ac : When designing complex sys ems, i is c ucial bu challenging o make hem easy o lea n. In his pape , a amewo k o imp o ing he lea nabili y o a complex sys em is p esen ed. A classi ica ion o ac o s a ec ing he lea nabili y o a building modeling sys em as well as guidelines ha e ine he ac o s in o p ac ical ways o ac ion a e in oduced. The ac o s and guidelines include issues ela ed o he use in e ace, con o mi y o he sys em o use ’s expec a ions, and aining. The classi ica ion is based on empi ical esea ch du ing which lea nabili y was assessed wi h se e al me hods. The me hodology and he classi ica ion o lea nabili y ac o s can be used as e e ences when analyzing and imp o ing he lea nabili y o o he sys ems. Sys em de elope s and aining p o ide s can u ilize hese guidelines when s i ing o make sys ems easie o lea n. Keywo ds: lea nabili y, ease-o -lea ning, complex sys ems, g ounded heo y, guidelines. INTRODUCTION As complex sys ems ge mo e and mo e common in a ious p oblem domains, i becomes necessa y o make hem easily lea nable. Good lea nabili y will lead o accep able lea ning imes, su icien p oduc i i y du ing he lea ning phase, and g ea e sa is ac ion in new use s. Howe e , designing complex sys ems ha a e easy o lea n is challenging. Complex sys ems need o p o ide a wide a ie y o unc ionali y and o suppo complex ask lows and objec s uc u es. The e is a dange o complexi y leading o long and unp oduc i e lea ning imes. Ano he challenge wi h imp o ing he lea nabili y o complex sys ems is ha he changes made in he sys em mus no dec ease he e iciency o use (San os & Bad e, 1995). I has been discussed whe he lea nabili y and e iciency ac ually suppo each o he o a he , in ac , con adic . Se e al s udies ha e indica ed ha lea nabili y and e iciency a e cong uen . Whi eside, Jones, Le y, and Wixon (1985), o example, no iced in hei s udy conce ning se e al command, menu, and iconic in e aces ha he bes sys em o no ice use s was also he bes o expe use s, and he wo s sys em o no ices was he wo s o expe s. Howe e , some esea che s (e.g., Goodwin, 1987) ha e poin ed ou ha expe s and no ices may ha e di e en equi emen s o a sys em: Abb e ia ions and sho cu s, o example, © 2006 Min u Linja-aho and he Ago a Cen e , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä URN:NBN: i:jyu-2006519 Min u Linja-aho Tekla Co po a ion Finland Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 203 will imp o e he pe o mance o expe s bu may slow down he lea ning o no ices. Thus, balancing lea nabili y and e iciency equi es ca e ul conside a ion. In any case, no ices a e an impo an use g oup and he e o e he lea ning dimension should be aken in o accoun when designing a sys em. Compac ing he lea ning p ocess and educing he leng h o aining needed and he numbe o p oblems ha new use s ace will sa e cos s o he o ganiza ion ha has aken he sys em in o use and, in many cases, he sys em p o ide as well. I use s conside he sys em easy o lea n, hey a e mo e likely o pass h ough he lea ning s age and con inue using he sys em egula ly. Sa is ied lea ne s may also ell o he p ospec i e use s abou an easily lea ned sys em and hus pe o m e icien pee - o-pee ma ke ing. To imp o e he lea nabili y o a sys em, a gene al unde s anding o he ac o s a ec ing lea nabili y is needed. In his pape , a classi ica ion o lea nabili y ac o s ela ed o a building modeling sys em is in oduced. P ac ical guidelines ha can be used by p oduc de elope s who design new sys ems o edesign exis ing ones a e p esen ed as well. I belie e ha he classi ica ion o ac o s and he guidelines a e use ul o de eloping complex sys ems ha a e easy o lea n. LEARNABILITY In his a icle, he wo d lea nabili y signi ies how quickly and com o ably a new use can begin e icien and e o - ee in e ac ion wi h he sys em, pa icula ly when he o she is s a ing o use he sys em. I can be seen om his de ini ion ha bo h objec i e and subjec i e ace s o lea nabili y a e conside ed: he speed o lea ning (quickly) and he subjec i e sa is ac ion o he lea ne (com o ably). The goal o he lea ning p ocess is e icien and e o - ee in e ac ion. In he li e a u e, he e ms ease-o -lea ning and lea nabili y o en ha e been used in e changeably. Mul iple o he de ini ions o lea nabili y exis in he li e a u e, and hey di e om each o he sligh ly. Fo example, Be an and Macleod’s (1994) de ini ion o lea nabili y comp ises he usabili y a ibu es o sa is ac ion, e ec i eness, and e iciency ha a e e alua ed wi hin a ce ain con ex , namely he con ex o a new use . In he ISO 9241 s anda d (In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion [ISO], 1998a and 1998b), lea nabili y is also de ined h ough he h ee a ibu es o e iciency, e ec i eness, and sa is ac ion. Dix, Finlay, Abowd, and Beale (1998) de ine lea nabili y as he ease wi h which new use s can begin e ec i e in e ac ion and achie e maximal pe o mance. In summa y, wha mos o he de ini ions ha e in common is ha hey add ess he ini ial usage expe ience and include a c i e ion such as e ec i eness o e iciency ha can be used o measu e he lea ning esul s. In addi ion, some esea che s ha e emphasized ha he e m lea nabili y should also co e expe use s’ abili y o lea n unc ions ha a e new o hem (Sinkkonen, 2000). While his pe spec i e is impo an , I conside ed i easible o concen a e on one g oup o use s, namely new use s, in his esea ch. The impo ance o lea nabili y in de e mining sys em accep abili y has been no iced ea ly (e.g., Bu le , 1985). Lin, Choong, and Sal endy (1997) ound ha lea nabili y is co ela ed wi h use sa is ac ion. The lea nabili y o complex sys ems is especially c i ical, as he complexi y ends o make he unp oduc i e lea ning pe iod longe han wha is desi ed by he use and he manage s in he o ganiza ion. Linja-aho 204 The Rela ionship o Lea nabili y and Usabili y The e a e con adic ing iews o how lea nabili y ela es o usabili y. Some esea che s conside lea nabili y o be a subconcep o usabili y (e.g., Ellio , Jones, & Ba ke , 2002). Nielsen (1993) p esen s i e suba ibu es o usabili y: lea nabili y, e iciency, memo abili y, e o s, and sa is ac ion. In he same book, Nielsen p esen s 10 usabili y heu is ics ha should be conside ed when designing use in e aces. Dix e al. (1998) in u n di ide usabili y in o he h ee a ibu es o lea nabili y, lexibili y, and obus ness. Lin e al. (1997) lis eigh a ibu es: compa ibili y, consis ency, lexibili y, lea nabili y, minimal ac ion, minimal memo y load, pe cep ual limi a ion, and use guidance. Ellio e al. (2002) ha e discussed he ela ionship o lea nabili y and usabili y in hei publica ion. They e e o se e al s udies indica ing ha he concep s o lea nabili y and usabili y a e s ongly ela ed and e en cong uen . Robe s & Mo an (1983), o example, ound ha p ocedu al complexi y unde lies bo h he pe o mance o expe s and he lea ning o no ices. Whi eside e al. (1985) ha e also s a ed ha he concep s o usabili y and lea nabili y a e cong uen . Based on hese s udies, Ellio e al. (2002) made he conclusion ha elemen s om models o usabili y can be inco po a ed o models o lea nabili y as well. Howe e , o he esea che s (e.g., Paymans, Lindenbe g, & Nee incx, 2004) ha e no ed ha some imes lea nabili y and usabili y may be con adic o y: ha issues ha imp o e lea nabili y ac ually educe usabili y. This is ela ed o he ques ion o how lea nabili y and e iciency ela e o each o he , which I discussed ea lie in his a icle. Based on he li e a u e e iew and my expe iences, I expec ed lea nabili y and usabili y o ha e se e al issues in common. Howe e , I expec ed du ing he s udy ha I would also no ice issues ha a ec lea nabili y bu a e no included in common models o usabili y. I will discuss he ela ionship o lea nabili y and usabili y la e in his a icle a e p esen ing he empi ical esul s. Aspec s o Lea nabili y Lea nabili y s udies ha e o en concen a ed on he e ec o he use in e ace design on lea nabili y (see Ellio e al., 2002; Lin e al., 1997). Na u ally, he use in e ace is c ucial o lea nabili y, as i essen ially o ms he link be ween he use and he sys em. Di e en esea che s s ess a ious issues as de e minan s o use in e ace lea nabili y. Rieman, Lewis, Young, and Polson (1994) emphasize he e ec o consis ency. G een and Eklundh (2003) in u n emphasize he na u alness o in e ac ion. Dix e al. (1998) ha e p esen ed i e p inciples ha suppo use in e ace lea nabili y: p edic abili y, syn hesizabili y, amilia i y, gene alizabili y, and consis ency. Ellio e al. (2002) ound ou ac o s ha de e mine he lea nabili y o a sys em: anspa ency o ope a ion, anspa ency o pu pose, accommoda ion o he use , and he sense o accomplishmen . The wo i s elemen s a e de e mined by he use in e ace design and, acco ding o Ellio e al., (2002), he accommoda ion o he use and he sense o accomplishmen ollow hem causally. Applying hese p inciples o use in e ace design helps in designing sys ems ha a e easy o lea n. Howe e , o imp o e lea nabili y, he co espondence be ween he sys em and use s’ expec a ions mus be analyzed oo, as expec a ions ha e a ema kable e ec on lea ning. Use s’ expec a ions may co e he scope, unde lying concep s, and basic unc ionali y o he sys em. Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 205 Kellogg and B een (1987) among o he s, ha e s a ed ha di e ences be ween he use s’ expec a ions and he ac ual sys em can cause lea ning di icul ies. I decided o use he heo y o men al models as a basis o analyzing hese di e ences. Men al models a e in e nal ep esen a ions o en i ies wi h which we in e ac . Acco ding o Fein, Olson, and Olson (1993), a men al model o a compu e ized sys em may con ain in o ma ion on he sys em unc ionali y, componen s o he sys em, ela ed p ocesses, and hei in e ela ions. Fein e al. (1993) w i e ha lea ning can be iewed as a p ocess in which he use p ocesses in o ma ion and he eby his o he men al model is changed. Acco ding o Shayo and Ol man (1998), a use ’s men al model helps him o he o plan how o in e ac wi h he sys em, in e p e he beha io o he sys em, and pe o m co ec ly when p oblems occu . As he goal o his s udy was o p o ide ools o make he lea ning p ocess as e , I needed o analyze he en i e lea ning p ocess, om he i s in e ac ion wi h he sys em, h ough he aining p ocess, and in o he pos - aining phase. In his s udy, I paid special a en ion o he aining a angemen s, as changes in aining a e a a he quick and easy way o imp o e lea nabili y. To analyze he e ec o aining, i is use ul o know some hing abou he human lea ning p ocess and di e en lea ning heo ies. Mul iple heo ies o lea ning exis , de eloped by di e en schools o scien is s. The cu en HCI (human-compu e in e ac ion) esea ch has ended o adop a cogni i e pe spec i e on lea ning (Ellio e al., 2002). Cogni i e heo is s s ess he impo ance o in e nal hough p ocesses and men al s uc u es, as opposed o beha io al scien is s’ emphasis on beha io al pa e ns, ein o cemen , and condi ioning. In his s udy, I adop ed a cogni i e pe spec i e o lea ning and adjus ed i wi h he ideas p esen ed by cons uc i is s. Cons uc i ism is based on cogni i e science, and cogni i e scien is s and cons uc i is s see lea ning a he simila ly. Acco ding o cons uc i is s, lea ning can be de ined as a p ocess o building and eo ganizing men al s uc u es. Cons uc i ism also s a es ha knowledge is ne e independen o he lea ne and he lea ning con ex . The lea ne combines new in o ma ion wi h his o he exis ing knowledge o o m a mo e accu a e model o he subjec (Ma on & Boo h, 1997). This iew o lea ning is closely ela ed o he heo y o men al models, as bo h s ess he impo ance o changes in a human’s in e nal knowledge s uc u es. I saw he cons uc i is lea ning heo y combined wi h he concep o men al models as a good basis o analyzing he lea ning p ocess and he e ec o aining. In his s udy, I concen a ed on analyzing he h ee aspec s o lea nabili y ha we e men ioned abo e: use in e ace design; di e ences be ween use s’ expec a ions and he sys em, which can be analyzed h ough he heo y o men al models; and he e ec o aining on he lea ning p ocess. These aspec s a e la e e e ed o as use in e ace, con o mi y o use ’s expec a ions, and aining. Figu e 1 illus a es his app oach o lea nabili y. Figu e 1. A de ini ion o lea nabili y and he aspec s add essed in his s udy. Lea nabili y = How quickly and com o ably a new use can begin e icien and e o - ee in e ac ion wi h he sys em Use in e ace Con o mi y o use 's expec a ions T aining Linja-aho 206 THE BUILDING MODELING SYSTEM In his s udy, I analyzed he lea nabili y o he Tekla S uc u es p og am, a building modeling sys em ha has been de eloped by he Tekla Co po a ion. The p ima y use s o he Tekla S uc u es sys em a e s uc u al enginee s. Wi h Tekla S uc u es, s uc u al enginee s can c ea e a h ee-dimensional model o s eel and conc e e pa s, connec ions, and o he de ails o a building. S uc u al analysis can be done using he in o ma ion con ained in he model. The sys em is e y complex in ha i p o ides a wide selec ion o unc ionali y and suppo s complex ask lows and objec s uc u es. My expec a ion in unde aking a case s udy on he Tekla S uc u es p og am is ha i would p o ide in o ma ion ha could be used o imp o e he lea nabili y o his pa icula sys em as well as be used as a e e ence when imp o ing he lea nabili y o o he complex sys ems. A ypical use in e ace s a e o he Tekla S uc u es sys em is shown in Figu e 2. Figu e 2. Use in e ace o he Tekla S uc u es sys em. (Model by An i Pekkala, A-Insinöö i , 2003) Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 207 To suppo lea ning, he Tekla Co po a ion o ganizes a h ee-day aining cou se. Howe e , because o he complexi y o he sys em, only a small subse o i s ea u es can be add essed in he aining and he lea ning pe iod con inues a e he o mal aining. Imp o ing lea nabili y would esul in a desi ed educ ion in he lea ning ime. The aining cou se was a good oppo uni y o obse e he beginning o he lea ning p ocess. I also obse ed and in e iewed use s be o e and a e he aining. I desc ibe hese esea ch ac i i ies in he ollowing sec ion. RESEARCH METHODS The pu pose o he empi ical lea nabili y esea ch was o iden i y he ac o s ha a ec he lea nabili y o he Tekla S uc u es sys em and o de elop ways o imp o e lea nabili y. This esea ch was sp ead o e a 3-mon h pe iod in o de o ob ain in o ma ion on di e en phases o he lea ning p ocess. Six no ice use s who had an enginee ing o echnical d awing backg ound we e chosen as subjec s. Two o hem had wo ked in he building-modeling domain o only a ew mon hs, wo o hem o abou 2 yea s, and wo o hem o mo e han 20 yea s. All o hem had some expe ience wi h CAD (compu e -aided design) sys ems bu i e o hem had no expe ience wi h Tekla S uc u es and one o hem had ied he sys em o only a day. Fou esea ch me hods we e used a di e en phases o his s udy in o de o collec e sa ile in o ma ion and o cap u e as many di e en issues a ec ing lea nabili y as possible. The ou esea ch me hods a e p esen ed in he ollowing sec ions. The choice o he esea ch me hods was highly dependen on he de ini ion o lea nabili y p esen ed in he beginning o his a icle. I wan ed o add ess bo h he objec i e and subjec i e ace s o lea nabili y and o obse e how e icien and e o - ee he use s could be in pe o ming asks wi h he sys em in each lea ning phase. P e-T aining In e iews The pu pose o his esea ch me hod was o acqui e in o ma ion on he men al models ha use s had be o e in e ac ing wi h he sys em. This in o ma ion is use ul because di e ences be ween use s’ men al models and he sys em may explain lea ning di icul ies. An in e iew me hod simila o he one employed in his s udy was used by Dyks a- E ickson and Cu bow (1997). They s udied he lea nabili y o a documen managemen pla o m called OpenDoc. In he in e iews ha hey conduc ed, hey asked use s o commen on use in e ace p o o ypes. Thei goal was o add ess use s’ expec a ions on how o use ce ain sys em ea u es. In his s udy, he six subjec s we e in e iewed indi idually and in-pe son o abou 45 minu es. In e iews we e conduc ed du ing a wo-week pe iod be o e he aining. Du ing he in e iews, he use in e ace o he Tekla S uc u es sys em was shown o he use s and ques ions we e asked abou he use in e ace elemen s. Subjec s we e also asked how hey expec ed ce ain basic modeling asks o be pe o med. They we e allowed o es some p ocedu es b ie ly wi h he sys em and commen on hem. In e iew ques ions included, as a sample, he ollowing: • Which icons do you ind amilia ? Wha do you hink he o he s ep esen ? Linja-aho 208 • Which do you expec o be he bigges di e ences be ween his sys em and he so wa e you used be o e? • How would you s a c ea ing columns and beams? • How do you hink you can copy and mi o elemen s? • How do you expec changes in he model o a ec d awings? The in e iews we e audio eco ded. The commen s we e ansc ibed o a w i en o m a e he in e iew. The in e iew language was Finnish and I ansla ed use s’ commen s in o English o his a icle. T aining Obse a ion A basic aining cou se o ganized o new use s was obse ed o acqui e in o ma ion on he beginning o he lea ning p ocess. The pu pose was o see which unc ions we e di icul o lea n, wha kind o p oblems use s aced when lea ning o use he sys em, wha aining me hods we e used, and how aining a ec ed he lea ning esul s. T aining obse a ion as a me hod o s udying lea nabili y has no been widely discussed in li e a u e. Howe e , i has been men ioned by Ka n, Pe y, and K olczyk (1997) as one me hod o collec ing lea nabili y da a. Because aining sessions a e o ganized egula ly o new Tekla S uc u es use s, aining obse a ion was an easily a anged and e icien me hod o e alua ing lea nabili y. The aining cou se ha I obse ed las ed 3 days. All six use s who a ended he aining cou se had been in e iewed p io o he cou se. The aining cou se consis ed o demons a ions gi en by he ins uc o and exe cises ha he subjec s pe o med acco ding o he ins uc ions in he aining ma e ial. The aining ma e ial was a ailable in bo h p in ed and elec onic o m. The ins uc o helped he subjec s wi h he p oblems hey aced while doing he exe cises. I obse ed he six subjec s while hey pe o med he exe cises and ook no es on an obse a ion empla e, which was a able wi h he ollowing columns: • main opics co e ed in he aining (which co esponded o chap e s in he aining ma e ial) • ime ha was spen wi h each main opic • sub opics co e ed in he aining (co esponded o subsec ions in he aining ma e ial) • eaching me hods • concep s ha we e explained • concep s ha we e no explained • e e ences in he aining ma e ial o addi ional lea ning esou ces ( he e e ences we e a ailable as links in he elec onic e sion o he aining ma e ial) • ques ions ha he subjec s asked • beha io s o he subjec s. Usabili y Tes s The pu pose o he scena io-based usabili y es s was o assess he ou come o he aining and he sel -lea ning phase ha ollowed. The es s we e expec ed o e eal issues ha a e p oblema ic o new use s. Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 215 Figu e 3. O e iew o lea nabili y ac o s. Fac o s Rela ed o he Use In e ace The suppo ing da a o he ac o s ela ed o he use in e ace a ose om si ua ions in which he use in e ace was misleading o no unde s andable. Some o hese ac o s a e amilia om usabili y checklis s (e.g., Nielsen, 1993). Howe e , he ac o s in my classi ica ion concen a e speci ically on he issues ha a e impo an o a no ice use . I is indica ed in Table 8 how many o he 237 obse a ions suppo each o he ac o s. A summa y o he suppo ing obse a ions is p esen ed as well. Each ac o is p esen ed in mo e de ail below. Table 8. Lea nabili y Fac o s and Obse a ions Rela ed o he Use In e ace. Lea nabili y ac o # o obse a ions Summa y o obse a ions Visibili y o ope a ions 68 Subjec s had p oblems inding commands ha we e no clea ly isible nea he objec wi h which hey we e in e ac ing. In addi ion, he subjec s did no necessa ily emembe command names o loca ions o commands in he use in e ace. Feedback 23 Subjec s we e o en unsu e abou whe he hey succeeded wi h a ce ain ope a ion in he absence o a con i ma i e eedback message. They would also ha e needed eedback abou he cu en sys em s a e. Con inui y o ask sequences 16 Discon inui ies in ask sequences we e p oblema ic o he subjec s. They o en did no ecognize he way o p oceed and, as a esul , ailed o comple e he ask. Design con en ions 14 Use in e ace elemen s ha we e designed con en ionally we e easy o unde s and bu uncon en ional ones caused p oblems. In o ma ion p esen a ion 45 G aphical p esen a ions o ields wi hou explana ions caused p oblems o he subjec s. Use assis ance 10 In many p oblema ic si ua ions ha we e obse ed in he aining and lea nabili y es s, use s sough p ope ly designed use assis ance o help hem o e come he p oblem. E o p e en ion 6 A la ge po ion o he obse ed e o s we e made by many, and in some cases all, o he six subjec s. Lea nabili y = How quickly and com o ably a new use can begin e icien and e o - ee in e ac ion wi h he sys em Use in e ace Con o mi y o use 's expec a ions T aining Visibili y o ope a ions Feedback Con inui y o ask sequences Design con en ions In o ma ion p esen a ion Use assis ance E o p e en ion Di e ences in unc ionali y Di e ences in in e ac ion s yles Concep cla i y Comple eness o in o ma ion Concep ual in o ma ion Exce cises Ins uc ions o basic in e ac ion Ins uc ions o sol ing p oblems Mo i a ional con en Co e age o sys em unc ionali y Ma e ial ypes Linja-aho 216 • Visibili y o ope a ions. An essen ial equi emen o a lea nable use in e ace is he isibili y o possible ope a ions. Whe eas expe use s can ely on expe ience, no ice use s mus deduce possible ope a ions and inpu s om he hin s gi en by he in e ace. • Feedback. Feedback is use ul o expe ienced use s bu especially impo an o no ices. They need eedback on he esul s o ope a ions and he sys em’s s a e. • Con inui y o ask sequences. A desi able si ua ion is ha when use s s a a command om a menu o by clicking on an icon hey a e di ec ed by he sys em un il he desi ed end esul is eached. Use s should no be equi ed o jump om one menu i em o dialog box o ano he while pe o ming a single ask. • Design con en ions. I design con en ions a e ollowed, use s can easily g asp he meaning and usage o one p og am’s elemen s om hose hey ha e seen in o he applica ions. Design con en ions a ise om use in e ace s anda ds and he mos common o ice, Web, o domain-speci ic so wa e. • In o ma ion p esen a ion. No ice use s need mo e de ailed desc ip ions o commands, inpu ields, and image de ails han expe s do. Special a en ion should be gi en o he amoun and cla i y o in o ma ion as well. • Use assis ance. The sys em should ins uc he use and p o ide addi ional in o ma ion on he use in e ace elemen s and he ela ed asks. Cu en echnologies allow use assis ance o exis as pa o he use in e ace a he han as a sepa a e help sys em. • E o p e en ion. A la ge po ion o he mos common e o s could be p e en ed by making small changes in he use in e ace. In gene al, he mos common causes o e o s can be iden i ied by obse ing new use s in e ac ing wi h he sys em. Fac o s Rela ed o Con o mi y o Use ’s expec a ions The lea nabili y ac o s in his g oup e lec he e ec o di e ences be ween he use s’ exis ing men al models and he ac ual sys em. These di e ences may cause lea ning di icul ies. The e iden ial da a o hese lea nabili y ac o s a ose om si ua ions in which he subjec s expec ed he sys em o unc ion di e en ly han i did, and he e o e aced p oblems. In hose si ua ions, he subjec s had o med hei men al model mainly on he basis o a sys em hey had used ea lie . The numbe s o obse a ions suppo ing each lea nabili y ac o as well as summa ies o he obse a ions a e p esen ed in Table 9. Nex , each ac o is hen desc ibed in mo e de ail. Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 217 Table 9. Lea nabili y Fac o s and Obse a ions Rela ed o he Sys em S uc u e. Lea nabili y ac o # o obse a ions Summa y o obse a ions Di e ences in unc ionali y 9 When he subjec s desc ibed hei expec a ions o new so wa e, i u ned ou ha hey based hei expec a ions on hei expe iences wi h so wa e hey a e amilia wi h. Di e ences in he unc ionali y be ween he old and new so wa e caused p oblems o he subjec s. Di e ences in in e ac ion s yles 16 I could be deduced om he subjec s’ commen s ha men al models conce ning in e ac ion s yles we e based on he subjec s’ expe iences wi h o he applica ions, mos commonly o ice so wa e o ope a ing sys ems. Subjec s expec ed in e ac ion s yles o be domain-independen . Concep cla i y 30 Concep s ha had no been used elsewhe e caused p oblems unless hey we e e y sel -explana o y, communica ed clea ly in he use in e ace, and con ained amilia e minology. Comple eness o in o ma ion 60 Lack o in o ma ion abou he use in e ace elemen s, sys em concep s, and causes and e ec s o ope a ions caused di icul ies wi h using he sys em. • Di e ences in unc ionali y. The unc ionali y o di e en so wa e applica ions na u ally a ies. Usually, i is no desi able o a oid hose di e ences; ins ead, use s should be suppo ed in lea ning he new unc ionali y. • Di e ences in in e ac ion s yles. In e ac ion s yles o a ious so wa e applica ions also a y. Some o his a ia ion may be necessa y because o he di e en na u e o he applica ions; howe e , some o i is a oidable. Designing he so wa e so ha i suppo s common in e ac ion s yles makes he so wa e easie o lea n. • Concep cla i y. When s a ing o use a new so wa e applica ion, he use usually needs o lea n new concep s. To suppo lea ning, new concep s should be communica ed clea ly wi h amilia and unde s andable e minology. • Comple eness o in o ma ion. The change in use ’s men al model can be acili a ed by p o iding enough in o ma ion abou use in e ace elemen s, concep s ha a e p esen in he sys em, and causes and e ec s o ope a ions. Fac o s Rela ed o T aining In his sec ion, aining ac o s ha we e no iced o a ec lea nabili y a e p esen ed. The in o ma ion was ex ac ed om he aining obse a ion and commen s ha he subjec s made in he usabili y es s a e he aining. When designing aining cou ses o suppo lea ning as bes as possible, hese issues should be conside ed. The numbe o obse a ions suppo ing each o he ac o s and a summa y o he obse a ions a e p esen ed in Table 10. Each ac o is hen desc ibed in mo e de ail nex . Linja-aho 218 Table 10. Lea nabili y Fac o s and Obse a ions Rela ed o T aining. Lea nabili y ac o # o obse a ions Summa y o obse a ions Concep ual in o ma ion 45 Missing concep ual in o ma ion made he subjec s ace p oblems when comple ing asks. Exe cises 44 Se e al subjec s commen ed ha hey lea n bes by comple ing exe cises. Howe e , comple ing a ask acco ding o s ep-by-s ep ins uc ions p o ided did no always lead o a pe sis en lea ning esul . Ins uc ions o basic in e ac ion 14 Subjec s we e no amilia wi h all he basic in e ac ion s a egies e en a e he aining, which caused p oblems. Ins uc ions o sol ing p oblems 16 Subjec s we e no e y well p epa ed o sol ing p oblems hemsel es bu asked o ex e nal help when acing p oblems. Mo i a ional con en 3 I could be deduced om he subjec s’ commen s ha hey we e weighing he ad an ages o lea ning he so wa e agains he e o spen using i . Co e age o unc ionali y 9 Some asks ha a e cen al o use s’ wo k had ecei ed only a li le a en ion in he aining and hus he subjec s had p oblems wi h pe o ming hem in usabili y es s. Ma e ial ypes 13 Se e al obse a ions conce ning he app op ia eness o di e en ma e ial ypes we e made. Use s’ opinions on he use ulness o di e en ma e ial ypes a ied in di e en phases o he lea ning p ocess. • Concep ual in o ma ion. Concep ual in o ma ion helps he use o build a e ised men al model o he sys em. Fo skill lea ning, me e memo iza ion o p ocedu es is no enough; i is desi able ha one uly unde s ands he p ocedu e on a concep ual le el as well. The e o e, concep ual in o ma ion should be included in he aining p ocess. • Exe cises. Fo skill lea ning, i is necessa y o p ac ice ope a ions by comple ing exe cises. Howe e , he na u e o he exe cises also ma e s. T aining should con ain exe cises ha encou age use s o p ocess new in o ma ion and o apply i o new si ua ions. • Ins uc ions o basic in e ac ion. Teaching basic in e ac ion s a egies ho oughly in he aining will aise p oduc i i y du ing he pos - aining lea ning pe iod. This is because use s will no need o spend ime wi h simple in e ac ion p oblems. • Ins uc ions o sol ing p oblems. Use s will usually ace p oblems when s a ing wi h a new so wa e applica ion. To mode a e his, use s should be equipped wi h p oblem sol ing skills du ing aining. This would help hem o use he applica ion compe en ly and independen ly when no ins uc o is a ailable o help. • Mo i a ional con en . Mo i a ional con en is impo an because i a ec s he lea ning beha io o use s bo h du ing and a e he aining. Mo i a ional con en encou ages he use s o de o e e o o lea ning mo e pe sis en ly. • Co e age o unc ionali y. T aining should concen a e on he sys em unc ions ha a e essen ial o he use s. This can be done only a e ca e ully analyzing use needs. • Ma e ial ypes. The ype o he ma e ial ha is used in aining and p o ided o addi ional suppo should be ca e ully conside ed. The quali y o he ma e ial also na u ally a ec s use s’ pe cep ion o i s app op ia eness. Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 219 Lea nabili y Guidelines Based on he obse a ions and he lea nabili y ac o s, 64 guidelines o imp o ing lea nabili y we e c ea ed. They co e issues ela ed o he use in e ace, con o mi y o use ’s expec a ions, and aining. The guidelines a e p esen ed nex . Guidelines Rela ed o he Use In e ace Al oge he , 28 guidelines we e o mula ed o imp o ing he lea nabili y o he use in e ace. The guidelines a e p esen ed in Table 11, and can be used as a checklis when designing new use in e ace elemen s. Exis ing pa s o he use in e ace can also be compa ed agains he Table 11. Guidelines Rela ed o he Use In e ace. Fac o Lea nabili y guidelines 1.1 Place ela ed ope a ions wi hin he same loca ion. 1.2 Make all con ols isible. 1.3 Dis inguish isually he i ems ha canno be used in a ce ain si ua ion. 1.4 Suppo di ec manipula ion. 1.5 Di ec he use o gi e he igh inpu . Visibili y o ope a ions 1.6 A oid modes, o i ha is no possible, hen indica e he mode clea ly. 2.1 P o ide a sys em esponse when he use pe o ms an ac ion. 2.2 P o ide a di ec i e sys em eedback i he use ies o pe o m an ope a ion ha is no possible in a ce ain si ua ion. Feedback 2.3 Indica e he exis ence o hidden in o ma ion. 3.1 P o ide links be ween he di e en s eps o a ask. 3.2 In eg a e he asks i hey need o be comple ed sequen ially. Con inui y o ask sequences 3.3 Make he basic s eps o a ask easily isible and do no complica e hem wi h ad anced op ions. 4.1 Use con ols ha a e amilia om o he applica ions. 4.2 Use amilia ask sequences o ope a ions ha a e no domain speci ic. Design con en ions 4.3 P o ide empla es o di ec he use o he desi ed design s yle. 5.1 O ganize menus so ha hey suppo use asks. 5.2 Design desc ip i e labels. 5.3 A oid sys em-o ien ed symbols o abb e ia ions. In o ma ion p esen a ion 5.4 A oid any unnecessa y in o ma ion. 6.1 P o ide in o ma ion on exis ing objec s. 6.2 In o m he use abou e o s. 6.3 Gi e ins uc ions o sol ing a p oblem. 6.4 Design clea ins uc ional ex s. 6.5 P o ide ad anced and beginne modes. 6.6 P o ide se e al o ms o use assis ance. Use assis ance 6.7 In eg a e use assis ance in o he sys em in e ace. 7.1 Au oma e ope a ions ha do no equi e use ac ion. E o p e en ion 7.2 Change e o s o al e na i e pa hs o ope a ion. Linja-aho 220 guidelines and necessa y adjus men s can be made. Na u ally, applying he guidelines equi es ca e ul conside a ion o he use in e ace elemen s in ques ion and possibly some expe ise in human-compu e in e ac ion. Guidelines Rela ed o Con o mi y o Use ’s Expec a ions Ten guidelines conce ning con o mi y o use ’s expec a ions we e o mula ed and hey a e summa ized in Table 12. The guidelines can be e e ed o when designing new ea u es o in oducing new concep s o he sys em. The guidelines add ess he issues ha may a ec he adap a ion o use s’ men al models. As hese guidelines a e ela ed o he sys em’s s uc u e, unde lying concep s, and basic unc ionali y, hey mus be aken in o accoun ea ly in he sys em de elopmen p ocess. The p oblem wi h c ea ing guidelines o he lea nabili y ac o Di e ences in Func ionali y was ha hose di e ences can seldom be a oided. The e y eason o ha e a new so wa e applica ion is ha i mee s dis inc needs no me by o he so wa e applica ions. The e o e, i is desi able o make he new so wa e applica ion di e en om o he s. Cla i y in ins uc ion can help b idge he di e ences be ween he o me men al model and he new men al model. Table 12. Guidelines Rela ed o Con o mi y o Use ’s Expec a ions. Fac o Lea nabili y guidelines Di e ences in unc ionali y 1 Do no a oid in oducing new kinds o unc ionali y bu assis he use in lea ning hem. 2.1 Follow design con en ions o con ols and ask sequences. 2.2 Allow he use o in e ac wi h objec s as in o he simila so wa e applica ions. Di e ences in in e ac ion s yles 2.3 Use menu i les ha a e amilia om o he so wa e applica ions. 3.1 Use e minology ha is amilia om he eal wo ld o o he so wa e applica ions. 3.2 A oid e minology ha may be cause inco ec associa ions. 3.3 A oid sys em-o ien ed e minology. Concep cla i y 3.4 Cla i y concep s wi h symbols and images. 4.1 P o ide explana ions o new concep s in he in e ace. Comple eness o in o ma ion 4.2 Help he use o pe o m ac ions. Guidelines Rela ed o T aining Table 13 summa izes he 26 lea nabili y guidelines ela ed o aining ha we e o mula ed on he basis o he obse a ions. They a e expec ed o co e he aining issues ha ha e he mos signi ican e ec on lea ning esul s. The con en s and o ganiza ion o exis ing aining se ups can be compa ed agains he guidelines o ind he necessa y adjus men s. T aining sessions di e om each o he in e ms o he ype and numbe o pa icipan s, he du a ion o he aining, he complexi y o he subjec , p ac ical and physical a angemen s, as well as many o he dimensions. The e o e, some o he guidelines p esen ed he e a e in en ionally le on a a he abs ac le el. They p esen issues ha should be checked o assu e e ec i e aining bu he aining o ganize mus also adap hem, as needed, o ind he bes solu ion o each aining con ex . Imp o ing he Lea nabili y o a Complex Sys em 221 Table 13. Guidelines Rela ed o T aining. Fac o Lea nabili y guidelines 1.1 Cla i y he meaning o un amilia e ms. 1.2 Explain he ela ionship be ween concep s. Concep ual in o ma ion 1.3 Cla i y he unde lying p inciples ha de e mine how he sys em is used. 2.1 In oduce he basic o m o an ope a ion and equi e he lea ne o apply i o new si ua ions. 2.2 Encou age he lea ne o ac i ely p ocess he in o ma ion. 2.3 S a e he goal o each exe cise clea ly. Exe cises 2.4 S a e he condi ions in which he ope a ion can be pe o med. 3.1 Demons a e how o in e ac wi h objec s. 3.2 Demons a e how o adjus he basic se ings. Ins uc ions o basic in e ac ion 3.3 Demons a e how o use he basic con ols. 4.1 Ins uc abou he a ailable documen a ion. 4.2 Demons a e how o use he documen a ion. 4.3 Ins uc how o con ac suppo pe sonnel. Ins uc ions o sol ing p oblems 4.4 Add ess he mos common causes o e o . 5.1 Summa ize he con en s o he aining a he beginning o he session. 5.2 Concen a e on p ac ical issues ha each lea ne will need in his/he wo k. Mo i a ional con en 5.3 Follow up wi h lea ne s, i possible. 6.1 Ge o know he lea ne s and hei needs. 6.2 Adjus he ma e ial o co e all he co e asks. Co e age o unc ionali y 6.3 Adjus he ime ha is spen on each co e ask acco ding o he di icul y and impo ance o he ask. 7.1 P o ide help ha is in eg a ed in o he use in e ace and can be easily accessed om wi hin he sys em. 7.2 P o ide p in ed ma e ial o dual moni o s in aining. 7.3 P o ide a limi ed amoun o ma e ial o be co e ed in de ail, and supplemen al ma e ial o be e e ed o la e . 7.4 Design a clea layou o ma e ial. 7.5 P o ide ma e ial in he na i e language o he lea ne , i possible. Ma e ial ypes 7.6 P o ide sea ch possibili ies o digi al ma e ial. Compa ing he Lea nabili y Fac o s and Guidelines o P e ious Resea ch Se e al classi ica ions exis on he ac o s ha a ec he usabili y o a sys em. In many o hose s udies, lea nabili y is seen as a sub ac o o usabili y. Howe e , he classi ica ions o ac o s a ec ing lea nabili y a e less common. My lea nabili y guidelines and he usabili y guidelines ha ha e been p esen ed in he li e a u e ha e some issues in common. Fo example, I ha e E o P e en ion in he lis o use in e ace ela ed lea nabili y ac o s, and Nielsen (1993) includes i in his lis o usabili y heu is ics. One o my use in e ace- ela ed lea nabili y ac o s is Visibili y o Ope a ions, whe eas Nielsen s esses he isibili y o sys em s a us in his heu is ics. Howe e , he classi ica ions o usabili y a ibu es seldom add ess he issues ha I ha e in he ca ego ies o Con o mi y o Use ’s Expec a ions and T aining. In he beginning o his a icle, I discussed how usabili y has been di ided in o suba ibu es by Nielsen (1993), Dix e Linja-aho 222 al. (1998), and Lin e al. (1997). All o hese esea che s concen a e on a ibu es o he use in e ace and no on use ’s expec a ions o aining. The e may be si ua ions in which aining is no a ailable and i is no possible o change he unde lying sys em concep s o co espond o use ’s expec a ions. Then, i may be su icien o e alua e only he e ec o use in e ace on lea ning. Howe e , in mos cases, i is bene icial o ake a mul i ace ed iew o he lea ning p ocess and add ess also use ’s expec a ions and aining, as has been done in his s udy. Ne e heless, he classi ica ions o usabili y a ibu es p esen ed in he li e a u e and my classi ica ion o ac o s a ec ing lea nabili y do no con adic each o he , bu a he , in ac , a e complemen a y. My de ailed classi ica ion can be used o analyze he lea nabili y o complex sys ems co esponding o he building modeling sys em, and o iden i y ways o imp o e lea nabili y. Gene al usabili y classi ica ions, such as he one p esen ed by Nielsen (1993), can be applied o a wide ange o sys ems om consume p oduc s o so wa e applica ions, as i has been le on a mo e gene al le el han he classi ica ion p esen ed in his a icle. CONCLUSIONS In his pape , 18 ac o s a ec ing he lea nabili y o a building modeling sys em ha e been p esen ed. These ac o s can be used as a gene al amewo k o unde s anding he lea nabili y o his sys em. In addi ion, 64 guidelines o imp o ing lea nabili y ha e been in oduced. By ollowing hese guidelines in sys em de elopmen and aining, he lea nabili y o he building modeling sys em can be imp o ed. Th oughou he s udy, h ee aspec s in luencing lea nabili y we e add essed: he use in e ace, con o mi y o use ’s expec a ions, and aining. Lea nabili y s udies ha e o en concen a ed on he e ec o he use in e ace, bu I belie e ha a classi ica ion add essing he o he wo dis inc aspec s o lea nabili y as well helps o imp o e he lea ning p ocess and sys em lea nabili y as a whole. The classi ica ion o lea nabili y ac o s and guidelines was based on a body o empi ical da a collec ed ia se e al esea ch me hods. The classi ica ion was c ea ed wi h he g ounded heo y me hod ha is in ended o c ea ing a heo y ha i s he a ailable se o da a. The classi ica ion should ha e p ac ical ele ance o o he de elope s o complex sys ems as well. The lea nabili y ac o s and guidelines can be used as a e e ence when analyzing and imp o ing he lea nabili y o any sys ems. Howe e , i mus be no ed ha he ac o s and guidelines a e based on he empi ical da a conce ning a building modeling sys em. Thus, some o he ac o s and guidelines may no e en apply o a sys em whose scope di e s adically om he scope o he building modeling sys em I s udied. Fu he mo e, he emphasis pu on he di e en ac o s and guidelines may a y o di e en sys ems. Howe e , he g ounded heo y me hodology ha was used o analyzing he lea nabili y o a building modeling sys em can be applied o o he sys ems as well. This would p oduce co esponding classi ica ions o lea nabili y ac o s and guidelines ha ake in o accoun he pa icula i ies o each sys em. I expec ha he esul s conce ning lea nabili y a e o in e es no only o sys em de elope s bu also o he body o HCI esea che s. 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Mahwah, NJ: Law ence E lbaum Associa es. Nielsen, J. (1993). Usabili y enginee ing. San F ancisco: Mo gan Kau mann. Paymans, T. F., Lindenbe g, J., & Nee incx, M. (2004). Usabili y ade-o s o adap i e use in e aces: Ease o use and lea nabili y. In J. Vande donck , N. Nunes, & C. Rich (Eds.), P oceedings o he 9 h in e na ional con e ence on in elligen use in e ace (pp. 301–303). New Yo k: ACM P ess. Rieman, J., Lewis, C., Young, R. M., & Polson, P. G. (1994). Why is a a en like a w i ing desk? Lessons in in e ace consis ency and analogical easoning om wo cogni i e a chi ec u es. In B. Adelson, S. Dumais, & J. Olson (Eds.), P oceedings o he SIGCHI [Special In e es G oup on Compu e -Human Linja-aho 224 In e ac ion] con e ence on human ac o s in compu ing sys ems: Celeb a ing in e dependence (pp. 438– 444). New Yo k: ACM P ess. Robe s, T. L., & Mo an, T. P. (1983). The e alua ion o ex edi o s: Me hodology and empi ical esul s. Communica ions o he ACM, 26, 265–283. Sal e , W. J. (1988). Human ac o s in knowledge acquisi ion. In M. Helande (Ed.), Handbook o human- compu e in e ac ion (pp. 957–968). Ams e dam: Else ie Science Publishe s B.V. San os, P. J., & Bad e, A. N. (1995). Discoun lea nabili y e alua ion. G aphics, Visualiza ion & Usabili y Cen e , Geo gia Ins i u e o Technology. Re ie ed Decembe 2, 2004, om p:// p.g u.ga ech.edu/pub/g u/ /1995/95-30.pd Shayo, C., & Ol man, L. (1998). The ole o concep ual models in o mal so wa e aining. In R. Aga wal (Ed.), P oceedings o he 1998 con e ence on compu e pe sonnel esea ch (pp. 242–253). New Yo k: ACM P ess. Sinkkonen, I. (2000). Things ha acili a e lea ning in p oduc s. Unpublished licen ia e hesis, Helsinki Uni e si y o Technology, Espoo, Finland. Whi eside, J., Jones, S., Le y, P., & Wixon, D. (1985). Use pe o mance wi h command, menu, and iconic in e aces. In L. Bo man & R. Smi h (Eds.), P oceedings o he SIGCHI [Special In e es G oup on Compu e -Human In e ac ion] con e ence on human ac o s in compu ing sys ems (pp. 185–191). New Yo k: ACM P ess. Au ho ’s No e I hank all he employees a Tekla Co po a ion who ga e hei inpu in o he esea ch p ojec . I also hank he pa icipan s o he empi ical esea ch. In addi ion, I p esen hanks o he esea che s a he Helsinki Uni e si y o Technology o he discussions ha con ibu ed o he w i ing o his pape . All co espondence should be add essed o: Min u Linja-aho Tekla Co po a ion P.O.Box 1 FI-02131 Espoo, FINLAND min u.linj[email p o ec ed]m Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i TAM o Use ul and Fun In o ma ion Sys ems 231 The esea ch model shown in Figu e 1 was es ed by mul iple eg ession analysis using SPSS 11. This is consis en wi h me hods used in simila p e ious s udies, such as Da is e al. (1992) and Moon and Kim (2001). The esul s a e shown in Table 2. Consis en wi h Hypo hesis 1, a posi i e ela ionship was ound be ween pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed enjoymen . Pe cei ed enjoymen and pe cei ed use ulness bo h impac posi i ely on in en ion o use, which p o ides suppo o Hypo heses 2 and 4. A posi i e ela ionship was ound be ween pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed use ulness, which is consis en wi h Hypo hesis 5. No posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and in en ion o use was ound, meaning no suppo was ound o Hypo hesis 3. To p o ide quan i a i e es ima es o he ela ionships be ween in en ion, pe cei ed ease o use, use ulness, and enjoymen , a pa h analysis o he pa h diag am shown in Figu e 2 was conduc ed. Figu e 3 shows he pa h coe icien s ha we e compu ed. Since hese coe icien s a e s anda dized, i is possible o compa e hem di ec ly (B yman & C ame , 2005). I can be seen ha pe cei ed use ulness has a s onge e ec on in en ion o use han pe cei ed enjoymen , Table 2. Resul s om unning eg ession analyses o es he hypo heses. Model R2 Be a p S anda d e o Resul 1. PE = PEOU + e o s 0.124 0.352 2.551 0.014 0.661 H1 was suppo ed 2. I = PE + e o s 0.242 0.492 3.831 0.000 0.877 H2 was suppo ed 3. I = PEOU + e o s 0.063 0.251 1.755 0.086 0.975 H3 was no suppo ed 4. I = PU + e o s 0.379 0.616 5.297 0.000 0.794 H4 was suppo ed 5. PU = PEOU + e o s 0.239 0.489 3.805 0.000 0.611 H5 was suppo ed P < 0.05 PE = pe cei ed enjoymen , PEOU = pe cei ed ease o use, PU = pe cei ed use ulness, I = in en ion o use. Pe cei ed Ease o use Pe cei ed use ulness Pe cei ed enjoymen In en ion o use e1 e2 e3 0.872 0.353 0.571 0.700 0.936 -0.153 0.352 0.489 Figu e 3. Accep ance model suppo ed by he analysis including he s anda dized be a pa h coe icien s and e o e ms. Chesney 232 and ha pe cei ed ease o use has a sligh ly nega i e di ec e ec . The indi ec e ec o pe cei ed ease o use is 0.403; he o e all impac is he e o e 0.250. Clea ly an app ecia ion o he in e ening a iables pe cei ed use ulness and pe cei ed enjoymen is essen ial o an unde s anding o he ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and in en ion o use. DISCUSSION Hypo heses 1 (The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed enjoymen ) and 2 (The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed enjoymen and in en ion o use)—abou he ela ionships be ween ease o use, enjoymen , and in en ion, as shown a he bo om o Figu e 2—we e de i ed om o he s udies in ol ing ec ea ional sys ems. Nei he was ejec ed by he esul s o his s udy: Pe cei ed ease o use is signi ican ly ela ed o pe cei ed enjoymen and pe cei ed enjoymen is signi ican ly ela ed o in en ion o use. Hypo heses 3 (The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and in en ion o use), 4 (The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed use ulness and in en ion o use), and 5 (The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed use ulness) all conce n ela ionships p edic ed wi hin he o iginal TAM. Hypo heses 4 and 5 we e con i med: The e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed use ulness and in en ion o use, and he e is a posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed use ulness. Howe e hypo hesis 3 was ejec ed: A posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed ease o use and in en ion o use was no ound. The accep ance model ha hese esul s suppo is shown in Figu e 3. The empi ical da a show ha pe cei ed use ulness does achie e dominan p edic i e alue o e pe cei ed enjoymen and pe cei ed ease o use. Fu he esea ch is needed o see i his esul is eplica ed wi h o he dual sys ems, al hough he inding is consis en wi h Da is e al. (1992). Pe cei ed ease o use loses any di ec impac on in en ion o use bu plays an impo an pa in in luencing pe cei ed use ulness and enjoymen . Clea ly, gi en he s eng h o he e o e ms in Figu e 3, he e a e o he unknown ac o s impac ing in en ion o use, pe cei ed use ulness, and enjoymen , and u he wo k may a emp o iden i y hese. The esul s also sugges ha he e may be alue in explo ing al e na i e ways o make dual sys ems mo e accep able o use s o he han by me ely inc easing ease o use. Inc easing enjoymen is one o hem. Al hough ease o use has an impac on enjoymen , iden i ying he o he ac o s ha impac enjoymen would allow in es iga ion in o whe he hese could be exploi ed o inc ease accep ance. This s udy ag ees wi h he inding o Van de Heijden (2004) ha pu pose o use is impo an in de e mining he ac o s ha p edic accep ance, and ha p og ess in use accep ance models can be made by ocusing on he na u e o use. The g id shown in Figu e 1 is a use ul way o doing his. This s udy has a numbe o limi a ions. Fi s , almos all o he esponden s we e male. Fu u e wo k should epea he s udy wi h a dual sys em ha has an e en gende mix. Second, he sys em s udied is e y di e en om a mo e mains eam sys em, such as a wo d p ocesso , no leas in he echnical abili y o he use . The e o e, u u e wo k should s udy mo e common dual sys ems. Also, his s udy, like many o he s udies, is biased owa d use s o he echnology: The easons o how and why a echnology-minded indi idual migh use a sys em, o iew i s con ex o use, may be qui e dis inc om someone who is less TAM o Use ul and Fun In o ma ion Sys ems 233 echnology-minded. Rela edly, he impo an ac o s in choosing o use a sys em may be di e en om he impo an ac o s in choosing no o use a sys em. These aspec s o use should be conside ed in u u e s udies. Las ly, al hough he esul s a e consis en wi h o he indings, hey canno be applied o pu ely u ili a ian sys ems. Fo ins ance, he esul s do no sugges ha accep ance o p oduc i i y-o ien ed sys ems can be inc eased by adding a un dimension. The sys ems s udied he e we e speci ically used in pa o un and in pa o p oduc i i y; o many use s, he un was as impo an o mo e so ha he p oduc i i y. In any case, ying o inc ease accep ance o u ili a ian sys ems by inc easing enjoymen may encou age use s o spend hei ime on i olous use. ENDNOTE 1. Fo mo e in o ma ion abou Lego Minds o ms see h p://minds o ms.lego.com/ REFERENCES Adams, D. A., Nelson, R. R., & Todd, P. A. (1992). Pe cei ed use ulness, ease o use and usage o in o ma ion echnology: A eplica ion. MIS Qua e ly, 16, 227–247. Ajzen, I. (1991). The heo y o planned beha io . O ganisa ion Beha io and Human Decision P ocesses, 50, 179–211. A kinson, M., & Kydd, C. (1997). Indi idual cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h Wo ld Wide Web use: An empi ical s udy o play ulness and mo i a ion. The Da abase o Ad ances in In o ma ion Sys ems, 28, 53–62. Babin, B. J., Da den, W. R., & G i in, M. (1994). Wo k and/o un: Measu ing hedonic and u ili a ian shopping alue. Jou nal o Consume Resea ch, 20, 644–656. B yman, A., & C ame , D. (2005). Quan i a i e da a analysis wi h SPSS 12 and 13. New Yo k: Rou ledge. Chesney, T. (2004). “o he people bene i . i bene i om hei wo k”: Sha ing gui a abs online. Jou nal o Compu e -Media ed Communica ion, 10(1). A ailable om: h p://jcmc.indiana.edu/ ol10/issue1/chesney.h ml, accessed 17/10/06. Da is, F. D. (1989). Pe cei ed use ulness, pe cei ed ease o use, and use accep ance o in o ma ion echnology. MIS Qua e ly, 13, 319–340. Da is, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Wa shaw, P. R. (1992). Ex insic and in insic mo i a ion o use compu e s in he wo kplace. Jou nal o Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1111–1131. Dennis A., Nelson, R., & Todd, P. A. (1992). Pe cei ed use ulness, ease o use, and usage o in o ma ion. MIS Qua e ly, 16, 227–247. Doll, W. J., Raghuna han, T. S., Lim, J., & Gup a, Y. P. (1995). A con i ma o y ac o analysis o he use in o ma ion sa is ac ion ins umen . In o ma ion Sys ems Resea ch, 6, 177–189. Hend ickson, A. R., Massey, P. D., & C onan, T. P. (1993). On he es - e es eliabili y o pe cei ed use ulness and pe cei ed ease o use scales. MIS Qua e ly, 17, 227–230. Hsu, C., & Lu, H. (2004). Why do people play on-line games? An ex ended TAM wi h social in luences and low expe ience. In o ma ion & Managemen , 41, 853–868. Igba ia, M., Zina elli, N., C agg, P., & Ca aye, A. L. M. (1997). Pe sonal compu ing accep ance ac o s in small i ms: A s uc u al equa ion model. MIS Qua e ly, 21, 279–302. Chesney 234 King, C. V., Fogg, R. J., & Downey, R. G. (1998, Ap il). Mean subs i u ion o missing i ems: Sample size and he e ec i eness o he echnique. Pape p esen ed a he 13 h Annual Mee ing o he Socie y o Indus ial and O ganiza ional Psychology, Dallas, TX. Moon, J., & Kim, Y. (2001). Ex ending he TAM o a Wo ld Wide Web con ex . In o ma ion & Managemen , 38, 217–230. Roge s, E. (1995). Di usion o inno a ions (4 h ed.). New Yo k: The F ee P ess. Sega s, A. H., & G o e , V. (1993). Re-examining pe cei ed ease o use and use ulness: A con i ma o y ac o analysis. MIS Qua e ly, 17, 517–525. S a buck, W. H., & Webs e , J. (1991). When is Play P oduc i e? Accoun ing, Managemen , and In o ma ion Technology, 1, 71–90. Van de Heijden, H. (2004). Use accep ance o hedonic in o ma ion sys ems. MIS Qua e ly, 28, 695–704. Venka esh, V. (1999). C ea ion o a o able use pe cep ions: Explo ing he ole o in insic mo i a ion. MIS Qua e ly, 23, 239–260. Venka esh, V., & B own, S. A. (2001). A longi udinal in es iga ion o pe sonal compu e s in homes: Adop ion de e minan s and eme ging challenges. MIS Qua e ly, 25, 71–102. All co espondence should be add essed o: Thomas Chesney No ingham Uni e si y Business School Jubilee Campus No ingham, UK NG8 1BB homas.chesney@no ingham.ac.uk Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i TAM o Use ul and Fun In o ma ion Sys ems 235 Appendix SURVEY INSTRUMENT 1. Please a e on a scale o one o en how much you a e p og amming obo s because he p og amming i sel is un. 2. Please a e on a scale o one o en how much you iew p og amming as a way o ge ing he job o building obo s done. Pe cei ed use ulness (6 poin Like scale - s ongly ag ee, ag ee, sligh ly ag ee, sligh ly disag ee, disag ee, s ongly disag ee) 1. Using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE enables me o build obo s quickly 2. Using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE imp o es my pe o mance a building obo s 3. Using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE inc eases my p oduc i i y a building obo s 4. Using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE enhances my e ec i eness a building obo s 5. Using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE makes i easy o build obo s 6. I ind my CHOSEN LANGUAGE use ul in building obo s Pe cei ed ease o use (6 poin Like scale - s ongly ag ee, ag ee, sligh ly ag ee, sligh ly disag ee, disag ee, s ongly disag ee) 1. Lea ning o use my CHOSEN LANGUAGE was easy o me 2. I ound i easy o ge my CHOSEN LANGUAGE o do wha I wan i o 3. In e ac ion wi h my CHOSEN LANGUAGE is clea and unde s andable 4. I was easy o me o become skil ul a using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE 5. I ind my CHOSEN LANGUAGE easy o use Pe cei ed enjoymen (6 poin Like scale – esponden s we e asked o selec whe e hei CHOSEN LANGUAGE lies be ween each o he wo e ms) Enjoyable- Disgus ing Exci ing- Dull Pleasan - Unpleasan In e es ing-Bo ing In en ion o use 1. I in end o keep using my CHOSEN LANGUAGE An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s ISSN: 1795-6889 www.human echnology.jyu. i Volume 2 (2), Oc obe 2006, 236–237 236 BOOK REVIEW A anu Ga ai & B. Shad ach (2006). Taking ICT o e e y Indian illage: Oppo uni ies and challenges. New Delhi, India: One Wo ld Sou h Asia; 133 pages. Re iewed by Pe i Saa iluoma Depa men o Compu e Science and In o ma ion Sys ems, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä Finland In o ma ion and communica ion echnology (ICT) ac i i ies can easily be seen as a so o echnoc acy, which is no su p ising because he ocus o a en ion is o en domina ed by issues such as he bandwid h, new de ices, o he ie ce compe i ion be ween echnological companies and hei inno a i e p oduc s. In sho , he discussion o en is es ic ed o Habe masian echnical in e es o knowledge. A he end o he day, howe e , e e y hing in ICT is abou people and, mo e speci ically, abou he emancipa o y applica ion o knowledge o and by he people. This la e pe spec i e on ICT de elopmen comes o he o e in a e y in e es ing and hough -p o oking way in a book by Ga ai and Shad ach, i led Taking ICT o E e y Indian Village. The book discusses ICT de elopmen s in hund eds o housands Indian illages, p esen ed h ough ou somewha independen ex s ha shed ligh on a ious p ac ical and esea ch aspec s o he s a us o ICT in India. The book opens wi h an analysis o Ma ha Nussbaum’s ideas abou cen al human unc ional capaci ies, and how hese ideas ela e o he ision o echnological bene i in India. Nussbaum’s impo an humanis ic goals—such as bodily in eg i y, cogni i e acul ies, emo ions, a ilia ion and con ol o e one’s own en i onmen —need o se e as an essen ial beacon o how echnology should bene i human de elopmen on bo h sides o he digi al di ide. One simply needs o sea ch he Web o any o Nussbaum’s humanis ic hemes o disco e how a some echnological uses ha e s ayed om ob ious bene i o human cogni i e and emo ional de elopmen . In he balance o he book, he au ho s de elop hei hemes h ough assis ing he eade o unde s and he challenges and oppo uni ies o ICTs in India, and h ough good ac ual a gumen a ion. They aise impo an people-cen e ed hemes o echnological use, such as educa ion, heal h, go e nance, communi y, and business. Ga ai and Shad ach p o ide a snapsho o he ICT di usion in a coun y o mo e han a billion people, whe e ICT access is © 2006 Pe i Saa iluoma and he Ago a Cen e , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä URN:NBN: i:jyu-2006526 Book Re iew 237 challenged by he geog aphy, economy, li e acy a e, mul ilingualism, u al po e y, and so on. The abundance o u al illages ha a e qui e socially, economically, poli ically and cul u ally di e se unde sco es he need o ailo ed solu ions o unique si ua ions. Thus he ex p esen s a conc e e pic u e abou he ela ionship be ween esea ch and p ac ice, and i discusses wi h s ong expe ise he i al issues ega ding how echnology is applied in u al— some imes emo e—se ings. As a esul , his book p esen s a good guide o he ICT de elopmen in India—wi h possible implica ions o o he u al and de eloping en i onmen s—encompassing bo h he eali y and he oppo uni ies. The eali ies o u al li e in India, and he implica ions o echnology implemen a ion, equi e solu ions o echnological needs ha , while pe haps qui e di e en om highly echnological socie ies, a e ob iously e y p ac ical o India. Fo example, in o ma ion kiosks a e commonplace in u al a eas, o e ing calling and In e ne se ices o he public, an e ec i e solu ion o make limi ed ICT acili ies accessible o many. The lesson p o ided, o cou se, is he need o echnologies—and, mo e speci ically, echnological solu ions— o con o m o he eali ies o he people in a pa icula se ing and wi h pa icula needs. This book se es well echnology designe s and s a egis s who en ision echnology ha is adap able o and in ha mony wi h he g ea a ia ion in human need and ci cums ances h oughou he wo ld. Ga ai and Shad ach do no limi hei discussion o he social aspec s o ICT: They aise issues and conce ns abou echnology in as uc u e and ICT unc ionali y, which ha e equal implica ions o he implemen a ion and use o any echnology. In his way, he au ho s p o ide an impo an inside ’s iew o all who a e in e es ed in he oppo uni ies and challenges o ICTs in he de eloping wo ld. On he whole, his small book o e s aluable insigh on he mul idimensional human elemen o ICTs, and speci ically on he unique needs and solu ions equi ed o u al communi ies in de eloping coun ies. Human Technology: An In e disciplina y Jou nal on Humans in ICT En i onmen s www.human echnology.jyu. i