Defining the accessibility of physical activity : Tracing the social dimension

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY-SA 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ De ining he accessibili y o physical ac i i y : T acing he social dimension © 2022 he Au ho s Published e sion Vi masalo, Ilkka; Hasanen, Elina Vi masalo, I., & Hasanen, E. (2022). De ining he accessibili y o physical ac i i y : T acing he social dimension. Con es i. Ci à, Te i o i, P oge i, 2022(2), 59-76. h ps://doi.o g/10.36253/con es -14177 2022 CONTESTI CITTÀ TERRITORI PROGETTI 59 Ilkka Vi masalo Facul y o Spo and Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland ilkka. i masalo@jyu. i Elina Hasanen Facul y o Spo and Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland elina.hasanen@jyu. i Recei ed: Augus 2022 Accep ed: Oc obe 2022 © 2022 The Au ho (s) This a icle is published wi h C ea i e Commons license CC BY-SA 4.0 Fi enze Uni e si y P ess. DOI: 10.13128/con es -13879 www. up ess.ne /index.php/con es i/ In oduc ion This a icle desc ibes an ex ended ypology o accessibili y o guide he p omo ion o physical ac i i y (PA). Besides he p e ious li e a u e, he a icle is based on wha we ha e lea ned in ou case s udy on wo subu bs in Finland. The ocus o he p ojec unded by he Finn- ish Minis y o he En i onmen has been o s udy equal possibili ies o access he acili ies and en i onmen s ha suppo a physically ac i e li es yle, pa icula ly among people wi h isk ac o s o poo heal h, such as low socio-economic s a us. In he s udy, su - eys and obse a ions on he subu ban esiden s’ PA beha iou s and Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys em (GIS) da a we e u ilised in a co-de- elopmen p ocess in ol ing municipal au ho i ies om he a ge ci ies. Public sec- o spo p o essionals and esea che s in he social sciences o spo and ge- og aphy ha e wo ked in a dialogue, u ilising s udy e- De ining he accessibili y o physical ac i i y T acing he social dimension The p omo ion o he physical ac i i y (PA) o ci izens has adi ionally ocused on imp o ing spa ial accessibili y, especially in municipal adminis a ions. Howe e , esea ch e idence indica es ha p oximi y o PA en i onmen s is no a su icien condi ion o inc eased PA. This a icle p esen s a b oade model o he dimensions o he accessibili y o PA, de eloped in coope a ion be ween esea che s and he au ho i ies o wo ci ies in Finland. As a esul , en dimensions a ec ing accessibili y ha e been iden i ied: spa ial, empo al, physical/ echnological, keywo ds physical ac i i y accessibili y social accessibili y co-de elopmen Finland DEFINING THE ACCESSIBILITY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. TRACING THE SOCIAL DIMENSION 60 sul s o de elop ools o a be e unde s and- ing o accessibili y. This a icle is mo i a ed by a need iden i ied in he co-de elopmen p o- cess o a icula e he di e en aspec s o he ac ions needed by di e en ac o s o p omo e PA. A b oadened iew o bo h he PA and he ac o s cen ally ames he ask. The s udy o accessibili y has adi ionally been di e en ia ed acco ding o disciplines, bu he e is a need o c ea e a mo e in eg a i e ision o de elop a be e unde s anding o he human expe ience o accessibili y ha would lead o ac ion – in his case, PA. Wha makes his ask challenging, and whe e i di e s om mos o he p e ious ways o concep ualising accessibili y, is ha he e he aim is o co e he en i e ield o PA: o ms o ac i i y om compe i i e spo s o commu ing and shop- ping; and en i onmen s om special pu pose buildings o unbuil na u al en i onmen s. The widened policy ocus, which ecognises he signi icance o no only spo s and exe cise bu also all heal h- ela ed PA, in all en i onmen s, is necessa y om he iewpoin o inc easing popula ions’ heal h and well-being in an e a o inc easing physical passi i y. A majo challenge o he social scien i ic con- cep ualisa ions o accessibili y has been ha hey ha e no been sys ema ised, p agma- ised and made a ailable o a ious ac o s and sec o s. The e a e p e ious de ini ions o he dimensions o accessibili y o PA, bu comp e- hensi e and concep ually jus i ied ypologies ha e ha dly been de eloped. Coope a ion be- ween di e en public policy sec o s, as well as wi h o he ac o s, is deemed pa icula ly nec- essa y when aiming o p omo e equal accessi- bili y. The e hos in he backg ound o his p o- jec is ha he p omo ion o PA, especially in socially disad an aged popula ions, is no an ac i i y di ec ed om abo e by policymake s and policy planne s. Ins ead, i is essen ially a egionally ca ied ou inclusi e ac i i y in which many local ac o s a e in ol ed. In addi ion o municipal spo au ho i ies, i includes social wo ke s, you h wo ke s, eache s, and he comme cial and hi d sec o s, among o he s. In Finland, he Ac on he P omo ion o Spo s and Physical Ac i i y (2015/390 2§) places in o ma ional, economic, legal/ adminis a i e, cul u al/a i udinal, skills ela ed, men al and social. A special ocus o a en ion is on he mos neglec ed dimension: he social. In addi ion o he dimensional ypology, he a icle p esen s a iew o he PA accessibili y p ocess in which he social dimension plays a signi ican ole as a media ing le el be ween he enabling ac o s and he decisions made by indi iduals. CONTESTI CITTÀ TERRITORI PROGETTI 61 s ong esponsibili y on he public sec o o p omo ing PA. The ield ha p oduces places and se ices and o he en i onmen s ela ed o a physically ac i e li es yle and leisu e- ime PA is, howe e , wide . The e o e, mo e coo - dina ed and sys ema ic coope a ion and in- ol emen om ac o s om di e en ields and sec o s would be necessa y o use he exis ing esou ces o suppo PA in he bes and mos e icien way possible. In gene al, i seems ha spo s policy has been implemen - ed om a a he limi ed pe spec i e in e ms o accessibili y, al hough equal oppo uni ies o PA ha e long been a decla ed goal o ac- ion, as s a ed in he Spo s Ac . The p omo- ion o PA o ci izens has adi ionally ocused on imp o ing spa ial accessibili y o PA en i- onmen s, especially in municipal adminis a- ions. Today, ex ensi e esea ch e idence in- dica es ha p oximi y o PA en i onmen s is no a su icien condi ion o inc eased ac i i y (e.g. Ku aja-Köllne e al., 2022; McCo mack e al., 2004; Po e al., 2021). As a e e ence poin om ea lie li e a u e, accessibili y o public se ices has been con- cep ualised, o example, by Aday and Ande - sen (1974). They dis inguished he social and geog aphical aspec s o accessibili y o heal h se ices and also p esen ed social accessibili- y – which hey also called “non-spa ial” – as DEFINING THE ACCESSIBILITY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. TRACING THE SOCIAL DIMENSION 62 an impo an aspec conce ning people’s op- po uni ies o u ilise he se ices o e ed in hei en i onmen . Conce ning accessibili y in PA, di e en dimensions ha e o en been desc ibed as pe cei ed accessibili y: hey a e a he ela ed o how people pe cei e hei oppo uni ies han o places o se ices o PA (e.g. Koppen e al., 2014). Howe e , i is mo e di icul o concep ualise he p omo ion o he whole ange o PA han a pa icula public se - ice o speci ic en i onmen . The condi ions o human PA consis no only o he se ices, places, acili ies and equipmen a ailable bu also o an almos unlimi ed ange o o he physical and social en i onmen al ac o s. De ini ions o accessibili y, which would in- clude he sociological pe spec i e and apply o PA in i s b oad sense, a e a e. In he a ea o cul u e, whose supply is mo e ocused on se ices han places, he dimensions o acces- sibili y ha e gene ally been mo e b oadly con- side ed han in he a ea o PA (e.g. Smolny & Gałecka, 2018). The e o e, he e oo, he s a - ing poin chosen o de elopmen wo k is a classi ica ion compiled by an associa ion s i - ing o p omo e equal accessibili y o Finnish cul u al se ices1. The dimensions adop ed as he ini ial poin o his p ojec we e a i udes, communica ion, p icing, accessibili y o he buil en i onmen , senso y access, in ellec ual access, social access and policies/ac ion plans. P elimina y esul s o su eys di ec ed de el- opmen owa ds social issues: he a ailabili y and usabili y o en i onmen s appea ed as a ely exp essed PA ba ie s. Also, discussions in collabo a i e g oups as well as esea ch li e - a u e di ec ed de elopmen o ex end hinking o dimensions no di ec ly ela ed o en i on- men s bu mo e o wha people hink o hem. Because he dimensions de eloped he e ha e e ol ed in he co-de elopmen p ocess, he s a ing poin is a holis ic, eal-wo ld phenom- enon ha is iewed in i s con ex . The p omo- ion o PA h ough he concep ualisa ion o he dimensions o accessibili y o places and se ices is app oached in a b oad sense. The dimensions o accessibili y can also be seen as a mo e uni e sally applicable classi ica ion, bu h ough i s c ea ion p ocess, he ypology p esen ed he e has been op imised speci i- cally o he p omo ion o PA. In he ollowing sec ions, i s , he dimensions a e p esen ed, hen a close look a de ining he social dimen- sion and p ocessual na u e o accessibili y is aken, and inally he signi icance and implica- ions o his s udy a e discussed. Dimensions The i s e sion o he ypology o dimen- sion was published in he blog o he esea ch p ojec in Feb ua y 2022. The e sion had eigh dimensions: spa ial, empo al, physical/ echnological, in o ma ional, economic, skills ela ed, men al and social. Based on he con- Kon ula ska epa k in Helsinki Fig. 1 (p e ious page) Vi masalo & Hasanen 2020 CONTESTI CITTÀ TERRITORI PROGETTI 63 e sa ions in aining sessions and coope a- ion wi h au ho i ies, wo mo e we e added: legal/adminis a i e and cul u al/a i udinal. The dimensions may na u ally o e lap and be in e sec ional wi h each o he . Fo ins ance, he spa ial, empo al and economic dimen- sions a e connec ed as he geog aphical lo- ca ion o a acili y (spa ial dimension) usually di ec ly a ec s, o example, a el ime ( em- po al dimension) and a el cos s (economic dimension). The app oach hus has links o socio-ecological modelling, bu i is less hie - a chical in na u e, and he ac o s may no be as clea ly loca ed in a single dimension. Spa- ial accessibili y. The dimension o accessibili y ha is mos ypical, adi ional and pe haps “easies ” o obse e is spa ial accessibili y o se ices and places. Spa ial accessibili y is mode a ely easy o e i y wi h mode n GIS. GIS also end o suppo well he design and analysis o PA en i onmen s and se ices (e.g. Ko a aa a and Rusanen, 2016). By combining spa ial in o ma ion wi h he PA en i onmen s, socio-economic cha ac e is ics and demo- g aphic s uc u e o egions, o example, one can examine he equali y o he p o ision o places and se ices. Such mappings o social ac o s ela ed o spa ial accessibili y ha e o - en been conduc ed in ecen yea s. So-called con ex ual egional e ec s ha e also been in- es iga ed – i.e. whe he he e is some hing in he mobili y- ela ed in as uc u e o o he ex e nal ac o s o a ce ain a ea ha limi s o p e en s indi iduals’ choices ega ding ac i i- y, o whe he es ic ions a e caused by poo anspo connec ions o se ices, isola ing an a ea om oppo uni ies o e ed elsewhe e. Technically, GIS-based sys ems al eady p o ide a qui e good pla o m o analyses, bu con- en p oduc ion conce ning PA en i onmen s seems o no be s anda dised, and esou cing on da a p oduc ion a ies locally, lea ing quali- y and co e age s ill inadequa e. In spa ial analyses, i mus also be no ed om a public heal h poin o iew ha he mos common PA o ms a e no associa ed wi h en- i onmen s de ined as places o exe cise. The mos widely p ac iced o ms o PA do no e- qui e speci ic in as uc u e, no a e hey se - ice-in ensi e ei he . Acco ding o he su ey conduc ed by S a is ics Finland, he mos pop- ula o ms o PA a e walking (p ac iced by 60% o esponden s), aining a home (29%) and cycling (25%). Among he en mos popula o ms o ac i i y ha a e mo e clea ly connec - ed o spo s acili ies a e gym aining (23%), swimming/aqua ic exe cise (17%), guided exe cise/gymnas ics (12%), skiing (9%) and oo ball as he sole eam spo (5%). Conse- quen ly, a signi ican p opo ion o PA occu s ou side he scope o buil spo s en i onmen s o spo s se ices (Ruuskanen, 2019). Ano he downside o basic spa ial analyses is ha s udies ha e ound a sys ema ic mis- DEFINING THE ACCESSIBILITY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. TRACING THE SOCIAL DIMENSION 64 ma ch be ween objec i e and pe cei ed dis- ances and accessibili y (Vi man-Scho e al., 2019). Resea ch knowledge on indi idually ex- pe ienced accessibili y is no comp ehensi e, bu i is clea ha i is in luenced by di e en p e-assump ions equally o e en mo e han by ac ual objec i e ac o s (e.g. Zhang and Tan, 2019). Also, hese p e-assump ions a e no unconnec ed o he en i onmen : pe cei ed accessibili y is ela ed o socio-spa ial dimen- sions, such as access o PA en i onmen s wi hin a esiden ial a ea, knowledge abou he e i o y, social inclusion and pe cei ed secu i- y (Lä man e al., 2016). Tempo al accessibili y. Tempo al accessibili y is an obliga o y dimension o he indi idual o he same ex en as he spa ial dimension; he exis ence o an en i onmen is i ele an o PA i i is inaccessible due o opening hou s o o h- e empo al limi a ions. Tempo al accessibili y may be limi ed, on he one hand, by esou ces, laws and ules, and on he o he hand, by ge- og aphical and clima ic ac o s (Sch ipke e al., 2021). F om indi iduals’ poin o iew, issues such as wo k o s udy and amily de ine he ime ame o PA in mul idimensional e ms. The spa ial and empo al dimensions o acces- sibili y a e in e wined when examining a el imes o en i onmen s; howe e , a el imes a e also de e mined h ough pe sonal esou c- Dimensions o accessibili y o physical ac i i y wi h examples Fig. 2 Vi masalo & Hasanen 2022 CONTESTI CITTÀ TERRITORI PROGETTI 65 es. Fu he mo e, he empo al dimension is a ma e o equali y. Fo example, shi wo k- e s a e wo se o in he use o many en i on- men s. I is also no ewo hy ha , in e sec ing he empo al and spa ial dimensions (“ empo- al dis ance”) h ough po en ial access o ways o passage c ea es inequali y (Li e al., 2021). Physical and echnological accessibili y. In addi ion o he spa ial dimension, physical and echnological accessibili y is ypically a well-unde s ood and u ilised dimension o ac- cessibili y, pa icula ly in he design o spo s acili ies and se ices and in building o en- o a ion p ojec s. The de ini ion o physical and echnological accessibili y he e is close o wha is usually mean by “accessibili y”: he solu ions needed o enable PA pa icipa ion in di e en en i onmen s, o example, o people in a wheelchai o wi h a hea ing im- pai men (THL, 2022). Physical accessibili y also includes physical secu i y, i.e. ha he en- i onmen o equipmen does no c ea e a isk o hu ing onesel . Technological accessibili y, in u n, e e s o he poin ha he equipmen associa ed wi h he use o he en i onmen is a ailable o all compe encies, and, o ex- ample, no unnecessa ily challenging echnical compe ence is equi ed o make a ese a ion. In ha , echnological accessibili y comes close o he de ini ion o “usabili y”2. Physical and echnological accessibili y a e clea ac o s o equali y in PA as hey a e o en linked o he needs o people wi h a disabili y. In o ma ional accessibili y. In o ma ional ac- cessibili y means ha in o ma ion abou he condi ions o PA is objec i ely achie able and subjec i ely in elligible. Based on ou su eys3, lack o in o ma ion has been an e en mo e common ac o in educing o inhibi ing PA han he lack o places o hei poo condi ion. The e a e also no ewo hy aspec s o equali y in his inding. In pa icula , non-na i e speak- e s o Finnish o Swedish pe cei ed access o in o ma ion mo e o en as a limi ing ac o . Ci ies a e s a egically ocusing on digi al in o - ma ion as he p ima y means o passing in o - ma ion, and his migh ha e implica ions o he accessibili y o in o ma ion expe ienced by olde people, o example. Howe e , based on ou su ey, i was less common o he elde ly o eel ha a lack o in o ma ion impeded hei PA han o younge age g oups. The Finnish Associa ion o De elopmen al Disabili ies4 summa ises he p inciples o accessibili y o in o ma ion as ollows: “Accessibili y o in o - ma ion and communica ion is no only abou echnology, bu also abou he clea con en o messages so ha messages each all use s — including people wi h disabili ies, olde people and, o example, immig an s”. Economic accessibili y. In gene al, economic accessibili y is a majo ac o in he equali y o PA – he inc eased cos s pu amilies wi h child en in an unequal posi ion. Fo example, DEFINING THE ACCESSIBILITY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. TRACING THE SOCIAL DIMENSION 66 hal o he young people who pa icipa ed in he la es Finnish LIITU s udy (Kokko e al., 2021, p. 52) eplied ha he cos liness o he hobby was an obs acle o PA. Al hough PA can be main ained, i desi ed, wi h e y mod- es inancial esou ces, i is also a ques ion o li es yle choices ega ding heal h beha iou (Hakamäki e al., 2014, p. 5). Public adminis- a ion e o s ha e been aimed pa icula ly a hose wi h low incomes by alloca ing inan- cial esou ces. In Finland, municipali ies ha e de eloped g an p ac ices and de ined exe - cise si e-speci ic p ice ca ego ies o di e en use g oups, such as child en, s uden s, un- employed people and pensione s (Jy äskylän kaupungin liikun apal elu , 2022, p. 3). Local go e nmen coope a ion wi hin he ame- wo k o ou p ojec has shown ha hose de- ciding on sub en ions and g an s ha e had o make di icul delinea ions. In a wide wel a e socie y con ex , suppo measu es a ge ed a PA can be seen as a eac i e damage epai o economic inequali y. A be e di ec ion in his ega d would in ol e educing inequali y so ha mo e people would ha e he inancial e- sou ces o make independen decisions abou hei desi ed o ms o PA. Legal/adminis a i e accessibili y. Legal/ad- minis a i e accessibili y does no o en ap- pea in he li e a u e, a leas as de ined in mo e de ail. Ne e heless, i is included in his ypology o desc ibe he di e en le els o ules and egula ions ha es ic he use o PA en i onmen s and se ices (Eb u, 2015; Koppen e al., 2014; Sie änen e al., 2008). Laws, egula ions and o he adminis a i e decisions can impose a wide ange o ba ie s o PA in a gi en loca ion: ice inks and g ass ields, o example, a e o en mos ly occupied by clubs and hei o ganised ac i i ies. The use o na u al habi a s is also go e ned by di e - en s a us de ini ions: in na ional pa ks and o he na u e ese es, ac i i ies a e es ic ed in many ways, while in na u e pa ks, public mo emen is comple ely p ohibi ed. In open u ban spaces, a ange o physical ac i i ies a e engaged in places ha a e no designed o “in- ended” o he kind o use (Bach, 1993), and his may also p oduce dis u bance o sa e y conce ns. Fo example, ska eboa ding, scoo - ing and e en cycling a e o en pe cei ed as dis u bances om he poin o iew o o he use s o he space, and he e a e ules and p o- hibi ions o limi hem (Rannikko e al., 2016). Legal/adminis a i e accessibili y is he e o e gene ally based on a need o “p o ec ” he en- i onmen and people in one way o ano he o on di ec ing he use o esou ces. The accessibili y dimensions ou lined abo e a e easy o esea ch and go e nance in he sense ha hey a e easily e i iable, measu - able and clea om he poin o iew o he o ien a ion o in e en ions. Mo e challenging a e he dimensions ela ed o pe sonal cha ac- CONTESTI CITTÀ TERRITORI PROGETTI 73 Bibliog a ia Ac 390/2015. Ac on he p omo ion o spo s and physical ac i i y. <h ps://www. inlex. i/s /laki/kaan- nokse /2015/en20150390_20150390.pd > (08/22). Aday, L.A., Ande sen, R., 1974, A amewo k o he s udy o access o medical ca e, «Heal h Se ic- es Resea ch”, ol. 9, pp. 208. <h ps://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.go /pmc/a icles/PMC1071804/pd /hs e- sea ch00560-0030.pd > (06/22). Bach, L., 1993, Spo s wi hou acili ies: The use o u ban spaces by in o mal spo s, «In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo ”, ol. 28, pp. 281–296. <h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/101269029302800214> (06/22). Be ge , P.L., Luckmannn, T., 1967, The Social Cons uc- ion o Reali y: A T ea ise in he Sociology o Knowl- edge, Doubleday, New Yo k. Bo odulin, K., Ha ald, K., Jousilah i, P., Laa ikainen, T., Männis ö, S., Va iainen, E., 2016, Time ends in PA om 1982 o 2012 in Finland, «Scandina ian Jou nal o Medicine & Science in Spo s”, ol. 26, pp. 93–100. By ne, J., 2012, When g een is whi e: The cul u al poli- ics o ace, na u e and social exclusion in a Los Angeles u ban na ional pa k, «Geo o um”, ol. 43, pp. 595–611. Ei am, B., Higgins, E.T., 2010, Mo i a ion in men al accessibili y: Rele ance o a ep esen a ion (ROAR) as a new amewo k, «Social and Pe sonali y Psychology Compass”, ol. 4, pp. 951–967. E soy, E., 2015, An in eg a ed app oach o enhancing ecological connec i i y and accessibili y in u ban a eas: A case s udy o She ield, UK, Uni e si y o She ield, Diss. Uni e si y o She ield. Gen in, S., 2011, Ou doo ec ea ion and e hnici y in Eu ope—A e iew, «U ban Fo es y & U ban G een- ing”, ol. 10, pp. 153–161. <h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. u ug.2011.05.002> (06/22). i s audience in Finland. In he Finnish spo s adminis a ion, he e has been a need o a b oade pe cep ion o he ac o s behind PA. Ou indings and ou classi ica ion o dimen- sions ha e al eady been no iced and accep ed in he adminis a ion o ou co-de elopmen ci ies. A wide iew on accessibili y is al eady isible in he equali y documen s o he Ci y o Jy äskylä, o example. The Ci y o Helsin- ki’s Spo s Depa men also adop ed i in hei o hcoming planning documen . Because o his con ex ual limi a ion, he classi ica- ion migh e lec Finnish socie y be e han o he en i onmen s. On he o he hand, om he concep ual poin o iew, he dimensions o accessibili y could also be mo e uni e sal – wi h con ex - ele an modi ica ions, i migh be applicable o a eas o ac i i y o he han PA. DEFINING THE ACCESSIBILITY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. TRACING THE SOCIAL DIMENSION 74 Bibliog a ia Hacking, I., Hacking, J., 1999, The Social Cons uc ion o Wha ? Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge, Massa- chuse s and London. Hakamäki, M., Jaako, J., Kankaanpää, A., Kan omaa, M., Kämppi, K., Rajala, K., Ka inen, J., 2014, Mikä maksaa? Val ion liikun aneu os o, Helsinki. < h ps://www. liikun aneu os o. i/wp-con en /uploads/2019/09/ Mik%C3%A4-maksaa.pd > (06/22). 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