The Test–Retest Repeatability of a Rhythm Coordination Test Procedure in 4- to 6-Year-Old Children : A Pilot Study

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ The Tes –Re es Repea abili y o a Rhy hm Coo dina ion Tes P ocedu e in 4- o 6-Yea - Old Child en : A Pilo S udy © The Au ho (s) 2020 Published e sion Tuominen, Pipsa P. A.; Rai anen, Jani; Rinne, Ma jo Tuominen, P. P. A., Rai anen, J., & Rinne, M. (2020). The Tes –Re es Repea abili y o a Rhy hm Coo dina ion Tes P ocedu e in 4- o 6-Yea -Old Child en : A Pilo S udy. Music and Science, 3. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/2059204320962281 2020 Resea ch A icle The Tes –Re es Repea abili y o a Rhy hm Coo dina ion Tes P ocedu e in 4- o 6-Yea -Old Child en: A Pilo S udy Pipsa P. A. Tuominen 1,2 , Jani Rai anen 3,4 and Ma jo Rinne 3 Abs ac Mo ing o music combines he abili y o hy hm and coo dina ion. In ela ion o he musical and mo o de elopmen o child en, senso imo o synch oniza ion equi es he abili y o pe cei e and pe o m a s eady bea . The p esen pilo s udy aimed o in es iga e he es – e es epea abili y o a hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e in o de o pilo he p ocedu e o child en. Tes – e es epea abili y e lec s he a ia ion in measu emen s aken by he hy hm coo dina ion es on he same pa icipan unde he same condi ions. Ten child en (mean age 5.5 yea s, s anda d de ia ion (SD) 0.6) pa icipa ed in he es s. The es pe o mance was e alua ed in poin s om 0 o 8, sepa a ely a a slow and as pace, esul ing in 16 poin s al oge he . Tes sessions we e pe o med wice o each child wi hin a ou -day in e al. Child en eached, on a e age, 7.8 (SD 3.5) poin s in he i s and 8.1 (SD 3.6) poin s ou o 16 in he second es session. The es – e es mean in a class co ela ion was 0.96, indica ing a high epea abili y o he hy hm coo dina ion es o child en. Fu he , he child en olde han 5.5 yea s achie ed a highe numbe o poin s han he younge ones, and hey seemed o each almos he same le el as adul s. The hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e o child en p o ides a p omising means o assessing child en’s senso imo o synch oniza ion in he con ex o mo emen and music. Keywo ds Bea pe cep ion, child de elopmen , mo emen o music, pe o mance, senso imo o in eg a ion Submission da e: 21 Decembe 2019; Accep ance da e: 08 Sep embe 2020 In oduc ion Synch onizing bodily mo emen s o music combines bo h pe cep ual and mo o asks, such as de ec ing a bea and empo and coo dina ing mo emen s o he bea . This sen- so imo o synch oniza ion (SMS) equi es he abili y o pe cei e and pe o m a s eady bea (Repp & Su, 2013). Rhy hm coo dina ion in eg a es bo h senso and mo o abil- i ies needed o bea de ec ion, iming, and mo o coo dina- ion o di e en hy hms (e.g., in dancing, ball games) (Rinne, 2010). In child en, he de elopmen and abili y o pe cei e and p oduce a s eady bea , and he abili y o synch onize mo e- men wi h an ex e nal bea , ha e been p ima ily s udied in apping and walking s udies (Repp & Su, 2013). In na u al se ings, child en we e ound o pe o m mo emen s such as hopping, ci cling, o swaying when lis ening o amilia music (Ee ola e al., 2006). A me ic complexi y o music a ec s pe cep ual sensi i i y o bea alignmen (Eina son & T aino , 2016). Howe e , mos 2- o 4-yea -olds did no adjus he empo o hei mo emen acco ding o he empo o he music (Ee ola e al., 2006). Synch oniza ion has been ound o imp o e as child en de elop, especially om ages 1 Facul y o Spo and Heal h Sciences, Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o Jy a ¨skyla ¨, Jy a ¨skyla ¨, Finland 2 Tampe e Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, Physio he apy Deg ee P og am, Tampe e, Finland 3 The UKK Ins i u e o Heal h P omo ion Resea ch, Tampe e, Finland 4 Facul y o Social Sciences, Heal h Sciences, Tampe e Uni e si y, Tampe e, Finland Co esponding au ho : Pipsa P. A. Tuominen, Facul y o Spo and Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o Jy a ¨skyla ¨, PO Box 35, FI-40014 Jy a ¨skyla ¨, Finland. Email: [email p o ec ed], [email p o ec ed] Music & Science Volume 3: 1–6 ªThe Au ho (s) 2020 DOI: 10.1177/2059204320962281 jou nals.sagepub.com/home/mns C ea i e Commons CC BY: This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 License (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/) which pe mi s any use, ep oduc ion and dis ibu ion o he wo k wi hou u he pe mission p o ided he o iginal wo k is a ibu ed as speci ied on he SAGE and Open Access pages (h ps://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-a -sage). l 3 o 7 (Repp & Su, 2013). Fu he , he 4-yea -old child en we e mo e likely o adjus hei mo emen s wi h he empo changes compa ed wi h he younge ones (Ee ola e al., 2006). In p e ious s udies, s eady bea synch oniza ion was examined du ing apping, s epping, o walking asks, using slow, medium, and as musical examples (Dalla Bella e al., 2017; Gill, 2015; Rose, 2016). Child en ha e also been ound o pe o m hand mo emen s be e han ee mo emen s, wi h he highes accu acy being a a medium empo (Rose, 2016). Simila ly, child en ha e been ound o adap o as e and slowe empos (Rose, 2016). Adul s ha e been ound o o e co ec he in e al be ween he aps wi hin he empo changes (Dalla Bella e al., 2017). In gene al, child en ha e mo e ouble ma ching he me o- nome bea a a slow pace compa ed wi h adul s (Gill, 2015). Mul i-limb coo dina ion asks ha e been used o assess mo o di icul ies ins ead o bea de ec ion and synch oni- za ion. Simul aneous clapping while walking has also been used o examine mul i-limb coo dina ion and s abili y, con- sis ency, and equency changes o e childhood (Ge chell, 2006). Olde child en ha e shown a highe accu acy in ma ching limb equency o a me onome bea o o he limb mo emen s (Ge chell, 2007; I eland e al., 2018). In he ield o music esea ch, hy hm coo dina ion has been s udied as a pa o pe cep ion and synch oniza ion. In physio he apy, he ocus has been on he de elopmen o mo emen and coo dina ion skills. Howe e , o ou knowl- edge, he e is no unc ional ield es a ailable o child en ha combines mo emen s o uppe and lowe ex emi ies and synch oniza ion wi h he ex e nal bea . When de elop- ing a new es o ans e ing an old es o a new age g oup, ca e ully designed p e es s o easibili y, eliabili y, and epea abili y a e essen ial. Tes – e es eliabili y (i.e., epea abili y) e lec s he a ia ion in measu emen s aken by a speci ic ins umen (i.e., he hy hm coo dina ion es ) on he same pa icipan unde he same condi ions (Koo & Li, 2016). This pilo s udy e alua es he epea abili y o he chil- d en’s hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e, which was used in he S ep in o music! in e en ion s udy. In he S ep in o music! in e en ion, he main aim was o assess child en’s and hei pa en s’ accele ome e -measu ed physical ac i - i y and seden a y ime when using a music ma a home. The S ep in o music! s udy also assessed he coo dina ion (including he hy hm coo dina ion) o he child en, and he associa ion be ween child en’s musical backg ound and hei physical exe cise adhe ence. Me hods Aims Ou es aimed o assess child en’s abili y o hy hmically synch onize and coo dina e mo emen s o hei uppe and lowe ex emi ies o he gi en me onome bea . The pilo es was done p io o and sepa a e om he S ep in o music! s udy g oup in au umn 2017. The S ep in o music! s udy was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o Uni e si y o Jy a¨skyla¨, Jy a¨skyla¨, Finland. Pa icipan s Ten child en (se en gi ls, h ee boys) we e ec ui ed ia Tu sola dayca e cen e in Kangasala, Finland. Child en we e eligible o pa icipa e i hey we e be ween 4 and 6 yea s old, had no mal ision and hea ing wi h o wi hou glasses o a hea ing aid, and could pe o m ma ching and clapping hands as ins uc ed. All he child en we e Cauca- sian, and hei p ima y language a home was Finnish. The mean age o he pa icipa ing child en was 5.5 (s anda d de ia ion (SD) 0.6) yea s. Pa en s ga e w i en consen o pa icipa ion on hei child’s behal . The s udy was con- duc ed ollowing p e ailing e hics p inciples. Rhy hm Coo dina ion Tes P ocedu e and Tes – Re es P o ocol The hy hm coo dina ion es assessed bea pe cep ion abil- i y wi h synch oniza ion o hy hmic mo emen , as well as coo dina ion skills o uppe and lowe ex emi ies as demons a ed by a pe o mance o ma ching and clapping hands. In he o iginal es o adul s, pa icipan s ook s eps in place o e e y single bea o he i s 30 seconds and added hand-claps on e e y o he bea o he nex 30 sec- onds using slow and as empos, sepa a ely (Rinne e al., 2001). Figu e 1 shows he ma ching and clapping p oce- du e. The empo was gi en by he bea o a me onome. The hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e was modi ied o child en by adding a ehea sal o a es (i.e., es e showed ma ching and clapping and did i wi h a child) o ensu e ha he child unde s ood wha o do. The addi ion o he ehea sal was based on he ea lie inding ha young chil- d en synch onized hei hand mo emen s wi h highe accu- acy in a social con ex (Ki schne & Tomasello, 2009). The hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e o child en consis ed o h ee sepa a e pa s: 1) ehea sal o ma ching and clapping hands oge he wi h he es e using a mode - a e empo (104 bpm); 2) he i s sec ion o he es wi h a slowe , low-impac empo (92 bpm); and 3) he second sec ion o he es wi h a as , high-impac empo (138 bpm). The slow empo sec ion s a ed immedia ely a e he ehea sal, and he as empo sec ion s a ed immedi- a ely a e he slow empo sec ion, once he es e had se he me onome o he co ec empo. The ehea sal was pe o med as many imes as needed, while bo h he slow and as hy hm sec ions we e pe o med only once. The empo o he ehea sal (104 bpm) was based on an ea lie s udy by Rose (2016) ha showed he highes o e all accu- acy among child en a a medium empo. The empos o 2Music & Science he slow- (92 bpm) and as -paced (138 bpm) sec ions we e adap ed om he o iginal es by Rinne e al. (2001). The es pe o mance was e alua ed using sepa a e poin s o he slow- (92 bpm) and as -paced (138 bpm) sec ions, esul ing in a maximum o 16 poin s (8 poin s o each sec ion) (Rinne e al., 2001). Each sec ion o he pe - o mance was assessed, as ollows: 0–10 s, deg ee o s a ing accu acy (0 ¼asynch o- nous ma ching, 1 ¼ge ing in o he ma ching hy hm g adually, 2 ¼synch onous ma ching hy hm a he i s go). 10–30 s, keeping he bea o exac hy hm (0 ¼ asynch onous ma ching, 1 ¼some di icul ies in keeping he hy hm, 2 ¼synch onous and exac ma ching hy hm). 30–40 s, deg ee o s a ing accu acy wi hin he i s 10 seconds when s a ing hand-claps (0 ¼asynch o- nous ma ching and hand-clapping, 1 ¼ge ing in o he ma ching and hand-clapping hy hm g adually, 2 ¼synch onous ma ching and a hand-clapping hy hm a he i s go). 40–60 s, keeping he bea o he exac hy hm (0 ¼ asynch onous ma ching and clapping, 1 ¼some di - icul ies in keeping he hy hm, 2 ¼synch onous and exac ma ching and clapping hy hm). Each child was es ed du ing wo sepa a e measu e- men sessions by a physio he apis who was ained o conduc he es . Ins uc ions o child en included a desc ip ion and ehea sal o ma ching and hand- clapping. Ins uc ions also ou lined he possibili y o he olume con ol o he me onome. Each child pe o med he es p ocedu e, as p e iously desc ibed. Du ing he es p ocedu e, he child en we e encou aged o con inue (e.g., “Keep on going”), and hey we e old when o s a clap- ping(e.g.,“Goonma chingands a clappinghands”). The es and e es sessions we e conduc ed a he same ime o day wi hin a ou -day in e al. S a is ical me hods The means, SDs, and anges o he measu emen s a e p e- sen ed as desc ip i e s a is ics. The in aclass co ela ion coe icien (ICC) wi h a wo-way mixed-e ec s model, ype o a single a e , and an absolu e ag eemen as a de - ini ion was used o es ima e he epea abili y (i.e., an expe imen capable o gi ing enewable esul s) o he hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e (Koo & Li, 2016). The ICC epo s wi hin-g oup change (i.e., consis ency o chil- d en’s pe o mance om es o e es ) and sys ema ic change in mean (i.e., in he a e age pe o mance o chil- d en as a g oup o e ime) (A kinson & Ne ill, 1998; Lex- ell & Downham, 2005; Vaz e al., 2013). ICC alues o lowe han 0.70 ep esen poo eliabili y, alues om 0.70 o 0.79 show ai eliabili y, 0.80 o 0.89 demons a e good eliabili y, and alues equal o o highe han 0.90 ep esen high eliabili y (Cu ie , 1984). A conse a i e in e p e a- ion by Cu ie (1984) was used due o he s udy ha ing only a single a e ha may cause a smalle a ia ion be ween es and e es sco es compa ed wi h he si ua ion wi h wo a e s. In o he wo ds, when he e is only li le a ia ion be ween sco es, he ICC ends o be high. Bland-Al man plo analysis was used o desc ibe an ag eemen be ween es and e es by cons uc ing limi s o ag eemen . This me hod e alua es a bias be ween he mean di e ences and es ima es 95%limi s o he ag ee- men in e al (i.e., he o al e o be ween es and e es ) (A kinson & Ne ill, 1998; Gia a ina, 2015). Di e ences be ween he age g oups a es and e es we e es ed by Mann-Whi ney U es . The mean age o he child en was used as a cu -o poin o sepa a e he g oups in o younge o olde . All analyses we e pe o med using IBM SPSS S a is- ics 24.0. Resul s The desc ip i e da a o he pilo s udy a e p esen ed in Table 1. Because o he small da a se , he no mali y was no es ed. The mean di e ence be ween he es and e es was -0.3 poin s (95%CI 1.3 o 0.7), which is s a is ically no signi ican (p¼0.50). The es – e es mean ICC was 0.96, indica ing high eliabili y, wi h a 95%con idence in e al (CI) being 0.86 o 0.99, indica ing a leas good eliabili y. The Bland and Al man plo (Figu e 2) shows only small di e ences be ween he es – e es esul s. The mean di - e ence o he es s (y¼-0.3) indica es he bias be ween he es and he e es , showing ha he child en achie ed highe esul s in he e es han in he es . All o he da a poin s lie wi hin +1.96 SD o he mean di e ence (-2.9 o 2.3), which indica es he limi s o ag eemen (95%CI). Fu he , he magni ude o he sys ema ic di e ence (95% CI o he mean di e ence being om 1.3 o 0.7) and he he e oscedas ici y o he plo s indica e ha he e es does no unde - o o e -es ima e he esul s compa ed wi h he i s es . Figu e 1. The ma ching and clapping p ocedu e o he hy hm coo dina ion es . Tuominen e al. 3 We also ound di e ences ha we e ela ed o he age o child en. A Mann-Whi ney U es indica ed ha he poin s in he es s we e highe among olde child en (Md¼11.5, n¼4) han among younge child en (Md¼5.5, n¼6) wi h a la ge e ec , U¼0.0, p¼0.010, ¼0.82. The co esponding alues a e es o olde (Md¼11.5) and younge (Md¼5.0) child en we e U¼0.0, p¼0.009, ¼0.82. Discussion The p esen hy hm coo dina ion es was pilo ed o he S ep in o music! s udy, using a small g oup o oli ional 4- o 6-yea -old child en. In he p esen pilo s udy, he es – e es epea abili y o he child en’s hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e was s udied and ound o be high. In addi ion, we ound ha olde child en ecei ed highe sco es han younge ones. Conce ning he consis ency o es – e es sessions, ICC was used as he gene al measu e o epea abili y in he hy hm coo dina ion es p ocedu e. The ICC alue in his popula ion was highe han in ea lie s ud- ies (Rinne e al., 2001; Va iainen e al., 2006), which we e, howe e , conduc ed among adul s. The high ICC alue migh be ela ed o he he e ogenei y o he small da a se : he ICC alues end o be smalle when he da a a e homogeneous (A kinson & Ne ill, 1998). I was also seen ha child en ended o each sligh ly highe a e age alues du ing he e es session compa ed wi h he es session. We assume ha his may be ela ed o he ac ha he es si ua ion and he physio he apis we e mo e amilia he second ime, making i easie o a child o concen a e on he ac ual ask. The s abi- li y in he hy hm coo dina ion ask, as obse ed in he Bland and Al man plo , showed ha he indi idual di - e ences in es – e es sessions we e a mos 2 poin s, which is in line wi h Rinne e al. (2001). The sligh imp o emen om es o e es may also e lec a lea n- ing e ec , since he es was done wice wi hin a sho pe iod. A simila imp o emen be ween es and e es sessions was ound by B´egel e al. (2018), who s udied pe cep ual and senso imo o iming skills among heal hy adul s. They concluded ha when he same musical exce p s we e used a bo h es ing imes, imp o emen be ween he sessions e lec ed a lea ning e ec (B´egel e al., 2018). In addi ion, ehea sal o ma ching and clapping hands was added o he child en, which was no done in he o iginal es p ocedu e o adul s. The ehea sal was added o he es p ocedu e in o de o ensu e ha he child en unde s ood wha hey we e expec ed o do. In addi ion, Ki schne and Tomasello (2009) ound ha young child en synch onized hei hand mo emen s wi h highe accu acy in he social con ex ; he e o e, we belie ed he ehea sal o Table 1. Da a showing ag eemen be ween es and e es . Values a e p esen ed o each child, anking hem om he lowes o he highes . Gende Age Tes (poin s, ange 0–16) Re es (poin s, ange 0–16) Mean o es and e es (Tes þRe es )/2 (poin s) Tes – e es di e ence (poin s) (Tes – e es )/Mean (%) male 5.29 3 5 4.0 -2 -50.0 emale 4.78 4 6 5.0 -2 -40.0 male 5.21 5 4 4.5 1 22.2 emale 5.47 6 5 5.5 1 18.2 emale 5.02 6 5 5.5 1 18.2 emale 5.07 8 8 8.0 0 0.0 male 5.65 11 11 11.0 0 0.0 emale 6.40 11 12 11.5 -1 -8.7 emale 6.60 12 11 11.5 1 8.7 emale 5.62 12 14 13.0 -2 -15.4 Mean 5.51 7.8 8.1 -0.3 S anda d de ia ion 0.59 3.5 3.6 1.3 Figu e 2. Bland-Al man plo o da a om Table 1. The dashed black line shows he mean di e ence o he es s. The da ke a ea illus a es 95% CI o he mean di e ence (-1.3 o 0.7), indica ing he magni ude o he sys ema ic di e ence. The do ed lines (+1.96*SD) as he andom e o indica e 95% CI (-2.9 o 2.3) as he ep esen a ion o he limi s o ag eemen . 4Music & Science he es would imp o e he esul s o he es and e es in some child en. In his s udy, ou child en achie ed be e sco es and ou child en achie ed lowe sco es on he e - es . Thus, we assume ha ehea sal did no a ec he esul s in he meaning o lea ning. The child en olde han 5.5 yea s achie ed almos he same sco es in he hy hm coo dina ion es s as he adul s did (Rinne e al., 2001). This is in line wi h Gill (2015), who ound ha 5- o 7-yea -olds showed he abili y o modi y hei walking, e en i he e we e di e ences wi h mee ing he exac iming o me onome paces. We ound ha he younges child en demons a ed a highe de ia ion in esul s be ween he es and e es han he olde ones. This esul also ein o ces I eland e al.’s (2018), Gill’s (2015), and Ge chell’s (2006) indings ha ask di icul y (slow o as pace, hand-clapping simul aneously while walking) migh in luence child en’s pe o mance. We con- side ed ha he di e ences be ween younge and olde child en migh be ela ed o he de elopmen o hei mo o and musical abili ies: he mo o and musical de elopmen o olde child en is likely o be mo e ad anced han ha o younge child en. Speci ically, among child en wi h musi- cal aining, yea s o music lessons p edic ed pe o mance on hy hm synch oniza ion asks o e and abo e he e ec o age (I eland e al., 2018). Howe e , child en in hei s udy we e olde han he child en in his s udy. Fu he , we did no ask whe he he child en had music-based hobbies. Task- ela ed di e ences in ac ion-dependen and age- ela ed asks ha e been ound o s ay cons an ac oss age g oups (Ge chell, 2006). Child en wi h de elopmen al coo dina ion diso de (DCD) demons a e mo e wi hin- indi idual and be ween-pa icipan a iabili y han chil- d en wi hou DCD o adul s in iming he claps wi h he oo alls, in iming each limb sepa a ely, and in using he pai s o limbs (Mackenzie e al., 2008; Volman e al., 2006). The a ailabili y o isual o audi o y cues has no ound o ha e any ole in he coo dina ion o clapping/ ma ching (Mackenzie e al., 2008). Since hand–hand coo - dina ion pa e ns ha e been ound easie han con ala e al (di e en body side) hand– oo coo dina ion pa e ns among heal hy child en (Rose, 2016) and child en wi h de elopmen al coo dina ion diso de (Volman e al., 2006), we assume ha simul aneous clapping while ma ch- ing would be a good ask o examine dual- and mul i-limb hy hm coo dina ion among child en. The main limi a ions o he s udy a e he small sample size and he use o only one es e . Owing o he small sample size, possible de ia ion om he no mali y o he dis ibu ion canno be de ec ed and he e o e, o ins ance, he ICC can be biased. Thus, o u u e esea ch, a la ge s udy popula ion is needed o examine he di e ences be ween younge and olde child en. In addi ion, he in e - a e eliabili y o he hy hm coo dina ion es should be assessed. I would also be impo an o examine es e s’ subjec i e assessmen conce ning measu ed accu acy o he child’s ma ching and clapping, as well as possible di - e ences in pe o mance when he child has an audio cue e sus an audio isual cue. As o he s eng h o he s udy, he e has been a lack o hy hm coo dina ion es s a ailable o child en. To ou knowledge, his kind o hy hm coo - dina ion es has no ye been pe o med among child en. Thus, his s udy p o ides aluable in o ma ion o u he s udies and clinical p ac ice. Conclusion Conce ning he consis ency o pilo es sessions, he p e- limina y esul s o es – e es mean ICC indica ed a high epea abili y o he p ocedu e wi hin his popula ion. Thus, simul aneous clapping while ma ching would be a good ask o examining dual- and mul i-limb hy hm coo dina- ion among child en. In addi ion, he hy hm coo dina ion es has clinical ele ance, o example, when es ing chil- d en in music educa ion o inspec ing child en’s coo dina ion. Acknowledgemen s We hank P o esso Jukka I. Louhi uo i and P o esso U ho M. Kujala om he Uni e si y o Jy a¨skyla¨, and Pauliina Husu om he UKK Ins i u e o Heal h P omo ion Resea ch o hei suppo . Ac ion Edi o G aham Welch, Uni e si y College London, Ins i u e o Educa ion. Pee Re iew Valen in B´egel, McGill Uni e si y, Depa men o Psychology. Nina Poli imou, Uni e si y College London, Depa men o Psy- chology and Human De elopmen . Au ho Con ibu ion PPAT and MR we e esponsible o he ini ial design o he s udy. PPAT and JR designed and implemen ed he s a is ical analysis. PPAT p epa ed he i s e sion o he manusc ip . All au ho s we e in ol ed in e ising i o con en and ha e gi en inal app o al o he e sion o be published. All au ho s ead and app o ed he inal manusc ip . Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s The au ho s decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle. E hical App o al The S ep in o music!s udy was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o Jy a¨skyla¨ Uni e si y, Jy a¨skyla¨, Finland (Code 6/ 2017_Louhi uo i). Funding The au ho s disclosed eceip o he ollowing inancial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle: This wo k was suppo ed by a g an om he Ellen and A u i Nyys- so¨nen Founda ion (Kale i Heinila¨’s und), he Jenny and An i Tuominen e al. 5 Wihu i Founda ion, he Finnish Cul u al Founda ion (Cen al Fin- land Regional und and Music Educa ion und), and he Associ- a ion o Physio he apis s in Tampe e a ea. The unde s had no ole in he s udy’s design, da a collec ion, o analysis, he decision o publish, o he p epa a ion o he manusc ip . ORCID iDs Pipsa P. A. Tuominen h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-8480-6412 Jani Rai anen h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-7674-0978 Re e ences A kinson, G., & Ne ill, A. M. (1998). S a is ical me hods o asses- sing measu emen e o ( eliabili y) in a iables ele an o spo s medicine. Spo s Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.),26(4), 217–238. B´egel, V., Ve ga, L., Benoi , C. E., Ko z, S. A., & Dalla Bella, S. (2018). Tes - e es eliabili y o he ba e y o he assessmen o audi o y senso imo o and iming abili ies (BAASTA). Annals o Physical and Rehabili a ion Medicine,61(6), 395–400. h p://doi.o g/S1877-0657(18)30055-1. Cu ie , D. P. (1984). Elemen s o esea ch in physical he apy (2nd ed.). Williams & Wilkins. Dalla Bella, S., Fa ugia, N., Benoi , C., B´egel, V., Ve ga, L., Ha ding, E., & Ko z, S. A. (2017). BAASTA: Ba e y o he assessmen o audi o y senso imo o and iming abili ies. Beha io Resea ch Me hods,49(3), 1128–1145. h p://doi. o g/10.3758/s13428-016-0773-6 Ee ola, T., Luck, G., & Toi iainen, P. (2006). An in es iga ion o p e-schoole s’ co po eal synch oniza ion wi h music.P o- ceedings o he 9 h In e na ional Con e ence on Music Pe cep- ion and Cogni ion, Alma Ma e S udio um Uni e si y o Bologna, I aly, 472–476. Eina son, K. M., & T aino , L. J. (2016). Hea ing he bea . Young child en’s pe cep ual sensi i i y o bea alignmen a ies acco ding ome ics uc u e.Music Pe cep ion,34(1), 56–70. h p://doi.o g/10.1525/mp.2016.34.1.56 Ge chell, N. (2006). Age and ask- ela ed di e ences in iming s abili y, consis ency, and na u al equency o child en’s hy hmic, mo o coo dina ion. De elopmen al Psychobiology, 48(8), 675–685. h p://doi.o g/10.1002/de .20186 Ge chell, N. (2007). De elopmen al aspec s o pe cep ion-ac ion coupling in mul i-limb coo dina ion: Rhy hmic senso imo o synch oniza ion. Mo o Con ol,11(1), 1–15. Gia a ina, D. (2015). Unde s anding Bland Al man analysis. Bio- chemia Medica,25(2), 141–151. h p://doi.o g/10.11613/BM. 2015.015. Gill, S. V. (2015). Walking o he bea o hei own d um: How child en and adul s mee iming cons ain s. PloS One,10(5), e0127894. h p://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0127894 I eland, K., Pa ke , A., Fos e , N., & Penhune, V. (2018). Rhy hm and melody asks o school-aged child en wi h and wi hou musical aining: Age-equi alen sco es and eliabili y. F on- ie s in Psychology,9, 426. Ki schne , S., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Join d umming: Social con ex acili a es synch oniza ion in p eschool child en. Jou nal o Expe imen al Child Psychology,102(3), 299–314. h p://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jecp.2008.07.005 Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline o selec ing and epo ing in aclass co ela ion coe icien s o eliabili y esea ch. Jou nal o Chi op ac ic Medicine,15(2), 155–163. h p://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012. Lexell, J. E., & Downham, D. Y. (2005). How o assess he elia- bili y o measu emen s in ehabili a ion. Ame ican Jou nal o Physical Medicine & Rehabili a ion,84(9), 719–723. h p:// doi.o g/00002060-200509000-00013 Mackenzie, S. J., Ge chell, N., Deu sch, K., Wilms-Floe , A., Cla k, J. E., & Whi all, J. (2008). Mul i-limb coo dina ion and hy hmic a iabili y unde a ying senso y a ailabili y condi- ions in child en wi h DCD. Human Mo emen Science,27, 256–269. h p://doi.o g/10.1016/j.humo .2008.02.010 Repp, B. H., & Su, Y. H. (2013). Senso imo o synch oniza ion: A e iew o ecen esea ch (2006–2012). Psychonomic Bulle in &Re iew,20(3), 403–452. h p://doi.o g/10.3758/s13423- 012-0371-2 Rinne, M. (2010). E ec o physical ac i i y, speci ic exe cise and auma ic b ain inju y on mo o abili ies. Theo e ical and p agma ic assessmen (Doc o al hesis). S udies in spo , physical educa ion and heal h. Uni e si y o Jy a¨skyla¨. Rinne, M. B., Pasanen, M. E., Miilunpalo, S. I., & Oja, P. (2001). Tes - e es ep oducibili y and in e - a e eliabili y o a mo o skill es ba e y o adul s. In e na ional Jou nal o Spo s Medicine,22, 192–200. Rose, P. (2016). E ec s o mo emen , empo, and gende on s eady bea pe o mance o kinde ga en child en. In e na- ional Jou nal o Music Educa ion,34(1), 104–115. h p:// doi.o g/10.1177/0255761414533309 Va iainen, M. V., Rinne, M. B., Leh o, T. M., Pasanen, M. E., Sa ajuu i, J. M., & Ala an a, H. T. (2006). The es – e es eliabili y o mo o pe o mance measu es a e auma ic b ain inju y. Ad ances in Physio he apy,8(2), 50–59. h p:// doi.o g/10.1080/14038190600700195 Vaz, S., Falkme , T., Passmo e, A. E., Pa sons, R., & And eou, P. (2013). The case o using he epea abili y coe icien when calcula ing es - e es eliabili y. PloS One,8(9), e73990. h p://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0073990 Volman, M. J., La oy, M. E., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Rhy hmic coo dina ion o hand and oo in child en wi h de elopmen al coo dina ion diso de . Child: Ca e, Heal h and De elopmen , 32(6), 693–702. h p://doi.o g/CCH679 6Music & Science