Mapping Digital Discourses of the Capital Region of Finland : Combining Onomastics, CADS, and GIS

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland : Combining Onomas ics, CADS, and GIS © 2022 he Au ho s Published e sion Jan unen, Ja mo Ha i; Ainiala, Te hi; Jokela, Salla; Ta ainen, Jenny Jan unen, J. H., Ainiala, T., Jokela, S., & Ta ainen, J. (2022). Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland : Combining Onomas ics, CADS, and GIS. Names, 70(1), 20-39. h ps://doi.o g/10.5195/names.2022.2289 2022 ans-names.pi .edu ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 A icles in his jou nal a e licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License. This jou nal is published by Pi Open Lib a y Publishing . Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland: Combining Onomas ics, CADS, and GIS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, FINLAND Te hi Ainiala Uni e si y o Helsinki, FINLAND Salla Jokela Tampe e Uni e si y, FINLAND Jenny Ta ainen Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, FINLAND NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, e al. ans-names.pi .edu DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) 20 Abs ac This a icle discusses he h ee Finnish ci y names Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa, and he u ban discou ses ha su ound hem. The s udy e eals pa e ns o socio-spa ial di e en ia ion by examining wha meanings people a ach o hese capi al egion ci ies and in es iga ing how hese meanings a e exp essed in online discou ses. Using he me hodological app oach o co pus-assis ed onomas ics (CAO), his s udy inco po a es onomas ics, geog aphical in o ma ion sys ems (GIS), and co pus linguis ics. This in e disciplina y esea ch also examines how co pus-assis ed discou se s udies (CADS) and GIS can be combined o e eal and isualize he con ex ual in o ma ion and discu si e pa e ns o oponyms. Fo his in es iga ion, a da a se o 2.7 billion wo ds was collec ed om he Suomi24 Co pus, one o he bigges discussion o a in Finland. The use o social media co pus as a da a sou ce inc eases he au hen ici y o his esea ch, as he da a was no collec ed speci ically o his s udy. The analysis e eals ha he mos equen digi al discou ses abou he ci ies e e o places and di ec ions, housing, and mobili y. The occu ences di e quan i a i ely and quali a i ely be ween each ci y. This pape pa es he way o u u e onomas ic s udies o esea ch ac ual name usage using his new me hodology. Knowledge gained om such esea ch may no only en ich he ield o onomas ics, bu also acili a e mo e socially sus ainable u ban planning. Keywo ds: co pus-assis ed onomas ics, co pus-assis ed discou se s udies, CADS, geog aphic in o ma ion sys ems, GIS, discou se p osody, oponyms, co pus linguis ics, Finland In oduc ion This a icle b ings oge he onomas ics, geog aphical in o ma ion sys ems (GIS), and co pus linguis ics. In hei esea ch on discou ses ela ed o he oponyms Hesa and S adi (slang e ms o he ci y o Helsinki), Ainiala and Jan unen (2019, 2018) in oduce he concep and me hod o co pus-assis ed onomas ics (CAO). They de ine CAO as a ield in onomas ic esea ch, whe e elec onic da abases, i.e., co po a, a e employed as da a, whe e analysis is based on co pus esea ch me hods (such as wo dlis analysis, conco dancing and keywo d analysis) and whe e he subjec o he esea ch is he p e alence o names, hei usage in ex ual con ex s (e.g., in colloca ions and o he ph aseological ela ions, and gen es), as well as egional and local a ia ion. (2019, 58; Ainiala & Jan unen’s ansla i0n [2022]). Co pus linguis ics and onomas ics ha e also been used oge he by o he esea che s, mos ecen ly by Mo schenbache (2020a, 2020b). In 2020a, Mo schenbache p esen s a heo e ical discussion o he subjec and in oduces co pus me hods ha can be used in onomas ic s udies, such as he colloca ion analysis used by Ainiala and Jan unen (2019), and keywo d analysis used in he p esen s udy. Ainiala and Jan unen (2019) poin ou ha big da a opens pa hways o esea ch ha canno be as easily explo ed h ough quali a i e me hods. Toge he wi h Mo schenbache (2020a), hey also claim ha co pus linguis ic me hods ha e g ea po en ial o en ich name s udies esea ch. Co po a compiled om au hen ic discou se can, o example, p o ide impo an insigh s in o eal language use, while s a is ical analyses can be e ec i ely applied o la ge amoun s o quan i a i e da a o make he indings mo e eliable. The me hod used in he p esen s udy is co pus-assis ed discou se s udies (CADS). This app oach combines quali a i e and co pus me hodologies o examine language pa e ns such as colloca ions and keywo d equencies o e eal discou se ypes (Pa ing on e al. 2013). Despi e i s po en ial u ili y, wi h he excep ion o Ainiala and Jan unen (2019) and Poole (2018), CADS has a ely been used in onomas ics, howe e . Ano he ela i ely ecen app oach ha combines onomas ics and elec onic da a is “Visual GIS ing” (G ego y & Ha die 2011) o “Geopa sing” (G ego y e al. 2015). This me hod exploi s co po a and spa ial da a p o ided by geog aphical in o ma ion sys ems (GIS) o p o ide in o ma ion abou language use. In his s udy, we combine CADS and Visual GIS ing by i s iden i ying discou ses in Suomi24, a social media co pus o au hen ic Finnish discou se. These s e ches o discou ses a e hen analyzed and isualized on he basis o he associa ed spa ial in o ma ion. Ou s udy ocuses on discou ses ha ela e o he “Finnish Capi al Region”, a unc ional u ban a ea ha consis s o ou municipali ies in Sou heas e n Finland: Helsinki, Espoo, Van aa, and Kauniainen. Helsinki is he capi al o Finland and is he bigges ci y in he na ion-s a e wi h a popula ion o 0.6 million. Espoo and NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland ans-names.pi .edu ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 21 Van aa a e he nea es ci ies o Helsinki, and a e he coun y’s second and ou h mos populous municipali ies, espec i ely (S a is ics Finland 2021). Al oge he , he Capi al Region cu en ly has a popula ion o 1.2 million. The o al a ea o he egion is app oxima ely 1,500 km², hal o which is made up o wa e . Al hough he Capi al Region makes up only 0.2% o Finland’s o al a ea, i is home o app oxima ely one i h o Finland’s inhabi an s (S a is ics Finland 2021). The popula ion o he Region is also g owing apidly due o he expanding labo ma ke s and good a ic connec ions o o he u ban cen e s a ound he Bal ic Sea. Using online discussion o um da a, ou s udy in es iga es he ways people a ach meanings o he oponyms used o he neighbo ing ci ies o Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa. Ou analysis ocused on discu si e associa ions made wi h he o icial names o hese h ee ci ies (Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa) as well as wo commonly used slang names o Helsinki, Hesa and S adi (see Ainiala & Lappalainen 2017). In o ma ion abou how hese o icial and uno icial ci y names a e used will con ibu e o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o he discu si e p ocesses shaping his egion. Wi h his aim in mind, his s udy posed ou esea ch ques ions: 1. Wha a e he online digi al discou ses ha ela e o he names o hese h ee capi al egion ci ies? 2. How do he discou ses di e om one ano he ? 3. Wha do hese discou ses e eal abou he pa e ns o socio-spa ial di e en ia ion in Finland’s capi al egion? 4. How does combining CADS and GIS wo k o e eal and isualize he con ex ual in o ma ion and discou sal pa e ns o oponyms? As he abo e esea ch ques ions allude, i is hoped ha he mul idisciplina y app oach used in his onomas ic s udy can help shed new ligh on no only he meanings a ached o he oponyms bu also he a ious s ances aken owa ds hem (see, e.g., Ainiala & Ös man 2017). This me hodological app oach is also ele an o geog aphy and o he social sciences, as i may allow us o iden i y and analyze he discu si e p ocesses o place- aming (Ma in 2003). In doing so, i may be possible o gain new knowledge abou “u ban imagina ies” o “in e p e i e g ids h ough which we hink abou , expe ience, e alua e, and decide o ac in he places, spaces, and communi ies in which we li e” (Soja 2000, 324). Knowledge abou hese p ocesses is impo an , because i can help us unde s and how he cons uc o place o ms he basis o bo h collec i e iden i ies and poli ical ac ion. A he same ime, i may help e eal how he discu si e aming o such places connec s wi h he ma e ial eali y o hose locali ies. Backg ound: Onomas ics, Co po a, GIS, Discou ses, and Geog aphy Co pus Da a in Onomas ics Comp ehensi e ex co po a ha e seldom been used as da a sou ce in onomas ics. Ins ead, he digi al da a mos o en used in his ield has aken he o m o name lis s a ying in size and quali y (see Mo schenbache 2020b). The subjec s ha ha e been add essed in hese s udies include he mo phophonological and lexical s uc u e o pe sonal names (e.g., MacAulay e al. 2019; Lappe 2002; Pagan 1998); combina ions o desc ip i e apposi i es and p ope names (Bjo ge 2003); he opog aphical wo ds included in place names (Nu minen 2012); su naming pa e ns (La e such 2011); and mos ecen ly, US oponyms ha ma k he his o y o Na i e Ame ican peoples (Nick 2017). Inc easingly, he in e ne has also been used as a sou ce o digi al da a. The inc easing popula i y o his choice o da a collec ion is unde s andable, since he in e ne may p o ide a huge amoun o onomas ic ma e ial. Ohlande and Be gh (2004), o example, examined he use o he name Taliban in US and B i ish newspape s; Tanaka (2016) s udied Japanese su names and hei a ying w i en o ms in social media; and Hämäläinen (2019) looked a in e ne use names. Meanwhile, in li e a y onomas ics, esea che s ha e inc easingly compiled hei ma e ial om digi alized e sions o li e a y wo ks. These s udies ha e conside ed, o ins ance, he uses and unc ions o p ope names in ansla ed no els (see, e.g., Dalen-Oskam 2013; Tuñón 2013). The e a e also examples o ex co po a being used o onomas ic esea ch. Sinclai (2004), o example, used he Bank o English o analyze he choice o p eposi ion in he i les o o ganiza ions (e.g., he Eu opean Socie y o Ph aseology). Likewise, Pie ini (2008) used he B i ish Na ional Co pus (BNC) o examine he occu ence o pe sonal and place names in a ious ph aseological uni s (e.g., idioms, binomials, o mulae) ac oss di e en linguis ic egis e s, while Tse (2004) elied on he BNC o explo e he use o de ini e a icles in pe sonal name classes. Mos ecen ly, he Co pus o Con empo a y Ame ican English was used by Mo schenbache (2020b) o analyze he use o de ini e a icles in he names o coun ies. Tex co po a ea u ing languages o he han English ha e also been analyzed o onomas ic esea ch. A la ge No wegian newspape co pus o 150 million wo ds, o ins ance, was used by Hal e son and Engene (2010) o s udy he me onymic use o Maas ich and Schengen, while colloca ions ea u ing Ame ica in a Li huanian newspape co pus was examined by Vaičenonienė (2001); and in a simila s udy, A ab and Saudi NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, e al. ans-names.pi .edu DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) 22 A abia was in es iga ed by Kamanduly ė (2006) wi h ega d o seman ic p e e ences and colloca ions. Finally, a la ge Finnish co pus o online ex s, Suomi24, was used by Ainiala and Jan unen (2019) o explo e he discou se p osodies o he slang oponyms o Hesa and S adi o he Finnish capi al o Helsinki. Co pus Da a and Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS) Pa e son and G ego y (2018, 37) s a e ha “ adi ionally, co pus linguis s ha e no explo ed he geog aphies wi hin ex s ha hey ha e analysed”. Howe e , isual GIS ing, which in ol es iden i ying place names wi hin ex ual da a and linking hem o spa ial coo dina es, has been used in s udies da ing back o as ea ly as 2010.1 In he spa ial humani ies, Mu ie a-Flo es e al. (2014), o example, au oma ically ex ac ed place names in ex s, assigned hem geog aphic coo dina es, and p oduced isualiza ions o he oponymic da a. Al hough his app oach can help o de e mine which places a e men ioned in he da a, i dis ega ds wha is said abou hem (G ego y & Ha die 2011, 305). In o he wo ds, his s a egy ails o ake in o accoun he discou ses linked o he places iden i ied. Discou se-o ien ed s udies seeking o answe he “wha ” ha e equen ly aken ad an age o CADS esea ch me hods, hough his p ac ice is no always explici ly highligh ed. Fo example, G ego y and Ha die (2011) elied on he au oma ic ex ac ion o seman ic ags o iden i y he discu si e associa ion be ween he cons uc o MONEY and he place name Dunki k, while Donaldson e al. (2017) used a simila me hod o hei geog aphical colloca ion analysis o he associa ion be ween Lake Dis ic names and language use s' associa ions wi h he cons uc s o BEAUTY and PICTURESQUE. Combining co pus linguis ics and GIS echniques in he spa ial humani ies is also add essed by Poole (2018) in he in es iga ion o en i onmen al discou ses ela ed o he “Rosemon Coppe Mine Deba e” in A izona. In his wo k, Poole concluded ha “social media p o ides a as geo- e e enced da a sou ce and could be used o u he display he impo ance o place and i s discu si e p oduc ion in en i onmen al communica ion” (538). Al hough Poole is speci ically e e ing o en i onmen al communica ion, he asse ion is gene alizable o o he discussions as well. Discou ses and Geog aphy Human geog aphe s ha e heo ized abou he connec ion be ween discou se and space since he “ ex ual” o “discu si e” u n o he 1980s, when hei a en ion u ned owa ds he impo ance o language beyond e e yday meaning-making. A he ime, scien i ic a en ion was also di ec ed owa d he ways in which powe mani es s i sel in ex s, images, and o he cul u al p oduc s (e.g., Ba nes & Duncan 1992). I is now widely acknowledged ha people’s ideas abou spaces and places a e bo h discu si ely p oduced and connec ed o ma e ial eali y. Sha ed ideas “become he ame o mind o social agen s as well as being he ou come o he his o ical and con ex ual condi ions unde which hey a e a icula ed” (Richa dson & Jensen 2003, 15). One eason why discou ses ma e is ha hey a e inex icably bound o he social p ocesses h ough which spa ial en i ies such as ci ies and neighbo hoods a e ( e)p oduced. Discou ses also play an impo an ole in he e e yday ( e)p oduc ion o u ban space, so ha some concep ions o he ci y become hegemonic by i ue o hei al eady being mains eam, while o he s a e ma ginalized. As se e al s udies ha e shown, he naming o places, oge he wi h di e en place-making pe spec i es and ep esen a ions, can c ea e socio- spa ial dis inc ions, bo de s, and place iden i ies based on a collec i e unde s anding o he u ban space (e.g., Sco & Sohn 2019; de Koning 2015; Ma in 2003). Sco and Sohn (2019), o ins ance, demons a ed he ways in which he sha ing and naming o geog aphical ep esen a ions ( h ough, o example, maps, blogs, isi o in o ma ion) ha e con ibu ed o he eme gence o new neighbo hoods such as K euzkölln in Be lin and Nyócke in Budapes . The use o big da a om digi al sou ces has acili a ed he con e gence o geog aphy and humani ies (G ego y & Ha die 2011). This con e gence has mani es ed i sel as he “spa ial u n” in digi al humani ies (P esne & Shepa d 2015, 247) o he eme gence o he “digi al geohumani ies” (C ang 2015, 351). We ollow he adi ion o hese s udies, bu also acknowledge he c i icism ha empi icis app oaches may mis akenly p esume ha da a can speak o i sel , and is somehow “ ee o human bias o aming” (Ki chin 2013, 265). The e o e, o help o d aw mo e eliable conclusions om he da a, we u ilize ou “si ua ed knowledge” (Ha away 1996), as Finns who a e amilia wi h he sociocul u al con ex o place-based meaning-making ela ed o Finland’s me opoli an egion. Da a and Me hodology NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland ans-names.pi .edu ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 23 Da a Ou da a was ex ac ed om messages pos ed on Suomi24 discussion o um. One o he mos popula Finnish websi es, as o 2019, his pla o m has app oxima ely 2.2 million isi s pe mon h (FIAM). Suomi24 has 24 sub- o a and co e s hema ic a eas such as a eling, heal h, and amily. The Suomi24 Co pus was made a ailable h ough he Language Bank o Finland (META-SHARE). The ma e ial colla ed o his in es iga ion ep esen s pos ings made be ween 2001 and 2016, and consis s o 2.7 billion wo ds. Fo ou s udy, we ex ac ed da a o he Van aa and Espoo sub-co po a ha included he names (o lemmas) Van aa and Espoo. Fo he Helsinki sub-co pus, we compiled da a om pos ings wi h he lemmas Helsinki, Hesa, and S adi. The sizes o he h ee sub-co po a we e 1.9 million okens o Van aa, 2.8 o Espoo, and 5.1 o Helsinki. The e e ence co pus o he keywo d analysis was compiled using sys ema ic sampling in which messages pos ed in he discussion o um we e ex ac ed a one minu e pas each hou a ound he clock. In his way, empo al hema ic bias in he e e ence da a we e la gely a oided. Me hodology: om Keywo ds o Discou ses Fo his me hodology, keywo ds i s needed o be de e mined. Acco ding o Sco and T ibble (2006), “keywo ds” a e hose wo ds ha occu in he da a signi ican ly mo e o en han one would expec hem o o he wise occu by chance. In he p esen s udy, he keywo ds we e used o de e mine he seman ic con ex o um use s employed o alk abou he h ee capi al egion ci ies. The keywo d analysis was done using he Keywo d Lis p og am wi hin he An Conc co pus oolki (An hony 2017). The s a is ical measu e chosen o he analysis was he Log-Likelihood es which is sui able and alid o equency p o iling (Rayson & Ga side 2000). The i s 300 s a is ically signi ican keywo ds o each o he h ee ci ies we e hen analyzed. A equency o occu ence h eshold was se a 50 o elimina e he noise which ine i ably esul s om he epe i ion o iden ical pos ings. This p ecau ion also helped us ocus on es ablished usage and meanings. To unco e he subjec o he discussions ha made men ion o he ci ies, we analyzed he “discou se p osodies”: he epea edly occu ing associa ions made be ween he ci y names and hei se s o seman ically- ela ed i ems (see, e.g., Jan unen 2018; Bake e al. 2008; S ubbs 2001). This was done by g ouping he keywo ds in o da a-d i en seman ic ca ego ies which can hen be g ouped in o ei he pa e ns o discou se (Bake 2006) o a cohe en discou se unc ion (Huns on 2007). The mul iple meanings and e e en s o he keywo ds we e de e mined by analyzing conco dance lines in he da a. Two o his a icle’s au ho s unde ook he analysis. In cases whe e he meaning was no immedia ely clea , he en i e esea ch eam discussed he possible op ions and came o a consensus. On he a e occasion when no consensus could be eached, he keywo d was classi ied as “o he ”. The classi ica ion p ocess esul ed in 17 discou se p osody g oups (see Figu e 1). A e his classi ica ion was comple ed, ollowing he example o p e ious GIS s udies (e.g., Donaldson e al. 2017), we mapped and isualized he discou se p osodies based on geog aphical in o ma ion con ained in he social media. Finally, a e a close eading, we examined he h ee mos wide- anging discou se p osodies. In his discou se analysis, we he eby complemen ed he s a is ical analysis wi h an in e p e a ion o he possible deepe cul u al meanings o he u e ances de i ed om he da a. Resul s An O e iew o he Discou se P osodies Associa ed wi h he Ci ies in he Capi al Region The ca ego ies and dis ibu ions, which eme ged om he da a, a e illus a ed in Figu e 1. The la ges discou se p osody is, by a , he ca ego y “places and di ec ions” wi h 288 keywo ds (32.00%), ollowed by “mobili y” (107, 11.89%) as he second la ges . The di e ence is s a is ically signi ican (p < 0.0012, z = 10.31) and con i ms Ainiala and Jan unen’s (2019) inding ha place names a e ypically associa ed wi h no only oponyms o ci ies, owns, neighbo hoods and illages, bu also ci izens, loca ions (speci ic and non-speci ic), spa ial ad e bs, and poin s on he compass (see also Table 1). The ca ego y “places and di ec ions” was ound o be simila ly la ge o all h ee ci ies: 32.00% o Helsinki and Espoo, and 31.00% o Van aa. A e “mobili y”, he hi d la ges ca ego y was “housing”, and he ou h, “poli ics and o ganiza ions”. The pe cen age sha es we e less simila in hese ca ego ies: 14.33% “mobili y” o Helsinki, 12.00% o Van aa, and 9.33% o Espoo; 7.00% “housing” o Helsinki, 10.00% o bo h Van aa and Espoo; and 9.00% “poli ics and o ganiza ions” o Helsinki, 6.67% o Van aa, and 10.33% o Espoo (see Figu e 1). Howe e , he di e ences we e no s a is ically signi ican . NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, e al. ans-names.pi .edu DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) 24 In con as , “c ime and jus ice” (e.g., “poliisi” ‘ he police’) was ound o ha e majo discou se p osody o Van aa and Espoo wi h a s a is ically signi ican di e ences compa ed o Helsinki (Van aa-Helsinki: p < 0.001, z = 4.31; and Espoo-Helsinki: p < 0.01, z = 2.54). In ac , “c ime and jus ice” was an almos non-exis en discou se p osody in he Helsinki da a examined (Figu e 1). Almos as low in he Helsinki sub-co pus was “comme ce”, which was also signi ican ly di e en o bo h Van aa (p < 0.01, z = 2.80) and Espoo (p < 0.01, z = 2.60). Con e sely, “people and indi iduals” was a discou se ca ego y signi ican ly associa ed wi h Helsinki, when compa ed o Van aa (p < 0.001, z = 5.31) o Espoo (p < 0.001, z = 5.05). The o he ca ego ies p o ed less common o e all. Consequen ly, he e was less di e ence be ween ci ies. The ollowing sec ion will p esen he indings ob ained o he h ee la ges ca ego ies o keywo ds: “places and di ec ions”, “mobili y”, and “housing”. Coa es, Richa d. 2006b. “P ope hood.” Figu e 1: Dis ibu ion o Discou se P osodies Be ween he Ci ies o Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa Mapping he Th ee Mos Signi ican Discou se P osodies Places and Di ec ions NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland ans-names.pi .edu ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 25 In he discou se p osody “places and di ec ions”, he e we e se e al di e ences ound be ween some o he sub- ca ego ies and keywo ds hey sha ed. Examples o hese sub-ca ego ies and keywo ds a e ep esen ed below in Table 1. The numbe o keywo ds in each subca ego y a e p o ided in Table 2. Fo each sub-ca ego y in Table 1 (as in Tables 3 and 5), illus a i e examples o keywo ds a e p o ided. The las column con ains keywo ds ha we e sha ed by all h ee ci ies, while he o he columns show keywo d examples ha we e ypical o only one o wo o he ci ies. Table 1. Sub-Ca ego ies o “Places and Di ec ions” and Examples o he Keywo ds Sub-Ca ego ies Helsinki Van aa Espoo Sha ed Keywo ds NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, e al. ans-names.pi .edu DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) 26 Neighbo hoods Töölö, Hakaniemi, Ei a [neighbo hoods o Helsinki], ydinkeskus a ‘nuclea cen e ’, kan akaupunki ‘cen al u ban a ea’ Tammis o, Ko so [neighbo hoods o Van aa]; Malmi, Kon ula, Vuosaa i [neighbo hoods o Helsinki] Tikku ila [neighbo hood o Van aa]; Jo i, Ola i, O aniemi [neighbo hoods o Espoo]; Kallio, Kamppi, Lau asaa i [neighbo hoods o Helsinki] Kon ula, Vuosaa i [neighbo hoods o Helsinki], keskus ‘cen e ’, keskus a ‘down own’, kaupunginosa ‘neighbo hood’ Ci ies, Towns, and Municipali ies Hanko, Riihimäki, Ko ka, Lon oo ‘London’, Tallinna ‘Tallinn’, Tukholma ‘S ockholm’, me opoli ‘me opolis’ Män sälä, Seinäjoki, Lo iisa, maalaiskun a ‘ u al municipali y’ Siilinjä i, Fo ssa, Siun io, pääkaupunkiseu u ‘capi al dis ic ’ Tampe e, Tu ku, Oulu, Lah i, kaupunki ‘ own’, pääkaupunki ‘capi al’, kun a ‘municipali y’ P o inces Lappi ‘Lapland’, Sa o ‘Sa onia’, Pohjanmaa ‘Os obo hnia’ - - Uusimaa [ he sou he nmos egion in Finland] Coun ies Suomi ‘Finland’, Ruo si ‘Sweden’, maa ‘coun y’ - Suomi ‘Finland’ - Di ec ions edus alla ‘in on o ’, keskellä ‘in he middle o ’, ulkopuolella ‘ou side’ ie essä ‘nex o’, sijain i ‘loca ion’ ie essä ‘nex o’, sijain i ‘loca ion’, suun a ‘di ec ion’ lähellä ‘nea ’, päin ‘ owa ds’ siellä ‘ he e’, äällä ‘he e’ Unspeci ied A eas maaseu u ‘coun yside’, lähis ö ‘su oundings’, lande ‘coun yside’ [slang] pe ukka ‘ a end’, lähialue ‘neighbo hood’ maaseu u ‘coun yside’, lähialue ‘su oundings’, lähis ö ‘su oundings’, lande ‘coun yside’ [slang] alue, ‘a ea’, paikka ‘place’, paikkakun a ‘locali y’ People om a Speci ic A ea suomalainen ‘Finn’, helsinkiläinen ‘Helsinkian’, sa olainen ‘Sa onian’ - s adilainen ‘S adi dwelle ’ - Na u e A eas puis o ‘pa k’, me i ‘sea’ Van aanjoki [ i e name] Bodom [lake name] - Compass Poin s pohjoinen ‘no h’ länsi ‘wes ’ e eläinen ‘sou he n’, länsi ‘wes ’ e elä ‘sou h’, i ä ‘eas ’ O he Kauppa o i ‘Ma ke Squa e’ Myy manni [shopping cen e name], Peijas [hospi al name] A eena [Espoo Me o A eena, s adion name], Jo i [hospi al name] I äkeskus [shopping cen e name] Table 2. F equency o Keywo ds o Each Sub-Ca ego y o “Places and Di ec ions” Sub-Ca ego ies Helsinki Van aa Espoo To al NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland ans-names.pi .edu ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 33 quali a i e p ope ies o each ci y seemed o di e . In Table 5, he quali a i e di e ences be ween he ci ies a e highligh ed wi h he help o examples o he keywo ds unde a ious sub-ca ego ies. Table 5. Sub-Ca ego ies o “Mobili y” and Examples o he Keywo ds Sub-Ca ego ies Helsinki Van aa Espoo Sha ed Keywo ds Public T anspo VR [ ailway company name], kuski ‘d i e ’, joukkoliikenne ‘public anspo ’ seu ulippu ‘ egional icke ’, kulje aja ‘d i e ’, aksiau oilija ‘ axi d i e ’, pa kkipaikka ‘pa king place’ HSL [Helsinki Region T anspo ], joukkoliikenne ‘public anspo ’ liikenne ‘ a ic’, uuhka ‘ ush hou ’, ajaa ‘ o d i e’, ajella ‘ o d i e a ound’, yöma ka ‘way o wo k’ T a eling len o ‘ ligh ’, len ää ‘ o ly’, ma kus aa ‘ o a el’ len o ‘ ligh ’ - ma ka ‘ ip, jou ney’ Vehicles a ikka ‘ am’, dösä ‘bus [slang]’, spo a ‘ am [slang]’, lai a ‘ship´ länsime o ‘ he Wes e n subway’, Audi juna ‘ ain’, bussi ‘bus’, aksi ‘ axi’, au o ‘ca ’, me o ‘subway’ Mo emen in Gene al läh eä ‘ o lea e’, käydä ‘ o isi ’, kulkea ‘ o go, walk’, saapua ‘ o a i e’ i a a ‘ o low’, käydä ‘ o isi ’, saapua ‘ o a i e’ - Roads ka u ‘s ee ’, kais a ‘lane’, moo o i ie ‘highway’, linja ‘line’, ei i ‘ ou e’ 3 [Ring oad h ee], a a ‘ ail oad’, kehä a a ‘ ing ail line’ Länsi äylä ‘ he Wes e n highway’, kais a ‘lane’, 3 [Ring oad h ee], moo o i ie ‘highway’, linja ‘line’, a a ‘ ail oad’ kehä ‘ ing oad’ T a ic S a ion au a ieasema ‘ ailway s a ion’, ken ä ‘[ai ]po ’, len oken ä ‘ai po ’, sa ama ‘ha bo ’ len oasema ‘ai po ’, len oken ä ‘ai po ’, ken ä ‘[ai ]po ’ asema ‘s a ion’ Dis ance kilsa ‘klick’ [slang o km] - kilome i ‘kilome e ’ km ‘km’ As shown in he Table 5, sub-ca ego ies o Public anspo and Roads a e common o all h ee ci ies, whe eas he o he ca ego ies a e exis en only o wo o he ci ies. Helsinki is o en being discussed in e ms o ai a el (“len o” ‘ ligh ’, “len ää” ‘ o ly’). Because Helsinki’s ai po is geog aphically loca ed in Van aa, he keywo d “ai po ” also ea u es hea ily in he con ex o Van aa. Fu he mo e, in ou in es iga ion, Van aa o en appea ed oge he wi h Helsinki in oponym Helsinki- Van aan len oken ä o Helsinki-Van aa len osasema (‘Helsinki-Van aa ai po ’), he las being he o icial Finnish name o he Helsinki ai po . In he discussions, he ole o Helsinki as he place o depa ing and a i ing ligh s was o en emphasized (see exce p 8), e en hough he ai po i sel is no loca ed wi hin municipal bounda ies o Helsinki. Exce p 8. I se jokin aika si en lensin Ha anaan Helsingis ä Mosko an kau a. [Some ime ago I lew o Ha ana om Helsinki ia Moscow.] NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, e al. ans-names.pi .edu DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) 34 In addi ion o ai a el, ca a el was a common heme in he discussions. ‘Roads’ was a p ominen subca ego y o all h ee ci ies (Figu e 4), which may poin o he impo an ole o p i a e mo o ing and he polycen ic u ban s uc u e o he ci ies we examined. In e es ingly, he only make o ca men ioned he e in he co pus was Audi, a b and ha is a high-s a us symbol in Finland (as was also illus a ed in exce p 7). The men ion o his b and name p obably co esponds o he ela i ely high socio-economic s a us o Espoo esiden s as compa ed o hose in Van aa and Helsinki. The seman ic classes wi hin he discou se p osody “Mobili y”, and he o al numbe o keywo ds e e ing o each pe ci y a e p esen ed in Figu e 4. The size o each ci y’s pie cha on he map is p opo ional o he o al numbe o “Mobili y” keywo ds o each ci y. In his way, he pie cha s also show he ela i e p opo ions o seman ic class based on he numbe o keywo ds in each. The igu es a ound he cha s co espond o he o al numbe o keywo ds pe colo -coded seman ic class. Figu e 4: P opo ional Symbol Map Showing Rela i e Numbe o “Mobili y” Keywo ds and Rela i e P opo ion o Seman ic Classes in his Discou se P osody o Helsinki, Van aa, and Espoo. Discussions on di e en modes o anspo we e accompanied wi h e e ences o mo emen in gene al. Ve bs exp essing isi ing “käydä”, lea ing “läh eä”, and a i ing “saapua” appea ed in bo h he Helsinki (4 e bs) and Van aa (3 e bs) sub-co po a, bu he e we e no such ins ances wha soe e de ec ed in he Espoo sub-co pus. NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Mapping Digi al Discou ses o he Capi al Region o Finland ans-names.pi .edu ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 35 One explana ion migh be ha Espoo was less seen as a poin o depa u e o a i al han ei he Helsinki o Van aa. One de ail he e, as in many o he o he discou se p osodies, ela ed o he occu ence o slang wo ds associa ed wi h Helsinki (e.g., “dösä” o ‘bus’, “spo a” o ‘ am’, “kilsa” o ‘kilome e ’). Helsinki slang is a unique a ie y ha de eloped a he u n o he 20 h cen u y among he wo king classes. F om he 1950s onwa ds, his u ban speech became a common s ee language o young people h oughou he Helsinki egion (Ainiala & Lappalainen 2017). E en hough slang wo ds and names a e used in Espoo and Van aa as well, in ou s udy, slang was mos p ominen ly used o con ey use s’ ‘Helsinkiness’. The connec ion be ween Helsinki and slang was u he e iden by he ac ha Helsinki was he only one o ou h ee ci ies o ha e slang names— Hesa and S adi (see also Ainiala & Jan unen 2019; Ainiala & Lappalainen 2017). Conclusions This a icle in es iga es he digi al u ban discou ses su ounding he names used o h ee ci ies in Finland's Capi al Region: Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa. We used onomas ics, geog aphical in o ma ion sys ems (GIS), and co pus-assis ed discou se analysis (CADS) o de ec he po en ial di e ences in online discou ses ha made e e ence o hese ci ies. Ou analysis e ealed s a k pa e ns o socio-spa ial di e en ia ion and hus con i med he pe cei ed special ole o capi als in he spa ial o de o na ion-s a es. The knowledge gained om esea ch such as ou s may se e u ban planne s and b anding expe s who s i e o unde s and he ways people a ach meanings o pa icula ci ies and neighbo hoods; o plan meaning ul and e icien enqui ies o pa icipa o y p ocesses; and o an icipa e po en ial con lic s in socially sus ainable ways. Howe e , by concen a ing only on he h ee mos equen discou se p osodies, we ha e ba ely sc a ched he su ace. Mo eo e , because a equency-based me hod o da a analysis was used, less equen phenomena ha may ha e been mo e disce nible wi h adi ional me hods o discou se analysis we e p obably o e looked. Ne e heless, analyzing keywo ds by g ouping hem in o discou se p osodies helped o e eal wha people in he discussion o um we e saying abou Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa. One o he bene i s o his me hodological app oach is ha da a was no collec ed exp essly o his s udy, bu as pa o a la ge esea ch objec i e. As a esul , po en ial biases ha may be in oduced when esea che s collec and obse e da a wi h a pa icula s udy in mind may ha e been educed. Bu since he demog aphic g oups using social media pla o ms a y g ea ly (Sadah e al. 2015), and because he e a e many Finns who do no use Suomi24, we mus bea in mind ha his o um is only pa ially ep esen a i e. Fu he mo e, he co pus did no p o ide in o ma ion abou he ela ion o use s o he a ea (e.g., whe he hey li e in he a ea o no ). Fo a mo e comple e pic u e, o he da a would need o be analyzed. Ano he limi a ion o his s udy in ol es he e hical conce ns o using social media o ga he da a wi hou ob aining use consen . I is ai o say ha many use s in his s udy we e no awa e ha hei pe sonal pos s and in o ma ion we e being used o esea ch pu poses (Williams e al. 2017). Despi e hese limi a ions, as Mo schenbache (2020b) no es, co pus da a and co pus linguis ic me hods a e a powe ul way o s udy names in ac ual use. By using his app oach, he s udy answe s he call o onomas ics o e eal mo e abou ac ual name usage in au hen ic spoken and ex ual con ex s (e.g., Ainiala & Ös man 2017; De S e ani 2016). In his way, ou esea ch p o ides a s onge ounda ion o o he new and inno a i e onomas ic in es iga ions. By using co pus-assis ed mixed me hod app oaches such as p esen ed he e, u u e big da a s udies can con ibu e o inc easingly mul idisciplina y s udy o names. Endno es 1 Fo mo e on he spa ial humani ies and Visual GIS ing, see, o example, G ego y e al. (2015) and Mu ie a- Flo es e al. (2011). 2 S a is ical signi icances: p < 0.001 = ex emely signi ican , p < 0.01 e y signi ican and p < 0.05 signi ican . 3 All exce p s a e ansla ed by he au ho s. Acknowledgemen s NAMES: A JOURNAL OF ONOMASTICS Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, e al. ans-names.pi .edu DOI 10.5195/names.2022.2289 Vol. 70, Issue 1, Win e 2022 ISSN: 0027-7738 (p in ) 1756-2279 (web) 36 Thanks go o Ma kus Lakaniemi and Ma ké a So o á o helping emendously wi h he esea ch da abase analysis. Bibliog aphy Ainiala, Te hi and Ja mo Ha i Jan unen. 2018. “Hu slangnamnen Hesa och S adi an änds i en diskussionsg upp: en öppning ö ko pusassis e ad onomas ik.” [How he Slang Names Hesa and S adi a e Used in a Discussion G oup: An Opening o Co pus-assis ed Onomas ics.] P esen a ion in 48 h NORNA symposium Names in W i ing in Gö ebo g No embe 29–30 2018. 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Accessed June 16, 2020. h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/S2398-601820180000002002 Wi h, Louis. 1938. “U banism as a Way o Li e.” Ame ican Jou nal o Sociology 44, no. 1: 1–24. Accessed June 16, 2020. h ps://www.jou nals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/217913 No es on Con ibu o s Ja mo Ha i Jan unen is a p o esso o Finnish Language a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland. His esea ch in e es s include co pus linguis ics, co pus-assis ed discou se analysis, second language acquisi ion, quee linguis ics, and co pus onomas ics. Te hi Ainiala is an adjunc p o esso and uni e si y lec u e o Finnish Language a he Uni e si y o Helsinki, Finland. He esea ch in e es s include socio-onomas ics, olk onomas ics, co pus onomas ics, sociolinguis ics, and u ban s udies. Salla Jokela is a uni e si y lec u e in Sus ainable U ban De elopmen a Tampe e Uni e si y, Finland. She has a PhD in human geog aphy om he Uni e si y o Helsinki. He esea ch in e es s include u ban s udies, iden i y poli ics, ou ism, and isual s udies. Jenny Ta ainen (MA) is a doc o al s uden in Finnish Language a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland. He esea ch in e es s include co pus linguis ics, na u al language p ocessing, second language acquisi ion, and co pus onomas ics. Co espondence o: P o esso Ja mo Ha i Jan unen, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Depa men o Language and Communica ion S udies, PO Box 35, FI-40014 Uni e si y o Jy äskylä. Email: mail o:ja mo.jan unen@jyu. ij