Simple View of Reading Across the Transition from Kindergarten to Grade 1 in a Transparent Orthography

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Simple View o Reading Ac oss he T ansi ion om Kinde ga en o G ade 1 in a T anspa en O hog aphy © 2023 he Au ho s Published e sion Silinskas, Gin au as; Gedu iene, Reda; To ppa, Minna; Raiziene, Saule Silinskas, G., Gedu iene, R., To ppa, M., & Raiziene, S. (2024). Simple View o Reading Ac oss he T ansi ion om Kinde ga en o G ade 1 in a T anspa en O hog aphy. Scien i ic S udies o Reading, 28(1), 60-78. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/10888438.2023.2220848 2024 Full Te ms & Condi ions o access and use can be ound a h ps://www. and online.com/ac ion/jou nalIn o ma ion?jou nalCode=hss 20 Scien i ic S udies o Reading ISSN: (P in ) (Online) Jou nal homepage: h ps://www. and online.com/loi/hss 20 Simple View o Reading Ac oss he T ansi ion om Kinde ga en o G ade 1 in a T anspa en O hog aphy Gin au as Silinskas, Reda Gedu iene, Minna To ppa & Saule Raiziene To ci e his a icle: Gin au as Silinskas, Reda Gedu iene, Minna To ppa & Saule Raiziene (2023): Simple View o Reading Ac oss he T ansi ion om Kinde ga en o G ade 1 in a T anspa en O hog aphy, Scien i ic S udies o Reading, DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2023.2220848 To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/10888438.2023.2220848 © 2023 The Au ho (s). Published wi h license by Taylo & F ancis G oup, LLC. Published online: 07 Jun 2023. Submi you a icle o his jou nal View ela ed a icles View C ossma k da a Simple View o Reading Ac oss he T ansi ion om Kinde ga en o G ade 1 in a T anspa en O hog aphy Gin au as Silinskas a , Reda Gedu iene b , Minna To ppa c , and Saule Raiziene d a Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland; b Depa men o Psychology, Klaipeda Uni e si y, Klaipeda, Li huania; c Depa men o Teache Educa ion, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland; d Depa men o Psychology, Vilnius Uni e si y, Vilnius, Li huania ABSTRACT Pu pose: This longi udinal s udy in es iga ed he simple iew o eading (SVR) model and i s cogni i e basis in a anspa en o hog aphy o he Li huanian ac oss he ansi ion om kinde ga en o G ade 1. Me hod: The language and ea ly li e acy skills o 229 child en (Mage = 6.79, SD = .47) we e es ed a he end o kinde ga en ( ocabula y, le e knowl- edge, phonological awa eness, and RAN); lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency we e es ed a he s a o G ade 1; and eading comp ehen- sion was measu ed a he end o G ade 1. Resul s: Toge he wi h pa en al educa ion, wo d eading luency and lis en- ing comp ehension p edic ed eading comp ehension (R2 = 43.2%). The second model, which also included language and ea ly li e acy skills, showed ha ocabula y and phonological awa eness indi ec ly p edic ed eading comp ehension ia lis ening comp ehension, while phonological awa eness, le e knowledge, and apid au oma ized naming (RAN) indi ec ly p edic ed eading comp ehension ia wo d eading luency (R2 = 43.6%). Howe e , a e allowing he di ec pa hs om language and ea ly li e acy skills in kinde ga en o eading comp ehension, lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency we e no longe signi ican p edic o s o eading comp ehension, whe eas ocabula y and le e knowledge we e (R2 = 58.9%). Conclusion: The esul s p o ided suppo o he SVR model in anspa en Li huanian o hog aphy in ha linguis ic and decoding componen s a e impo an o ea ly eading comp ehension. Howe e , he esul s also sug- ges ed ha , in he Li huanian con ex , kinde ga en ocabula y and le e knowledge a e s onge measu es in p edic ing eading comp ehension han lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency in G ade 1. Child en’s abili y o unde s and wha hey ha e ead is a goal in child en’s i s yea s o schooling, and i u he p edic s la e school success (Cunningham & S ano ich, 1997; Juel, 1988). Acco ding o one popula model o eading acquisi ion – he simple iew o eading (SVR) – eading comp ehension is a p oduc o wo componen s: linguis ic comp ehension and decoding (Gough & Tunme , 1986; Hoo e & Gough, 1990). Linguis ic (o lis ening) comp ehension e e s o he abili y o unde s and and make sense o spoken language (Hogan e al., 2014; Kendeou e al., 2009), and decoding is unde s ood as he abili y o apidly p oduce sounds co esponding o he g aphemes o a gi en CONTACT Gin au as Silinskas [email p o ec ed] Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä 40014, Finland This s udy is a pa o “Ge in ol ed!” longi udinal da a collec ion, which was suppo ed by he Academy o Finland (#296082, #331525, and #336148). The ma e ials, da a and analysis code o his s udy a e a ailable upon easonable eques by emailing he co esponding au ho . The analyses p esen ed in his s udy we e no p e egis e ed. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/10888438.2023.2220848 © 2023 The Au ho (s). Published wi h license by Taylo & F ancis G oup, LLC. This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen . o hog aphy (Hoo e & Gough, 1990; Kendeou e al., 2009). Al hough p e ious esea ch has empha- sized he need o longi udinal s udies o suppo he SVR (Flo i & Cain, 2011), many s udies ha e elied on concu en da a and es ed child en a ending p ima y school and a e (Tils a e al., 2009). These s udies ound ha he amoun o explained a iance in eading comp ehension dec eased in highe g ades (Joshi, 2018; Tils a e al., 2009), and ha he ela i e impo ance o decoding dec eased, while he ela i e impo ance o lis ening comp ehension inc eased wi h highe g ades (Joshi e al., 2012; Tils a e al., 2009). Gi en hese endencies, i is su p ising ha only a ew s udies conside ed ollowing child en ea lie , o ins ance, ac oss he ansi ion om kinde ga en o G ade 1 (see, e.g., LARRC & Chiu & LARRC, 2018; To ppa e al., 2016). The as majo i y o SVR esea ch has conce ned child en lea ning o ead in English (Flo i & Cain, 2011; J. R. Ki by & Sa age, 2008; Joshi, 2018; S ua e al., 2008). This is a clea gap in he li e a u e, gi en ha he majo i y o alphabe ic languages in which child en lea n o ead a e languages o he han English (A ab-Moghaddam & Sénéchal, 2001; Gedu ienė, 2020). Some SVR esea ch is also a ailable in di e en o hog aphies a ying in anspa ency (e.g., Finnish: To ppa e al., 2016; G eek: Kendeou e al., 2013; I alian: Flo i e al., 2022; Ge man: Lande l & Wimme , 2008), bu such esea ch has no ye been examined among child en lea ning o ead Li huanian. As child en a e lea ning o ead in a la ge a ie y o cul u al en i onmen s, and o hog aphies a y in anspa ency (Flo i & Cain, 2011), new e idence coming om di e en o hog aphies may en ich ou cu en unde s anding o he gene alizabili y o he SVR ac oss o hog aphies. T anspa ency o o hog aphy has impo an e ec s on eading acquisi ion (Seymou e al., 2003), and Li huanian o hog aphy ep esen s a ela i ely consis en g apheme – phoneme co espondence wi h a somewha complex syllable s uc u e. In anspa en o hog aphies, he decoding componen o eading comp ehension can be es ed ea ly due o ea ly and apid eading acquisi ion. The e o e, a no el y o he cu en s udy is ha i uses longi udinal da a ollowing child en ac oss he c i ical pe iod o acqui ing eading skills – he ansi ion om kinde ga en o o mal eading ins uc ion in G ade 1. This s udy also examines whe he he SVR componen s o e he bes p edic ion o eading comp ehension o whe he an ex ension o he model is needed o accu a e ea ly p edic ion o eading comp ehension. When in es iga ing ea ly eading de elopmen , i has been p oposed ha a a ie y o language (e.g., ocabula y) and ea ly li e acy skills (e.g., le e knowledge, RAN) p edic SVR componen s and eading comp ehension ac oss o hog aphies (e.g., Kim, 2020a, 2020b; LARRC & Chiu & LARRC, 2018; To ppa e al., 2016). In sum, he p esen longi udinal s udy in es iga es he SVR model in a anspa en o hog aphy o Li huanian child en lea ning o ead ac oss he c i ical ansi ion om kinde ga en o G ade 1. We also sough o de e mine a se o language and ea ly li e acy skills ha would bes p edic ea ly eading acquisi ion and o iden i y whe he hei impac on eading comp ehension was di ec o media ed ia he key componen s o SVR, decoding, and lis ening comp ehension. Lis ening comp ehension, eading luency, and eading comp ehension Acco ding o SVR, linguis ic comp ehension is one o he wo majo con ibu o s o child en’s eading comp ehension (Gough & Tunme , 1986; Hoo e & Gough, 1990). Linguis ic comp ehension can be iewed as a b oad cons uc , including he unde s anding o wo ds, sen ences, and ex -le el skills, and i is o en labeled by a a ie y o concep s, such as language, lis ening, and o al (language) skills (Hogan e al., 2014; Kendeou e al., 2009). P e ious s udies ha e ypically measu ed linguis ic comp ehension by lis ening comp ehension o ocabula y asks (Cu ing & Sca bo ough, 2006; Kendeou e al., 2009; To ppa e al., 2016). In he p esen s udy, he o al language asks measu ed child en’s unde s anding o spoken language a he s o y comp ehension le el, which is e e ed o as lis ening comp ehension. The second c ucial p edic o o eading comp ehension in SVR is decoding (o wo d ecogni ion; Hoo e & Tunme , 2022), which can b oadly be desc ibed as he abili y o apply knowledge o le e – sound ela ions in eading (Hoo e & Gough, 1990; Kendeou e al., 2009). Decoding has been assessed using a a ie y o measu es ela ed o he accu acy and luency o eading. Wi hin he SVR heo e ical 2G. SILINSKAS ET AL. amewo k, decoding has been de ined as he abili y o ead isola ed wo ds e icien ly (i.e., quickly and accu a ely; Gough & Tunme , 1986; Hoo e & Tunme , 2018, 2022). To his end, many esea che s, especially hose in es iga ing SVR in anspa en o hog aphies, ha e inco po a ed imed measu es o decoding (i.e., measu es o wo d eading luency) o assess he e iciency o wo d ecogni ion (Huo e al., 2021; Sil e man e al., 2013; To ppa e al., 2016). In he con ex o anspa en o hog aphies, using imed measu es o decoding is especially ele an , as child en lea n o ead wi h almos ull accu acy soon a e school en y (A o & Wimme , 2003; Seymou e al., 2003). Al hough bo h lis ening comp ehension and decoding eed in o eading comp ehension, explain- ing 40%–80% o he a iance (Joshi, 2018), hei ela i e impo ance in p edic ing eading comp e- hension di e s be ween anspa en and opaque o hog aphies. Flo i and Cain’s (2011) me a-analysis concluded ha , in opaque o hog aphies (i.e., English), decoding is a s onge con ibu o o eading comp ehension han o al language measu es o a longe ime han in anspa en o hog aphies. This is because decoding in anspa en o hog aphies becomes luen /au oma ized ea lie (de Jong & an de Leij, 2002; Joshi e al., 2012; Seymou e al., 2003). Howe e , o e ime, lis ening comp ehension becomes a mo e impo an p edic o o eading comp ehension han decoding in bo h anspa en and opaque o hog aphies (e.g., Flo i & Cain, 2011). Once decoding becomes au oma ized and as enough, he e ec o lis ening comp ehension on eading comp ehension should become s onge han ha o decoding, as decoding no longe causes cogni i e load o bu dens he memo y equi ed o eading comp ehension (e.g., Pe e i, 1985). The e o e, in anspa en o hog aphies (e.g., Li huanian), lis ening comp ehension can be a mo e powe ul p edic o o eading comp ehension han decoding qui e ea ly on (Flo i & Cain, 2011; Flo i e al., 2022; To ppa e al., 2016). Howe e , pa icula ly in he beginning s ages o eading de elopmen , i is possible ha decoding s ill has a la ge e ec on eading comp ehension. Consequen ly, in he p esen s udy, we expec ed o ind a signi ican e ec o bo h lis ening comp ehension and decoding on G ade 1 eading comp ehension. Language and ea ly li e acy p edic o s o lis ening comp ehension, wo d eading luency, and eading comp ehension The wo main p edic o s o eading comp ehension in he SVR – lis ening comp ehension and decoding e iciency – a e based on a numbe o language and ea ly li e acy skills (e.g., ocabula y, phonological awa eness, le e knowledge, RAN). This idea is comp ehensi ely desc ibed in he di ec and indi ec e ec s model o eading (DIER; Kim, 2017, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c). Acco ding o DIER, ounda ional cogni i e skills (e.g., language and ea ly li e acy skills) a e necessa y building blocks o he decoding and lis ening comp ehension componen s o SVR. In addi ion o he hie a chical s uc u e, he DIER also emphasizes in e ac i e and dynamic ela ions be ween he componen skills. Tha is, de eloping skills a e in e ela ed wi h each o he , and hei ela i e impo ance changes as a unc ion o eading skill de elopmen (Kim, 2017, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c). F om a p ac ical iewpoin , knowledge o he cogni i e p edic o s o he componen s o SVR can hus add o he e icacy o he ea ly iden i ica ion o child en a isk o eading di icul ies. In he p esen s udy, we examine he oles o ocabula y, phonological awa eness, le e knowledge, and apid au oma ized naming (RAN) as p edic o s o he SVR componen s, wo d eading luency, lis ening comp ehension, and eading comp ehension. Fi s , among a numbe o p edic o s iden i ied o p edic lis ening comp ehension, ocabula y has been shown o be among he s onges (Cain e al., 2004; Flo i e al., 2022; G. P. Ouelle e, 2006; Manoli sis e al., 2011; Sénéchal, 2006). Fo ins ance, in he anspa en Finnish o hog aphy, ocabula y in kinde ga en was ound o p edic lis ening comp ehension in G ade 1 (Silinskas, To ppa, e al., 2020; To ppa e al., 2016). Second, se e al p edic o s ha e been iden i ied o p edic decoding in e ms o wo d eading luency. Le e knowledge and phonological awa eness a e among he s onges p edic o s o ea ly eading luency de elopmen (e.g., Manoli sis e al., 2009; Puolakanaho e al., 2007; To ppa e al., 2016). This is no su p ising because di icul ies in he abili y o ecognize le e s o p ocess speech sounds (e.g., iden i y o manipula e phonemes in he wo ds) may unde mine he abili y o make SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING 3 sequences o g apheme – phoneme connec ions ha a e equi ed o he de elopmen o decoding. Fu he mo e, as a spoken language measu e, phonological awa eness is also closely linked wi h o he linguis ic measu es (e.g., ocabula y; Puolakanaho e al., 2007; To ppa, Poikkeus, e al., 2007a, 2007b) and is he e o e p oposed as a po en ial p edic o o eading comp ehension ia bo h decoding and linguis ic pa hways. Finally, ano he impo an cogni i e p edic o o decoding is RAN, which is especially p edic i e o imed eading- ela ed asks such as wo d eading luency (Geo giou e al., 2008; Lande l e al., 2019; Sa age & F ede ickson, 2005). The exac mechanism explaining he associa ion be ween RAN and eading luency is deba ed, bu in gene al e ms, he associa ion s ems om RAN and eading equi ing he apid se ial cascaded p ocessing o amilia linguis ic i ems (e.g., Al ani e al., 2020; J. R. Ki by e al., 2010; P o opapas e al., 2013). Ea ly p edic o s o eading skill de elopmen ha e been ex ensi ely in es iga ed bu no in he Li huanian con ex . Resea ch on he ea ly p edic ion o eading di icul ies among Li huanian child en is s ill spa se (e.g., Labanienė e al., 2019). Also o in e es o esea che s is he longi udinal pe spec- i e – he pa hways h ough which hese cogni i e skills measu ed a he end o kinde ga en p edic eading comp ehension a he end o G ade 1 di ec ly and indi ec ly h ough ela ed skills a he s a o G ade 1. The idea o hese di ec and indi ec ela ions is ad oca ed by he DIER (Kim, 2017, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c), sugges ing ha ounda ional ea ly cogni i e skills, h ough he de elopmen o o al language o decoding skills, enhance highe -o de cogni ion o skills (e.g., eading comp ehension). To in es iga e his idea in de ail, we aised wo al e na i e hypo heses. As he i s al e na i e, we es ed he indi ec e ec s model, which implemen ed a s ic hie a chical s uc u e (Kim, 2020a). P e ious esea ch sugges s ha ea ly li e acy skills (e.g., le e knowledge and phonological awa eness) be o e G ade 1 can in luence eading comp ehension indi ec ly h ough la e decoding (Ca s e al., 2005, 2006; Kendeou e al., 2009; S o ch & Whi ehu s , 2002; To ppa e al., 2016). While hese indi ec pa hs h ough decoding a e equen ly ound, only a hand ul o s udies ha e in es iga ed how ea ly language skills (e.g., ocabula y) indi ec ly p edic eading comp ehension h ough, o example, lis ening comp ehension (Flo i e al., 2022; LARRC & Chiu & LARRC, 2018; Lepola e al., 2016). As he second al e na i e, we es ed he indi ec and di ec e ec s models (Kim, 2020a). The a ionale o he second al e na i e was ha , al hough language and ea ly li e acy skills in kinde ga en can indi ec ly p edic eading comp ehension, i is possible ha hose ea ly kinde ga en skills can exe hei in luences on eading comp ehension di ec ly, o e and abo e lis ening comp ehension and eading luency (Kim, 2020a). No ably, p e ious s udies ha e ypically measu ed eading comp ehen- sion among olde child en (e.g., G ade 3; LARRC & Chiu & LARRC, 2018; Lepola e al., 2016) o child en in G ade 1 (Flo i e al., 2022). Consequen ly, o expand on p e ious esea ch, ou long- i udinal s udy ollowed child en and applied age-app op ia e measu es o in es iga e eading de el- opmen o e he ansi ion om kinde ga en (T1) o G ade 1 (T2) and un il he end o G ade 1 (T3). Reading skill de elopmen in he Li huanian language and cul u al/educa ional en i onmen Li huanian is he only o icial language o he Republic o Li huania and one o he o icial languages o he Eu opean Union. The language ep esen s he Bal ic b anch o he Indo- Eu opean language amily and is widely conside ed o be among he oldes Indo-Eu opean languages s ill spoken oday, e aining some a chaic phonological and g amma ea u es ound only in ex inc languages (Gedu ienė, 2020). By con as , he mode n s anda d li e a y Li huanian o hog aphy was c ea ed in he ea ly 20 h cen u y and hus ep esen s a ela i ely new o hog aphy wi h a ela i ely consis en g apheme – phoneme co espondence in eading (Gedu ienė, 2020). The Li huanian alphabe consis s o 32 le e s (20 consonan s/45 phonemes and 12 owels/10 phonemes). Vowels a e ep esen ed in w i ing by 12 le e s. The Li huanian owels a e p onounced as sho and long sounds. The wo pai s o le e s – y and į, ū and ų— ep esen he same long owel phonemes,/i:/and/u:/, espec i ely. Consonan s a e ep esen ed in 4G. SILINSKAS ET AL. w i ing by 20 le e s; o 3 consonan s, he dig aphs ch, dz, dž a e used. The Li huanian consonan s a e p onounced as ha d and so sounds (Gedu ienė, 2020). As in some ins ances he same sound can be ep esen ed by a ew le e s/le e combina ions, i is assumed ha he Li huanian o hog aphy has qui e consis en g apheme – phoneme co espondences ( eed o - wa d o spelling- o-sound consis ency) bu less consis en phoneme – g apheme co espon- dences ( eedback o sound- o-spelling consis ency). This “asymme y” ( he ac ha spelling is mo e di icul han eading) is common e en in o hog aphies conside ed highly anspa en o bo h eading and spelling (Babayiği , 2022). Apa om g apheme – phoneme co espondence, ano he c i e ion o classi ying alphabe ic o hog aphies is he complexi y o he syllable s uc u e (Seymou e al., 2003). In his espec , Li huanian is qui e complex, as i has nume ous closed CVC (consonan - owel-consonan ) syllables (Gedu ienė, 2020). As he anspa ency o he w i ing sys em has a di ec e ec on he speed wi h which child en acqui e eading skills (Pin o e al., 2015; Seymou e al., 2003), hese ea u es o language need o be acknowledged in eading esea ch. Li huanian child en en e kinde ga en on he i s o Sep embe o he calenda yea o hei six h bi hday. In Li huania, kinde ga en educa ion, which became compulso y in 2016, akes place one yea be o e G ade 1 (LR [Republic o Li huania] Minis y o Educa ion, Science, and Spo s, 2014). Kinde ga en eache s ha e signi ican au onomy in choosing hei pedagogical p ac ices – which a e con i med by he school – and conside ing he indi idual needs o he child en (LR Minis y o Educa ion, Science, and Spo s, 2014). The kinde ga en cu iculum does no se c i e ia o de e mining le els o eading skills be o e school en ance. Ra he , kinde ga en educa ion is mean o “ ill he gap” be ween child en om di e se socioeconomic backg ounds, especially he gaps conce ning spoken language (Gedu ienė, 2020). To his end, speech he apis s sc een child en o iden i y di icul ies in exp essi e and ecep i e spoken language and o help hem cope be o e hei en ance o G ade 1 (Gedu ienė, 2020). I is only in G ade 1 ha child en a e exposed o he sys ema ic eaching o eading a school. Du ing he i s semes e o G ade 1, lis ening o spoken language and comp ehension o spoken ex a e emphasized. Child en also s a G ade 1 by lea ning le e s and le e – sound co espondences, eading longe chains o le e s quickly and accu a ely. Due o he anspa ency o he Li huanian o hog aphy ( alling owa d he anspa en end on he opaque – anspa en con inuum), Li huanian child en become ela i ely accu a e decode s by he end o he i s semes e o G ade 1 bu mos ly a y by he speed o eading (Gedu ienė, 2008). Towa d he end o G ade 1, eading comp ehension plays a cen al ole in eading skill de elopmen (Republic, 2014). These cha ac e is ics o Li huanian language and ins uc ion in Li huanian schools dic a ed he measu es and imeline o ou longi udinal in es iga ion. Resea ch ques ions The main aim o ou longi udinal s udy was o examine he SVR model in Li huanian ac oss he ansi ion om kinde ga en o G ade 1. To examine whe he an ex ension o SVR is use ul in p edic ing eading comp ehension, we also examined he ole o key language and ea ly li e acy skills in kinde ga en as p edic o s o he componen s o SVR and asked he ollowing esea ch ques ions: (1) To wha ex en do lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency a he s a o G ade 1 p edic eading comp ehension a he end o G ade 1? We expec ed o con i m he SVR model (Gough & Tunme , 1986; Hoo e & Gough, 1990), meaning ha lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency would p edic eading comp ehension among G ade 1 Li huanian child en (Model 1). (2) To wha ex en do language and ea ly li e acy skills (i.e., ocabula y, phonological awa eness, le e knowledge, RAN) di ec ly and indi ec ly p edic eading comp ehension, lis ening SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING 5 comp ehension, and wo d eading luency (Kim, 2020a)? We cons uc ed wo al e na i e models: Model 2A and Model 2B. Model 2A: The Hie a chical, Indi ec E ec s Pa h Model. Language and ea ly li e acy p edic o s a he end o kinde ga en only indi ec ly p edic eading comp ehension a he end o G ade 1 h ough lis ening comp ehension (Flo i e al., 2022; LARRC & Chiu & LARRC, 2018; To ppa e al., 2016) and wo d eading luency (Ca s e al., 2005; Kendeou e al., 2009; S o ch & Whi ehu s , 2002) a he s a o G ade 1. Model 2B: The Di ec and Indi ec E ec s Pa h Model. Language and ea ly li e acy p edic o s bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly ( ia lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency) p edic eading comp ehension (Kim, 2020a). Me hods Pa icipan s and p ocedu e The da a came om he longi udinal da a collec ion “Ge in ol ed! T ansi ion o G ade 1” (Silinskas & Raiziene, 2017–2018), which ollowed Li huanian child en ac oss hei ansi ion om kinde ga en o G ade 1. The s udy was app o ed by he E hical Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä (3.5.2017), and he s udy con o ms o he Decla a ion o Helsinki. Legal gua dians o he pa icipa ing child en p o ided in o med w i en consen s, and child en ga e hei assen p io o hei inclusion in he s udy. We ini ially app oached six p incipals who g an ed us pe mission o collec da a a hei schools. All pa icipa ing kinde ga en classes we e si ua ed in he same buildings as he child en’s u u e p ima y schools, and all he schools we e Li huanian-speaking. Rega ding hei home language en i onmen s, 89.6% o he child en spoke only Li huanian a home, and 6.8% spoke a combina ion o Li huanian and Russian o Polish. In pa icula , 1.8% spoke only Russian a home, and 0.9% spoke only Polish a home, bu hese child en did no di e om he es in e ms o any o he s udy a iables. This language p o ile o ou sample is ai ly ep esen a i e o he o e all popula ion o Li huania, whe e he mino i y languages mos commonly spoken a home a e Polish (6%) and Russian (5%) (S a is ics Li huania, 2014). Mo eo e , he sample was highly homogeneous wi h ega d o he e hnic and cul u al backg ounds o he s udy pa icipan s, which is ypical o he school popula ion in Li huania. In e ms o pa en al educa ion (S a is ics Li huania, 2014), ou sample comp ised somewha highly educa ed pa en s: 66.4% epo ed ha hey had ob ained a uni e si y deg ee, 24.1% had comple ed a college o poly echnic p og am, 7.1% had comple ed high school, and only 2.4% had comple ed a le el lowe han high school. The child en we e es ed indi idually a he end o kinde ga en (T1, Ap il – May, 2017, n = 229, 116 gi ls), a he beginning o G ade 1 (T2, Oc obe – No embe , 2017, n = 183), and a he end o G ade 1 (T3, Ap il – May, 2018, n = 186). On each occasion, es ing ook place in he o ice o he school psychologis who adminis e ed he es ba e y. They all ecei ed aining on he use o his pa icula es ba e y p io o each measu emen poin . On he i s es ing occasion, many o he child en we e app oaching se en yea s o age (M age = 6.79, SD = .47). Fo y-six child en d opped ou o he s udy be ween T1 and T2 because hey mo ed away, changed schools, o we e absen om he schools o he es ing pe iods. The analyses o he missing da a e ealed no sys ema ic di e ences be ween he child en who had d opped ou , s ayed in he s udy, o joined he s udy a any ime poin (also see Li le’s MCAR es esul s in he Analysis S a egy sec ion). 6G. SILINSKAS ET AL. Measu es—child es s (T1, T2, and T3) All he measu es used in his s udy we e de eloped based on hose employed in he Finnish Fi s S eps longi udinal s udy (M.-K. Le kkanen e al., 2006–2016) and ano he longi udinal s udy in Li huania (Gedu ienė, 2008). Table 1 p esen s he psychome ic p ope ies o all he s udy a iables. All psychome ic p ope ies, including eliabili ies, we e based on he p esen sample. End o kinde ga en (T1) Vocabula y. The 30-i em sho ened e sion o he Peabody Pic u e Vocabula y Tes – Re ised (PPVT-R, Fo m L; Dunn & Dunn, 1981) was used o measu e child en’s ecep i e ocabula y in kinde ga en. The child en we e p esen ed wi h ou pic u es and asked o poin o he pic u e ha co ec ly ep esen ed he wo d he es e had p onounced. The i ems o he sho ened e sion we e p e iously used in he Finnish Fi s S eps longi udinal s udy (M.-K. Le kkanen e al., 2006– 2016). Phonological Awa eness. Two es s we e used o measu e phonological awa eness: (1) ini ial phoneme iden i ica ion and (2) ini ial phoneme dele ion (Gedu ienė, 2008). In he ini ial phoneme iden i ica ion es , he child en we e ead 12 wo ds aloud and we e asked o name he i s sound o ha wo d. In he ini ial phoneme dele ion es , he child en we e ead 12 wo ds aloud and we e asked o say he wo d wi hou he i s sound. Be o e bo h asks, he child en we e p esen ed wi h h ee p ac ice i ems o ensu e ha hey unde s ood he ins uc- ions. The asks we e discon inued a e h ee inco ec answe s we e gi en in a ow. The sco es o bo h es s we e ob ained by coun ing he numbe o co ec i ems. Fo he main s udy analyses, he mean sco e o he wo s anda dized es sco es (z-sco es) was calcula ed. Le e Knowledge. The child en named all 32 le e s o he Li huanian o hog aphy, which we e a anged andomly in o h ee ows (Gedu ienė, 2008; M.-K. Le kkanen e al., 2006). All le e s we e uppe case le e s. The child en named he le e s one ow a a ime, while he o he ows we e co e ed. Bo h le e names and le e sounds we e accep ed as co ec answe s. The sco e was he numbe o co ec ly named le e s/sounds. Table 1. Desc ip i es o all s udy a iables, based on he p esen sample. N M SD C onbach’s Range Skewness Ku osis α Po en ial Ac ual End o Kinde ga en (T1) Vocabula y 229 18.03 3.93 .68 0–30 7–26 −0.46 0.18 Ini ial phoneme iden i ica ion 229 9.99 3.04 .91 0–12 0–12 −2.30 4.54 Ini ial phoneme dele ion 229 3.53 4.67 .97 0–12 0–12 0.77 −1.21 Phonological awa eness a 229 0.00 0.81 .93 −2.02–1.24 −0.52 0.19 Le e knowledge 229 26.92 7.31 .96 0–32 1–32 −2.07 3.61 RAN (objec s pe second) 228 0.72 0.17 0.25–1.22 0.19 0.20 Beginning o G ade 1 (T2) Lis ening comp ehension 183 17.00 4.84 .90 0–26 0–25 −0.96 1.24 Wo d eading luency 183 15.61 11.52 .97 0–75 0–57 0.99 1.40 End o G ade 1 (T3) Reading comp ehension 186 8.49 3.01 .91 0–13 0–13 −1.14 1.08 Con ol a iables Child gende (gi l 0, boy 1) 229 ●Gi l 116 ●Boy 113 Highes educa ion in a amily b 212 4.54 0.75 1–5 −1.82 3.44 No e. T1—end o Kinde ga en, T2—beginning o G ade 1, and T3—end o G ade 1. a Phonological awa eness is a mean sco e o wo z-sco es (ini ial phoneme iden i ica ion and ini ial phoneme dele ion). b highes educa ion in a amily was sco ed as ollows: 1 = 0–8 yea s, 2 = 9–10 yea s, 3 = 11–12 yea s, 4 = college o poly echnics, 5 = uni e si y. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING 7 accu acy skill, and hus Ka gio idis e al’s (2022) s udy indi ec ly suppo s he alidi y o ou indings. I should be no ed, howe e , ha le e knowledge, phonological awa eness, and wo d eading luency we e s ongly ela ed o each o he and he ac ha he e ec o wo d eading luency disappea ed a e le e knowledge was en e ed o he model does no mean ha wo d eading luency would no be an impo an p edic o o eading comp ehension. Le e knowledge was me ely he s onges measu e among he p edic o s a his ea ly phase o eading acquisi ion. I is also impo an o ecognize ha le e knowledge measu e was no cu en (i.e., was no measu ed a he same ime as eading comp ehension) bu a he om he p e ious yea . I is expec ed ha child en lea n all he le e s by he end o G ade 1, hus he associa ion be ween le e knowledge in kinde ga en and eading comp ehension a he end o G ade 1 highligh s also he impo ance o child en’s lea ning en i on- men s, ei he a home (Silinskas e al., 2021; Silinskas, Sénéchal, e al., 2020; Silinskas, To ppa, e al., 2020; Sénéchal, 2006) o kinde ga en (Silinskas e al., 2017). O e all, in line wi h p e ious heo ies (SVR, Gough & Tunme , 1986; DIER, Kim, 2017, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c), he cu en s udy sugges s ha child en’s language and ea ly li e acy skills play an impo an ole in hei u he de elopmen o eading comp ehension. The indings hus emphasize he impo ance o kinde ga en educa ion in de eloping child en’s u u e eading skills. In pa icula , child en who sco e lowe in ocabula y, le e knowledge, phonological awa eness, o RAN migh be a a highe isk o de eloping di icul ies in decoding, lis ening comp ehension, and, ul ima ely, eading comp ehension. Consequen ly, kinde ga en educa ion in Li huania could pay special a en- ion o de eloping language and ea ly li e acy skills and hus moni o and p o ide ea ly help o child en o ensu e ha hey do no all behind hei pee s in G ade 1 eading de elopmen . Limi a ions The p esen s udy has some limi a ions. Fi s , ou s udy, al hough longi udinal, can indica e en a i e ela ions and does no imply causali y. Second, al hough ou s udy was longi udinal, all he cons uc s we e measu ed once; ha is, no au o eg esso s we e included. To examine media ions using long- i udinal da a, au o eg esso s need o be included. This was no he case in he p esen s udy bu needs o be aken in o conside a ion in he u u e s udies. Thi d, ou s udy ollowed child en ac oss he ansi ion om kinde ga en o G ade 1 and was unable o examine he de elopmen al dynamics be ween SVR componen s and hei language and ea ly li e acy p edic o s in he longe un. Fu u e s udies should implemen addi ional usage o he same measu es (enabling au o eg esso e ec s). Fou h, he sample comp ised somewha highly educa ed pa en s. Al hough he home lea ning en i onmen o pa en al li e acy- ela ed belie s and ac i i ies we e no he ocus o his s udy, one needs o be ca e ul when gene alizing ou esul s among child en o lowe -educa ed pa en s. Fi h, many o ou measu es we e assessed by single es s and some imes had somewha low eliabili ies and skewed dis ibu ions. To his end, we used an MLR es ima o ha ook non-no mali y in o accoun . Howe e , o dec ease measu emen e o , mo e han one es pe cons uc should be used in u u e s udies. Finally, al hough he SVR o e ed a pa simonious and comp ehensi e way o hinking abou eading ou comes and hei p ecu so s, some compe ing iews need o be acknowledged. The p esen s udy bene i ed om aking he DIER model in o accoun when explo ing he kinde ga en p edic o s o eading comp ehension. Howe e , o he heo e ical app oaches we e no conside ed. Fo ins ance, he comple e iew o eading (CVR; F ancis e al., 2018; see a commen a y on his amewo k by Hoo e & Tunme , 2018) and he ex ended comple e iew o eading (ECVR; Snow, 2018) pay a en ion o he a ia ion in eade s (e.g., le el o eading skills), ea u es o eading asks/ ex s, and eading s a egies. Ano he ame- wo k – he ac i e iew o eading (AVR; Duke & Ca w igh , 2021; see also a esponse by Hoo e & Tunme , 2022) – calls o acknowledgmen o ac i e, sel - egula o y p ocesses ha a ec eading de elopmen . Al hough he o iginal SVR au ho s (Hoo e & Tunme , 2018, 2022) iew hese al e na i es as complemen- a y models ha ocus on di e en aspec s o eading, hese wo models p o ide a p omising amewo k o deepening ou unde s anding abou eading e en u he . De eloping and es ing hese amewo ks emains a challenge o u u e esea ch. 14 G. SILINSKAS ET AL. Conclusion In sum, ou indings gene ally suppo ed he SVR model in anspa en Li huanian o hog a- phy among G ade 1 s uden s. Tha is, lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency longi udinally p edic ed eading comp ehension in G ade 1. Howe e , he indings also emphasized he ole o language and ea ly li e acy skills in kinde ga en, such as ocabula y, le e knowledge, phonological awa eness, and RAN. In ac , hey we e s onge p edic o s o eading comp ehension han lis ening comp ehension and wo d eading luency. The e o e, in p ac ice, ocabula y and le e knowledge likely wo k be e in he ea ly iden i ica ion o child en a isk o de eloping ea ly eading comp ehension p oblems, a leas in he Li huanian con ex . Ou s udy makes some impo an con ibu ions o he li e a u e. Fi s , while he model o he SVR has been ex ensi ely examined in English (Flo i & Cain, 2011; J. R. Ki by & Sa age, 2008; Joshi, 2018; S ua e al., 2008), less is known abou how i gene alizes in he con ex o anspa en o hog aphies. No p e ious s udies o he SVR ha e been conduc ed in Li huanian. While he model has been examined in a ew anspa en o hog aphies, such as Finnish (To ppa e al., 2016), Ge man (Lande l & Wimme , 2003), G eek (Kendeou e al., 2013), and I alian (Flo i e al., 2022), anspa en o hog aphies di e by he deg ee o anspa ency, syllabic s uc u e, he language hey ep esen and o he aspec s o language, and hei educa ional and cul u al en i onmen s. Tha is, i is di icul o quan i y he deg ee o anspa ency o indi idual w i ing sys ems (Babayiği , 2022). Thus, o g ea e gene alizabili y ac oss o hog aphies, he SVR model needs o be es ed in di e en o hog aphies. Second, he cu en s udy is longi udinal; ha is, da a we e collec ed h ee imes du ing he impo an ansi ion om kinde ga en o sys ema ic o mal eading ins uc ion commencing in G ade 1. By doing so, we we e able o expand ou iewpoin beyond SVR and de ec he di ec connec ions be ween he language and ea ly li e acy p edic o s and he componen s o he SVR. In pa icula , as sugges ed by he DIER heo y, we es ima ed he di ec and indi ec pa hways om language and ea ly li e acy skills in kinde ga en o he goal – eading comp ehension – a he end o G ade 1. Doing so allowed us o ind he powe ul ole o ocabula y and le e knowledge in kinde ga en in eading comp ehension in G ade 1. Taken oge he , his knowledge can help in he ea ly iden i ica ion o child en a isk o eading di icul ies, and consequen ly enable imely and e ec i e suppo in ea ly eading de elopmen . Disclosu e s a emen No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s). Funding This wo k was suppo ed by he g an s o he Academy o Finland o Gin au as Silinskas (g an numbe s #296082, #331525, #336148, #358041).The esea ch con ibu ion o Minna To ppa is pa o he CRITICAL p ojec unded by he S a egic Resea ch Council (SRC) es ablished wi hin he Academy o Finland (G an s No. 335625 and No. 335727). ORCID Gin au as Silinskas h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5116-6877 E hics app o al s a emen The s udy was app o ed by he E hical Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä (3.5.2017), and he s udy con o ms o he Decla a ion o Helsinki. Legal gua dians o he pa icipa ing child en p o ided in o med w i en consen s, and child en ga e hei assen p io o hei inclusion in he s udy. 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Rasa said goodbye o he mo he , “Today is going o be a e y in e es ing day. I hope I see a bea .” 1. Rasa does no wan : □ o be la e □ o ush □ o ge eady 2. Rasa eels: □ sleepy □ sick □ happy 3. Rasa will go: □ o he doc o □ o he lib a y □ o he zoo 4. Wha ime does he ac ion ake place? □ in he mo ning □ du ing lunch □ a nigh SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING 19