Intensified Job Demands and Cognitive Stress Symptoms : The Moderator Role of Individual Characteristics
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In ensi ied Job Demands and Cogni i e S ess Symp oms : The Mode a o Role o
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Ran anen, Johanna; Lyy a, Pessi; Feld , Ta u; Villi, Mikko; Pa iainen, Tiina
Ran anen, J., Lyy a, P., Feld , T., Villi, M., & Pa iainen, T. (2021). In ensi ied Job Demands and
Cogni i e S ess Symp oms : The Mode a o Role o Indi idual Cha ac e is ics. F on ie s in
Psychology, 12, A icle 607172. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2021.607172
2021
psyg-12-607172 Ap il 19, 2021 Time: 10:43 # 1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 22 Ap il 2021
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2021.607172
Edi ed by:
Ome Fa ooq Malik,
COMSATS Uni e si y, Pakis an
Re iewed by:
And és Salas-Vallina,
Uni e si y o Valencia, Spain
Ch is ian Ko unka,
Uni e si y o Vienna, Aus ia
*Co espondence:
Johanna Ran anen
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
O ganiza ional Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 16 Sep embe 2020
Accep ed: 16 Ma ch 2021
Published: 22 Ap il 2021
Ci a ion:
Ran anen J, Lyy a P, Feld T, Villi M
and Pa iainen T (2021) In ensi ied
Job Demands and Cogni i e S ess
Symp oms: The Mode a o Role
o Indi idual Cha ac e is ics.
F on . Psychol. 12:607172.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2021.607172
In ensi ied Job Demands and
Cogni i e S ess Symp oms: The
Mode a o Role o Indi idual
Cha ac e is ics
Johanna Ran anen1*, Pessi Lyy a1, Ta u Feld 1, Mikko Villi2and Tiina Pa iainen1
1Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland, 2Depa men o Language and Communica ion
S udies, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland
In ensi ied job demands (IJDs) o igina e in he gene al accele a ed pace o socie y
and e e -changing wo king condi ions, which subjec wo ke s o inc easing wo kloads
and deadlines, cons an planning and decision-making abou one’s job and ca ee ,
and he con inual lea ning o new p o essional knowledge and skills. This s udy
in es iga ed how indi idual cha ac e is ics, namely nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y
ela ed o compe ence demands, and mul i asking p e e ence mode a e he associa ion
be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms among media wo ke s (n= 833; 69%
emale, mean age 48 yea s). The esul s show ha al hough IJDs we e associa ed wi h
highe cogni i e s ess symp oms a wo k, ha is, di icul ies in concen a ion, hinking
clea ly, decision-making, and memo y, compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y
explained he mos a iance in cogni i e s ess symp oms. In addi ion, IJDs we e
mo e s ongly associa ed wi h cogni i e s ess symp oms a wo k in indi iduals wi h
high compe ence demand- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y, and low mul i asking p e e ence
(mode a ion e ec s). Al oge he , he p esen indings sugges ha HR p ac ices
o wo kplace in e en ions o ease employees’ nega i e a ec i i y om inc easing
compe ence demands a wo k could use ully suppo employees’ e ec i e cogni i e
unc ioning when con on ed wi h IJDs.
Keywo ds: in ensi ied job demands, cogni i e s ess symp oms, compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e
a ec i i y, compe ence demands- ela ed posi i e a ec i i y, mul i asking p e e ence
INTRODUCTION
Smoo h in o ma ion p ocessing, ha is, e ec i e cogni i e unc ioning, is equi ed e e y day a
wo k, especially o knowledge wo ke s. The e is, howe e , no gua an ee nowadays ha wo king
condi ions will suppo e ec i e cogni i e unc ioning. In ensi ied job demands (hence o h IJDs),
esul ing om he accele a ion o wo king li e and digi aliza ion (Kubicek e al., 2015), may
bu den pa icula ly whi e-colla and knowledge wo ke s and lead o impai ed ask pe o mance
(Mauno e al., 2020), as well as cogni i e s ain when in o ma ion p ocessing capaci y is o e loaded
(Vuo i e al., 2019;Kalakoski e al., 2020). He e, we chose o s udy media wo ke s because
as an occupa ional g oup hey ep esen knowledge wo ke s in a high-speed, high-p essu e,
and highly digi alized wo king en i onmen . By applying he job demands- esou ces heo y
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Ran anen e al. Job Demands and Cogni i e S ess Symp oms
(Deme ou i e al., 2001;Bakke and Deme ou i, 2017) we
i s in es iga ed whe he IJDs a e ela ed o cogni i e s ess
symp oms among media wo ke s. Second, using he amewo k
o s udying pe sonali y in he s ess p ocess (Bolge and
Zucke man, 1995), we examined he possible mode a o
ole o media wo ke s’ nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y
ela ed o compe ence demands, as well as mul i asking
p e e ence, in he associa ion be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess
symp oms. Unde s anding he in e play be ween si ua ional and
indi idual ac o s behind cogni i e s ess symp oms is help ul
in, o example, planning esea ch-based HR p ac ices and
wo kplace in e en ions di ec ed a employees who wo k in
demanding condi ions.
IJDs and Cogni i e S ess Symp oms in
he Con ex o Media Wo k
Kubicek e al. (2015) ha e in oduced he concep o IJDs,
which can be de ined as “job cha ac e is ics which in ensi y and
accele a e he pace o wo k, job- and ca ee - ela ed planning
and decision-making and wo k- ela ed lea ning” (Mauno e al.,
2019, p. 224). The e y na u e o con inuous in ensi ica ion
and accele a ion o job demands di e en ia es IJDs om he
adi ional job demands, which acco ding o Ka asek (1989)
e e o s ess inducing job con en s and du ies ha equi e
conside able psychological o physical e o . Acco dingly, based
on he heo y o social accele a ion (Rosa, 2003) and on
obse a ions o he cons an ly inc easing demands on employees
(e.g., Obschonka e al., 2012), Kubicek e al. (2015) de ine i e
dimensions o IJDs.
The i s and mos impo an dimension o IJDs is wo k
in ensi ica ion, ha is, employees’ need o wo k as e , mul i ask
mo e, and in es mo e and mo e e o in hei e e yday wo k.
The second dimension o IJDs consis s o in ensi ied job- ela ed
planning and decision-making demands. This dimension e e s o
he expec a ion ha employees will inc easingly ake au onomous
esponsibili y o hei wo k, om he s age o goal-se ing o
he moni o ing o he end esul s (Kubicek e al., 2015). The
hi d dimension, in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-
making demands, e e s o he iew ha i is up o employees
o ensu e ha hei ca ee p ospec s a e secu ed and hei
employabili y is high, bo h wi hin and ou side he o ganiza ion.
Finally, he ou h and i h dimensions, in ensi ied knowledge-
ela ed lea ning and in ensi ied skill- ela ed lea ning demands,
e e o he equi emen ha in o de o keep up wi h e e -
changing wo king li e and he la es de elopmen s in hei ield,
employees ha e o cons an ly enew hei expe ise ega ding he
con en (i.e., knowledge) as well as he equipmen , p ac ices, and
p og ams (i.e., skills) o hei wo k.
Job demands in gene al (Albe sen e al., 2001), and
speci ically om digi aliza ion (Vuo i e al., 2019), may
igge a a ie y o s ess- ela ed symp oms in employees
a bo h he soma ic le el (e.g., inc eased blood p essu e)
and he psychological le el (e.g., anxie y). Especially ele an
o knowledge wo ke s a e cogni i e s ess symp oms, such
as wo king memo y di icul ies, indi e ence owa d wo k,
in o ma ion o e load, and impai ed abili y o concen a e
(Albe sen e al., 2010;Kalakoski e al., 2020). In he p esen
s udy, cogni i e s ess symp oms we e he e o e ope a ionalized
as sel - epo ed di icul ies a wo k in concen a ing, hinking
clea ly, making decisions, and emembe ing (see Copenhagen
Psychosocial Ques ionnai e; Pej e sen e al., 2010).
In his s udy, he associa ion be ween IJDs and cogni i e
s ess symp oms was examined in he con ex o media wo k.
Media wo k e e s o planning, p oducing, and ma ke ing
media con en , p oduc s, se ices, and b ands wi hin media
o ganiza ions (Deuze, 2007). I is no limi ed o jou nalis ic
wo k bu also includes o he ac i i ies unde aken by media
p o essionals (such as p oduce s and a di ec o s) aimed a
ad ancing he success o media p oduc s and se ices (Malmelin
and Villi, 2017). In compa ison o wo ke s in o he indus ies,
media wo ke s ha e been among he i s o ha e o adjus
o digi aliza ion in wo king li e, wi h i s posi i e and nega i e
e ec s (Malmelin and Villi, 2017), and he mo e ex ensi e
job desc ip ions wi h hei demands o mul i-compe ences
(Bakke , 2014;Deuze and Wi schge, 2018). Mo eo e , due o
digi al dis up ion in he p oduc ion and consump ion o media
p oduc s, media o ganiza ions ha e had o inc easingly dismiss
wo ke s, which has led o wo k in ensi ica ion among hose who
ha e kep hei jobs (Villi e al., 2020).
Thus, by ocusing on media wo ke s, i is possible o na ow
he app oach o such a subse o knowledge wo ke s who wo k
in a con ex whe e digi al echnology, bo h in he wo k p ac ices
and he business en i onmen a la ge, has made a dis up i e
impac (Ach enhagen and Ra iola, 2009;Wes lund e al., 2020).
Media wo ke s migh well be a isk o s esso s de imen al o
cogni i e pe o mance (e.g., Vuo i e al., 2019) as a consequence
o he dis up ion o wo k p ac ices by new communica ion
echnologies, inc eased demands o p oduc i i y, and he as e
empo o wo k. Toge he he abo e e iewed cha ac e is ics
o media wo k and indus y p o ide a solid ounda ion o
in es iga e he associa ion be ween IDJs and cogni i e s ess
symp oms among knowledge wo ke s.
The Job Demands-Resou ces Theo y
and he Rela ion Be ween IJDs and
Cogni i e S ess Symp oms
Acco ding o he job demands- esou ces heo y, and speci ically
i s heal h-impai men p ocess, a ious physical, social, and
o ganiza ional job demands can be seen as an eceden s o job
s ain (Deme ou i e al., 2001;Bakke and Deme ou i, 2017).
Simila ly, and suppo ed by p e ious esea ch, i seems e iden
ha pa icula ly wo k in ensi ica ion, he co e dimension o IJDs,
poses he isk o educed well-being a wo k, such as high job
exhaus ion and psychological s ain (e.g., Chesley, 2014;F anke,
2015;Ko unka e al., 2015). The o he dimensions o IJDs ha e
also been ound o ela e o high bu nou , bu no as s ongly as
wo k in ensi ica ion (Mauno e al., 2019).
To ou knowledge, he ela ionship be ween he di e en
dimensions o IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms has no
been in es iga ed be o e, al hough he e is likely o be a
posi i e associa ion be ween hese ac o s, pa ly ueled by
digi aliza ion and in o ma ion o e load (Vuo i e al., 2019;
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Ran anen e al. Job Demands and Cogni i e S ess Symp oms
Kalakoski e al., 2020). This is he i s esea ch gap ha he
p esen s udy add esses. Indeed, Zeike e al. (2019) a gue
ha digi aliza ion in wo king li e can induce high cogni i e
demands such as “choice o e load,” which can be expe ienced
by wo ke s as anxious and oubling when hey ha e o make
complex decisions. Ins ead o IJDs, which emphasize con inuous
in ensi ica ion and accele a ion o job demands, mo e adi ional
job demands such as high wo kload, ime p essu es, and a lack
o con ol ha e been ound o associa e wi h cogni i e s ess
and ailu es a wo k (Albe sen e al., 2010;El e ing e al., 2011;
Vuo i e al., 2014). Following hese indings and he job demands-
esou ces heo y (Deme ou i e al., 2001;Bakke and Deme ou i,
2017), we posed ou i s hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1: IJDs (i.e., wo k in ensi ica ion, in ensi ied
job- and ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-making
demands, and in ensi ied knowledge- and skill- ela ed
lea ning demands) a e posi i ely ela ed o cogni i e
s ess symp oms.
I has also been shown ha he associa ion be ween wo k
in ensi ica ion and occupa ional well-being may be in luenced
by indi idual cogni i e app aisal o he job demands (Pašk an
e al., 2016). Wo ke s ha e been ound o be less sa is ied and
mo e exhaus ed wi h hei wo k i hey pe cei e job demands as
a hind ance and s esso a he han a challenge (e.g., Podsako
e al., 2007;Meye and Hüne eld, 2018). How indi iduals
expe ience he numbe and na u e o job demands can also
ha e wide- anging consequences o hei well-being. On he
posi i e side, high cogni i e demands a wo k do p edic highe
cogni i e unc ion and slowe decline o cogni i e capaci y a e
e i emen (Fishe e al., 2014). On he nega i e side, when
hese demands a e pe cei ed as s esso s, hey may expose
he indi idual o ea ly cogni i e de ici s (Sindi e al., 2017).
I is he e o e impo an o cha possible mode a o s o he
ela ionship be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms, and
conside he ac o s ha may explain indi idual di e ences in
pe cei ing IJDs in a pa icula way.
The F amewo k o S udying Pe sonali y
in he S ess P ocess and he Rela ion
Be ween IJDs and Cogni i e S ess
Symp oms
Acco ding o he amewo k o s udying pe sonali y in he
s ess p ocess, indi idual cha ac e is ics can a ec he way
wo ke s eac o job demands because di e ences in indi idual
cha ac e is ics may explain why some wo ke s pe cei e and
expe ience he same si ua ion as mo e demanding o s ess ul
han o he s (Bolge and Zucke man, 1995). Also, in cogni i e
s ess esea ch, he impo ance o conside ing bo h ac o s in
he wo k en i onmen and indi idual cha ac e is ics has been
emphasized when in es iga ing sou ces o s ess (e.g., Albe sen
e al., 2010). In ligh o he p esen s udy, his means ha while
some wo ke s may excel unde he changed condi ions b ough
abou by digi aliza ion, IJDs may be de imen al o many wo ke s’
unc ioning and migh lead o cogni i e s ess symp oms. Sel -
es eem and a sense o cohe ence a e shown o be c ucial
o main aining pe o mance in he ace o cogni i e s esso s
(Albe sen e al., 2001, 2010), sugges ing ha indi idual ai
cha ac e is ics in luence s ess. Along hese lines, we examined
whe he compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e and posi i e
a ec i i y on he one hand, and mul i asking p e e ence on
he o he , mode a e he associa ion be ween IJDs and cogni i e
s ess symp oms.
As discussed in wha ollows, compe ence demands- ela ed
nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y ep esen b oad indi idual
di e ences a he le el o disposi ional ai s, ha is, a he le el
one o he h ee- ie ed amewo k o pe sonali y (McAdams
and Pals, 2006). Mul i asking p e e ence a he le el wo o
his amewo k, on he o he hand, ep esen s a mo e speci ic
mo i a ional s yle o adap ing o li e’s a ious si ua ions and
ci cums ances. In he p esen s udy, we examined he ela ion
be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms om hese wo
pe spec i es, as hey signi y a ec i e and mo i a ional elemen s,
bo h o which a e likely o con ibu e o he dynamics be ween an
indi idual and his/he wo king en i onmen , ha is, pe son-job
i (e.g., K is o -B own e al., 2005; an Vianen, 2018). This is he
second esea ch gap ha he p esen s udy add esses. In ea lie
li e a u e, i has been mo e common o conside only a single ai
o one le el o he h ee- ie ed amewo k o pe sonali y when
in es iga ing indi idual di e ences in occupa ional well-being
(Mäkikangas e al., 2013).
Compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y
e e o he a ec s ha he cu en compe ence demands
o media wo k elici ed among ou pa icipan s. This wo-
dimensional pe spec i e on compe ence demands- ela ed a ec s
ollows Wa son and Tellegen’s (1985) adi ional consensual
s uc u e o mood. Acco ding o i , emo ional expe iences and
eac ions can be di ided in o wo dominan dimensions, nega i e
and posi i e a ec ; he o me e e s o a empe amen al endency
o nega i e mood s a es such as dis ess and dissa is ac ion, and
he la e o a empe amen al endency o posi i e mood s a es
such as en husiasm and con en men (Wa son and Cla k, 1992).
Compe ence demands- ela ed a ec i i y, al hough subjec o
change i compe ence demands change subs an ially, is hus likely
o link wi h disposi ional a ec i i y, which ep esen s indi idual
cha ac e is ic endencies o eac o e en s bo h inside us and
ou side us, and aligns wi h neu obiologically based sensi i i y o
ewa d (G ay, 1987;Co , 2004). Posi i e a ec i i y is ela ed o
a beha io al ac i a ion sys em (BAS), and nega i e a ec i i y o
a beha io al inhibi ion sys em (BIS) (Ca e and Whi e, 1994),
unde s ood as sensi i i y o posi i e and nega i e ou comes, o
ewa ds and punishmen s, espec i ely.
Mul i asking p e e ence is a cha ac e is ic adap a ion s yle
o oday’s wo king li e, which equi es cons an shi ing o
a en ion and di ision o e o be ween di e en job asks.
The concep o mul i asking has i s oo s in polych onici y
(Poposki and Oswald, 2010), which e e s o in ol emen
in mo e han one ac i i y a a ime (e.g., Slocombe, 1999).
Al hough engagemen in mul i asking is conside ed p oblema ic
o cogni i e unc ions (e.g., Ves e g en and Nilsson, 2011),
i is no , howe e , e idence o nei he enjoymen no me e
accep ance o mul i asking. This is why Poposki and Oswald
(2010) sugges ha o conside and measu e polych onici y a
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Ran anen e al. Job Demands and Cogni i e S ess Symp oms
an indi idual le el, one mus di e en ia e mul i asking beha io
(i.e., mul i asking engagemen ) om mul i asking p e e ence.
They de ine he la e as “a non-cogni i e a iable e lec ing
an indi idual’s p e e ence o shi ing a en ion among ongoing
asks, a he han ocusing on one ask un il comple ion and
hen swi ching o ano he ask” (Poposki and Oswald, 2010,
p. 250). Hence, because in his s udy we we e speci ically
in e es ed in he indi idual cha ac e is ics ha migh mi iga e
o ein o ce he possibly posi i e associa ion be ween IJDs
and cogni i e s ess symp oms, we ocused p ecisely on
mul i asking p e e ence, ins ead o mul i asking beha io , as
a mode a o in he associa ion be ween IDJs and cogni i e
s ess symp oms.
The p esen s udy design is based on he di e en ial
eac i i y model de i ed om Bolge and Zucke man’s (1995)
amewo k o s udying pe sonali y in he s ess p ocess, a
iew ha has been suppo ed by li e a u e e iew (Mäkikangas
e al., 2013) and has been ecen ly inco po a ed also o
job demands- esou ces heo y (Bakke and Deme ou i, 2017).
In he p esen s udy, he i e dimensions o IJDs desc ibed
abo e (Kubicek e al., 2015) a e conside ed s esso s in he
wo k en i onmen , and cogni i e s ess symp oms (Pej e sen
e al., 2010) a e conside ed possible s ess eac ions o IJDs.
Acco ding o he di e en ial eac i i y model, s esso eac i i y
indica es he ex en o which an indi idual is likely o
exp ess emo ional o physiological eac ions in a si ua ion
ha is pe cei ed as s ess ul (Bolge and Zucke man, 1995).
Indi idual cha ac e is ics (he e, compe ence demands- ela ed
nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y and mul i asking p e e ence)
can mode a e he e ec s o s ess ul si ua ions (he e, IJDs)
on psychological and physiological ou comes (he e, cogni i e
s ess symp oms).
The a ionale o he mode a ion hypo heses o he p esen
s udy lies also in he no ion ha i is impo an o conside
he possible in e play be ween wo k en i onmen and indi idual
cha ac e is ics (e.g., Albe sen e al., 2010), in o he wo ds,
pe son-job i (e.g., K is o -B own e al., 2005; an Vianen, 2018),
when in es iga ing sou ces o s ess. Compe ence demands-
ela ed nega i e a ec i i y migh s eng hen he associa ion
be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms because indi iduals
high in nega i e a ec i i y (o in neu o icism, a close cons uc ;
e.g., Wa son and Cla k, 1992) a e inclined o ocus on he
wo ying and h ea ening aspec s o hei wo k en i onmen
(e.g., Schaub oeck e al., 1992;Mäkikangas e al., 2013). They may
hus de ec IJDs mo e easily and expe ience hese demands mo e
ad e sely han o he s, and his may p edispose hem o cogni i e
s ess symp oms. Fo he abo e easons, ou second hypo hesis
was:
Hypo hesis 2: Among hose high in compe ence
demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y, he posi i e
ela ionships be ween IJDs (i.e., wo k in ensi ica ion,
in ensi ied job- and ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-
making demands, and in ensi ied knowledge- and
skill- ela ed lea ning demands) and cogni i e s ess
symp oms a e s onge han among hose low in
compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y.
Con e sely, compe ence demands- ela ed posi i e a ec i i y
migh weaken he associa ion be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess
symp oms because indi iduals high in posi i e a ec i i y (o in
ex a e sion, a close cons uc ; e.g., Wa son and Cla k, 1992) a e
likely o ocus on he inspi ing and ewa ding aspec s o hei
wo k (e.g., Mäkikangas e al., 2013). Hence, despi e de ec ing
he p esence o IJDs, hey may expe ience hese demands
less ad e sely han o he s, pe haps as challenges a he han
hind ances o s esso s, which may p o ec hem om cogni i e
s ess symp oms. In addi ion, Boud ias e al. (2020) ound ha
he well-me need o compe ence a wo k (an expe ience close
o compe ence demands- ela ed posi i e a ec i i y) bu e ed
ully om he posi i e and signi ican ela ionship be ween ole
con lic (s ess ul si ua ion) and u no e in en ion (job s ain
ou come). Based on hese assump ions and indings, ou hi d
hypo hesis was:
Hypo hesis 3: Among hose high in compe ence
demands- ela ed posi i e a ec i i y, he posi i e
ela ionships be ween IJDs (i.e., wo k in ensi ica ion,
in ensi ied job- and ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-
making demands, and in ensi ied knowledge- and
skill- ela ed lea ning demands) and cogni i e s ess
symp oms a e weake han among hose low in
compe ence demands- ela ed posi i e a ec i i y.
Finally, hose high in mul i asking p e e ence migh pe cei e
IJDs as co esponding well wi h hei willingness, o e en desi e,
o di ide hei a en ion and e o be ween di e en job asks,
p ojec s, o clien s (e.g., Poposki and Oswald, 2010). Thus,
hey may expe ience IJDs mo e a o ably han hose who ha e
low mul i asking p e e ence, and his may p o ec hem om
expe iencing cogni i e s ess symp oms when aced wi h IJDs.
Acco dingly, ou las hypo hesis was:
Hypo hesis 4: Among hose high in mul i asking
p e e ence, he posi i e ela ionships be ween IJDs (i.e.,
wo k in ensi ica ion, in ensi ied job- and ca ee - ela ed
planning and decision-making demands, and in ensi ied
knowledge- and skill- ela ed lea ning demands) and
cogni i e s ess symp oms a e weake han among hose
low in mul i asking p e e ence.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
P ocedu e, E hical Conside a ion, and
Pa icipan s
In 2019, an in i a ion o pa icipa e in an e-su ey ocusing on
media wo ke s’ wo king condi ions and occupa ional well-being
was sen by email o he membe s o he Union o Jou nalis s
in Finland (N= 13,652). This inqui y was i s app o ed by
he union, a e which anonymous pa icipa ion was s ic ly
olun ee based on in o med consen s om all pa icipan s who
we e legally compe en adul s. In hese ci cums ances, bo h he
na ional and he egula ions o (Uni e si y o Jy äskylä) e hical
commi ee exemp his s udy om an e hical e iew. O hose
who ecei ed he email, 43% opened i , and o hese, 17%
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Ran anen e al. Job Demands and Cogni i e S ess Symp oms
comple ed he su ey. A o al o 833 esponden s we e included
in he p esen s udy who, in addi ion o he main s udy a iables,
also p o ided in o ma ion on he con ol a iables: gende , age,
educa ion, and weekly wo king hou s.
O he esponden s, 69% we e women, and he mean age was
47.6 yea s (SD = 10.0). O he esponden s’ le el o educa ion, 22%
held less han a bachelo ’s deg ee, 29% had a bachelo ’s deg ee o
equi alen , 48% had a mas e ’s deg ee o equi alen , and 1% had
a highe deg ee. Mos (81%) we e employees in o ganiza ions o
a ious sizes, 16% wo ked ull- ime as eelance s, and 3% had
ano he wo k si ua ion (s uden wo ke , being bo h an employee
and a eelance , e c.). The mean o weekly wo king hou s was
39.2 (SD = 7.2).
Measu es
In ensi ied Job Demands
IJDs we e measu ed wi h 13 i ems om he in ensi ica ion o
job demands scale (Kubicek e al., 2015; o icially ansla ed in o
Finnish by Mauno e al., 2019). These i ems co e ed all he i e
dimensions o IJDs, and he ollowing ins uc ion p eceded he
i ems: “In he las 5 yea s, ha e he ollowing changes occu ed
in you wo k in he media ield? I you ha e wo ked less han
5 yea s in his ield, please e alua e he s a emen s based on
he ime you ha e wo ked in his ield.” Wo k in ensi ica ion
was measu ed wi h h ee i ems (e.g., “E e mo e wo k has o be
comple ed by ewe and ewe employees,” α= 0.75), in ensi ied
job- ela ed planning and decision-making demands wi h h ee
i ems (e.g., “One inc easingly has o check independen ly whe he
he wo k goals ha e been eached,” α= 0.71), in ensi ied ca ee -
ela ed planning and decision-making demands wi h h ee i ems
(e.g., “One’s own p o essional de elopmen inc easingly equi es
o keep o he al e na i es open,” α= 0.74), in ensi ied knowledge-
ela ed lea ning demands wi h wo i ems (e.g., “One has o
acqui e new expe ise o he job mo e o en,” α= 0.72), and
in ensi ied skill- ela ed lea ning demands wi h wo i ems (e.g.,
“One has o use new wo k equipmen (de ices, p og ams, e c.)
mo e o en,” α= 0.77). I ems we e a ed on a scale om 1 = no a
all o5=comple ely.
Cogni i e S ess Symp oms
Cogni i e s ess symp oms we e measu ed wi h ou i ems om
he Copenhagen Psychosocial Ques ionnai e (Pej e sen e al.,
2010). These i ems ha e been o icially ansla ed in o Finnish in
he SujuKE s udy (Finnish Ins i u e o Occupa ional Heal h, (n.
d).). Responden s we e asked o a e on a scale om 1 = no a all
o 5 = all he ime hei ollowing expe iences: “How o en ha e
you had di icul y a wo k (a) concen a ing, (b) hinking clea ly,
(c) aking decisions, and (d) emembe ing?” (α= 0.83).
Compe ence Demands-Rela ed Nega i e and
Posi i e A ec i i y
Compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y
was measu ed wi h one ques ion: “How o en do he cu en
compe ence demands o media wo k make you eel as desc ibed
below?” Responden s a ed hei eac ion o six nega i e (e.g.,
gloomy, ense, α= 0.85) and six posi i e (e.g., en husias ic, calm,
α= 0.87) a ec s on a scale om 1 = ne e o 6 = cons an ly.
These adjec i es de i ed om Wa ’s (1990) measu e o a ec i e
job- ela ed well-being ( alida ed in Finnish by Mäkikangas e al.,
2007) because hey wo k pa icula ly well o occupa ional
esea ch. Howe e , he e hese adjec i es we e no used o measu e
occupa ional well-being pe se, bu ins ead he nega i e and
posi i e emo ions media wo ke s expe ienced in esponse o he
cu en compe ence demands o media wo k.
Mul i asking P e e ence
Mul i asking p e e ence was measu ed wi h i e i ems om an
in en o y o measu e indi idual di e ences in polych onici y
(Poposki and Oswald, 2010). Responden s a ed hei eac ions
on a scale om 1 = s ongly disag ee o 5 = s ongly ag ee
o i e i ems such as “I would a he swi ch back and o h
be ween se e al p ojec s han concen a e my e o s on jus one”
(α= 0.79).
Backg ound Fac o s
In he analyses we con olled o gende (1 = man, 2 = woman),
age (in yea s), educa ion (1 = less han bachelo le el, 2 = bachelo
le el, 3 = mas e ’s le el, 4 = highe han mas e ’s le el) and
weekly wo king hou s (including all wo k pe o med, ega dless
o ime and place).
Da a Analysis
All analyses we e conduc ed wi h he SPSS 24.0 s a is ical
p og am. Fi s , Pea son co ela ions we e inspec ed be ween
all he s udy a iables. Second, we pe o med i e hie a chical
mode a ed eg ession analyses. In hese analyses, cogni i e s ess
symp oms we e se as a dependen a iable, backg ound ac o s
(gende , age, educa ion, and weekly wo king hou s) as con ol
a iables, each dimension o IJDs a a ime as an independen
a iable, and indi idual cha ac e is ics (compe ence demands-
ela ed nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y and mul i asking
p e e ence) as mode a o a iables. Backg ound ac o s we e
en e ed a s ep 1 o con ol o hei e ec s be o e each dimension
o IJDs was en e ed o he model a s ep 2, o inspec hei
main e ec s on cogni i e s ess symp oms. A e his, a s ep 3,
indi idual cha ac e is ics we e en e ed, and inally in e ac ion
e ms ( ha is, s anda dized indi idual cha ac e is ic mul iplied
by he s anda dized dimension o he IJDs in ques ion) we e
en e ed a s ep 4 o in es iga e he mode a ion e ec s.
In calcula ing he in e ac ion e ms, z-s anda diza ion o
a iables cons i u ing he in e ac ion e m was used (Aiken
and Wes , 1991). Also, i a signi ican mode a ion e ec was
de ec ed, hen simple slope es s (Cohen e al., 2003;Dawson,
2014) we e used o e alua e whe he he ela ionship (slope)
be ween he pa icula dimension o IJDs and cogni i e s ess
symp oms was signi ican a a pa icula alue o he indi idual
cha ac e is ic in ques ion.
RESULTS
Desc ip i e Resul s
Table 1 shows he means, s anda d de ia ions, and co ela ions o
all he s udy a iables. I shows ha media wo ke s expe ienced
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TABLE 1 | Means, s anda d de ia ions (SD), and co ela ions (n= 833) be ween s udy a iables.
Mean (SD) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
1. Gende a– –
2. Age 47.57 (9.96)−0.08*–
3. Educa ional le elb2.28 (0.82)0.23*** −0.16*** –
4. Weekly wo king hou s 39.19 (7.16)−0.06 −0.01 −0.02 –
5. WI (1–5) 3.87 (0.94)0.01 −0.06 −0.05 0.16*** –
6. IJP demands (1–5) 3.68 (0.88)0.08*0.00 −0.02 0.10** 0.49*** –
7. ICP demands (1–5) 3.74 (0.90)0.14** −0.21*** 0.11** 0.07*0.34*** 0.46*** –
8. IKL demands (1–5) 4.02 (0.81)0.05 0.07*−0.01 0.09** 0.38*** 0.37*** 0.48*** –
9. ISL demands (1–5) 4.17 (0.85)0.02 0.09*−0.05 0.10** 0.49*** 0.30*** 0.23*** 0.62*** –
10. Nega i e a ec i i yc(1–6) 2.99 (0.89)−0.03 −0.07*0.01 0.11** 0.39*** 0.22*** 0.23*** 0.18*** 0.24*** –
11. Posi i e a ec i i yc(1–6) 3.28 (0.82)0.05 0.01 0.03 0.00 −0.30*** −0.13*** −0.09*−0.01 −0.16*** −0.59*** –
12. Mul i asking p e e ence (1–5) 3.10 (0.73)0.13*** −0.04 0.09** 0.01 −0.13*** 0.06 0.05 −0.02 −0.09** −0.19*** 0.26*** –
13. Cogni i e s ess symp oms (1–5) 2.62 (0.74)0.06 −0.21*** 0.07*0.06 0.21*** 0.14*** 0.18*** 0.11** 0.12*** 0.45*** −0.29*** −0.11**
Response scales in pa en heses, a1, man; 2, woman; b1, less han bachelo ’s le el . . .; 4, highe han mas e ’s le el; ccompe ence demands- ela ed a ec i i y; WI, wo k in ensi ica ion; IJP, in ensi ied job- ela ed planning
and decision-making; ICP, in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-making; IKL, in ensi ied knowledge- ela ed lea ning; ISL, in ensi ied skill- ela ed lea ning.
*p <0.05, **p <0.01, ***p <0.01.
a he high IJDs consis en ly ac oss he dimensions (all means
abo e 3.5), whe eas he mean 2.62 o cogni i e s ess symp oms
was no pa icula ly high. O he backg ound ac o s, highe
age was ela ed o lowe expe ience o in ensi ied ca ee -
ela ed planning and decision-making demands, and a lowe
le el o cogni i e s ess symp oms. Long weekly wo king hou s
we e ela ed o high IJDs (all dimensions) as well as o high
compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y.
In addi ion, high IJDs (all dimensions) and high compe ence
demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y we e ela ed o high
cogni i e s ess symp oms, while high compe ence demands-
ela ed posi i e a ec i i y and high mul i asking p e e ence
ela ed o low cogni i e s ess symp oms. Due o he s ong
co ela ion be ween in ensi ied knowledge and skill- ela ed
lea ning demands ( = 0.62), and be ween compe ence demands-
ela ed nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y ( =−0.59) in he
subsequen eg ession analyses, mul icollinea i y diagnos ics
we e inspec ed by calcula ing a iance in la ion ac o s (VIF).
These diagnos ics, howe e , did no indica e he p esence o
mul icollinea i y (in all models VIFs <2 o each a iable). This,
oge he wi h he ac ha p elimina y ac o analysis showed ha
i ems o IDJs, cogni i e s ess symp oms, compe ence demands-
ela ed nega i e and posi i e a ec i i y and mul i asking
p e e ence did no load on one common ac o bu ins ead hei
own ac o s, also con i med ha he eg ession models should
be ee o common me hod bias (Kock, 2015). When all he
i ems we e o ced o load on one common ac o (Ha man’s
single ac o es ), i accoun ed o only 21% o he o al a iance.
Acco ding o Fulle e al. (2016), p. 3,197), he o al a iance
should be “70% o mo e be o e subs an ial conce n abou in la ed
ela ionships would a ise.” The de ailed esul s conce ning hese
p elimina y ac o analyses a e a ailable upon eques om
he i s au ho .
Hie a chical Mode a ed Reg ession
Analyses
As seen in Table 2, a s ep 2 o he eg ession analyses he
le el o cogni i e s ess symp oms was explained by all he
dimensions o IJDs e en a e con olling o he e ec s o
backg ound ac o s. O he IJD dimensions, wo k in ensi ica ion
explained he mos (4%) and in ensi ied knowledge- ela ed
lea ning demands he leas (1%) o he a iance in cogni i e
s ess symp oms. Howe e , when a s ep 3 he indi idual
cha ac e is ics we e en e ed o he models, all he dimensions o
IJDs los hei s a is ical signi icance in explaining he a iance in
cogni i e s ess symp oms. Indi idual cha ac e is ics (especially
compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y) explained 16–
18% o he a iance in cogni i e s ess symp oms. Hence, ou
Hypo hesis 1, assuming a posi i e ela ionship be ween IJDs and
cogni i e s ess symp oms, was only suppo ed when he ole o
indi idual cha ac e is ics was no conside ed.
As shown in Table 2 a s ep 4, ou mode a o e ec s
o cogni i e s ess symp oms we e de ec ed. The in e ac ion
e ms compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y ×wo k
in ensi ica ion, mul i asking p e e ence ×wo k in ensi ica ion,
compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y ×in ensi ied
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TABLE 2 | Indi idual cha ac e is ics as mode a o s in he ela ion be ween in ensi ied job demands and cogni i e s ess symp oms.
Model 1: IJDs = wo k
in ensi ica ion
Model 2:
IJDs = job- ela ed
planning and
decision-making
demands
Model 3:
IJDs = ca ee - ela ed
planning and
decision-making
demands
Model 4:
IJDs = knowledge-
ela ed lea ning
demands
Model 5:
IJDs = skill- ela ed
lea ning demands
Va iables βs ep4(β)βs ep4(β)βs ep4(β)βs ep4(β)βs ep4(β)
S ep 1, 1R20.05*** 0.05*** 0.05*** 0.05*** 0.05***
Gende a0.05 (0.03)0.05 (0.03)0.04 (0.03)0.05 (0.03)0.05 (0.03)
Age −0.16*** (−0.20***)−0.17*** (−0.20***)−0.15*** (−0.20***)−0.17*** (−0.20***)−0.17*** (−0.20***)
Educa ional le elb0.04 (0.04)0.04 (0.04)0.03 (0.04)0.03 (0.04)0.04 (0.04)
Weekly wo king hou s 0.02 (0.07)0.02 (0.07)0.02 (0.07)0.02 (0.07)0.02 (0.07)
S ep 2, 1R20.04*** 0.02*** 0.02*** 0.01** 0.02***
IJDs c0.04 (0.20***)0.06 (0.14***)0.04 (0.13***)0.05 (0.12**)0.03 (0.14***)
S ep 3, 1R20.16*** 0.18*** 0.18*** 0.18*** 0.18***
Nega i e a ec i i yd0.39*** (0.40***)0.39*** (0.40***)0.39*** (0.40***)0.39*** (0.40***)0.40*** (0.40***)
Posi i e a ec i i yd−0.03 (−0.04)−0.04 (−0.04)−0.04 (−0.04)−0.05 (−0.05)−0.04 (−0.04)
Mul i asking p e e ence −0.05 (−0.04)−0.05 (−0.04)−0.04 (−0.04)−0.04 (−0.04)−0.04 (−0.04)
S ep 4, 1R20.01* 0.01* 0.01** 0.00 0.00
IJDsc×Nega i e a ec i i y d0.09*0.07 0.08*0.06 0.02
IJDsc×Posi i e a ec i i y d0.06 −0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04
IJDsc×Mul i asking p e e ence −0.07*−0.05 −0.08*−0.03 −0.02
R2 o whole model a S ep 4 0.24*** 0.24*** 0.24*** 0.24*** 0.23***
βs ep4, he s anda dized be a coe icien o each a iable in he ou h and las s ep o he eg ession model; (β), he s anda dized be a coe icien o each a iable
be o e s ep 4, a he s ep a which he a iable is en e ed o he eg ession model; a1, man; 2, woman; b1, less han bachelo ’s le el . . .; 4, highe han mas e ’s le el;
cIJDs, in ensi ied job demands, and ha he dimension used in each model appea s in he op line, dcompe ence demands- ela ed a ec i i y.
*p ≤0.05, **p <0.01, ***p <0.01.
FIGURE 1 | Compe ence demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y as a mode a o in he associa ion be ween wo k in ensi ica ion/in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning and
decision-making demands and cogni i e s ess symp oms. The scale on he Y-axis as well as he en ies “low” and “high” e e o –1 and +1 s anda d de ia ion
below and abo e he sample mean in he a iable in ques ion.
ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-making demands, and
mul i asking p e e ence ×in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning
and decision-making demands we e s a is ically signi ican ly
ela ed o cogni i e s ess symp oms. These e ec s a e illus a ed
in Figu es 1,2. These g aphical ep esen a ions o he mode a o
e ec s we e de i ed using he s anda dized eg ession coe icien s
o he eg ession lines o esponden s wi h high (1 SD
abo e he mean) and low (1 SD below he mean) sco es
on he mode a o .
As shown in Figu e 1, esponden s high in compe ence
demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y epo ed o e all mo e
cogni i e s ess symp oms han hose low in his cha ac e is ic,
especially when expe iencing high wo k in ensi ica ion and
high in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-making
demands. The simple slope es s e ealed ha he posi i e
associa ions be ween wo k in ensi ica ion and cogni i e s ess
symp oms, and be ween in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning
and decision-making demands and cogni i e s ess symp oms,
we e signi ican among hose high in compe ence demands-
ela ed nega i e a ec i i y (β= 0.13, p<0.05 and β= 0.17,
p<0.001, espec i ely), bu non-exis en among hose low in
his cha ac e is ic (β= 0.00, p= n.s. and β= 0.01, p= n.s.,
espec i ely). These indings pa ly suppo ou Hypo hesis
2. The assumed opposi e indings o compe ence demands-
ela ed posi i e a ec i i y we e no de ec ed, so Hypo hesis 3
was no suppo ed.
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FIGURE 2 | Mul i asking p e e ence as a mode a o in he associa ion be ween wo k in ensi ica ion/in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-making demands
and cogni i e s ess symp oms. The scale on he Y-axis as well as he en ies “low” and “high” e e o –1 and +1 s anda d de ia ion below and abo e he sample
mean in he a iable in ques ion.
As shown in Figu e 2, o hose who expe ienced high
wo k in ensi ica ion and in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning and
decision-making demands, esponden s wi h high mul i asking
p e e ence epo ed ewe cogni i e s ess symp oms han
esponden s wi h low mul i asking p e e ences. Fo hose who
expe ienced less wo k in ensi ica ion and ewe in ensi ied
ca ee - ela ed planning and decision-making demands, he
p e e ence o mul i asking did no in luence he epo ed low
le el o cogni i e s ess symp oms. Simple slope es s e ealed
ha he posi i e associa ions be ween wo k in ensi ica ion and
cogni i e s ess symp oms, and be ween in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed
planning and decision-making demands and cogni i e s ess
symp oms, we e signi ican among all esponden s, bu we e
weake among hose high in mul i asking p e e ence (β= 0.13,
p<0.01 and β= 0.08, p<0.10, espec i ely), and s onge
among hose low in mul i asking p e e ence (β= 0.26, p<0.001
and β= 0.27, p<0.001, espec i ely). These indings pa ly
suppo Hypo hesis 4.
DISCUSSION
Due o he accele a ion o wo king li e, i has been sugges ed
ha nowadays i is no jus job demands bu pa icula ly
in ensi ied job demands (IJDs) ha challenge wo ke s’ esou ces
and occupa ional well-being (Kubicek e al., 2015). IJDs induced
by echnological ad ances and digi aliza ion a e pa icula ly
p e alen among whi e-colla wo ke s (e.g., Mauno e al., 2020)
and may o e bu den knowledge wo ke s’ in o ma ion p ocessing
capaci y and lead o cogni i e s ain a wo k (Vuo i e al.,
2019;Kalakoski e al., 2020). Fo hese easons, he p esen
s udy aimed o ex end he s ill incipien esea ch conce ning he
ela ion be ween IJDs and occupa ional well-being (e.g., Ko unka
e al., 2015;Mauno e al., 2019). To ou knowledge, cogni i e
s ess symp oms ha e no been s udied be o e in conjunc ion
wi h IJDs, and in es iga ing he mode a ing ole o indi idual
cha ac e is ics in he ela ion be ween IJDs as s esso and
cogni i e s ess symp oms as a possible s ess eac ion o IJDs also
o e s new unde s anding o bo h hese phenomena.
The p esen esul s showed ha a i s all i e dimensions o
IJDs associa ed wi h heigh ened expe ience o cogni i e s ess
symp oms. O he dimensions, wo k in ensi ica ion explained
mos o he a iance in he epo ed le el o cogni i e s ess
symp oms when backg ound ac o s, pa icula ly age (younge
esponden s epo ed mo e cogni i e s ess symp oms), we e
con olled o . Howe e , he associa ion be ween IJDs and
cogni i e s ess symp oms we e lowe in magni ude (see
Tables 1,2) han ea lie obse a ions o he associa ion be ween
IJDs and job exhaus ion (Ko unka e al., 2015) and bu nou
(Mauno e al., 2019). This is somewha su p ising, because IJDs
ha e been cha ac e ized as p edominan ly cogni i e in na u e
(Chesley, 2014;Kubicek e al., 2015;Mauno e al., 2020), and
because he media wo ke s in his s udy epo ed gene ally
a he high o e all expe ience o IJDs. On he o he hand, i is
known ha a ce ain amoun o cogni i e job demands may e en
enhance cogni i e unc ioning and hus bu e he age- ela ed
decline in hese unc ions (e.g., Fishe e al., 2014;Hussenoede
e al., 2019). The same could apply also in one’s cu en wo k,
especially i an indi idual app aises job demands as posi i e (i.e.,
as challenges) a he han nega i e (i.e., as hind ances) aspec s o
one’s wo k (e.g., Podsako e al., 2007;Pašk an e al., 2016;Meye
and Hüne eld, 2018).
When he ole o indi idual cha ac e is ics was conside ed
in he associa ions be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms,
impo an indings eme ged. Compe ence demands- ela ed
nega i e a ec i i y explained he mos a iance in cogni i e
s ess symp oms, o e and abo e all dimensions o IJDs. This
means ha when he main e ec s we e examined, how he
esponden s emo ionally expe ienced he cu en compe ence
demands o he media indus y was ound o be mo e signi ican
in e ms o cogni i e s ess symp oms han he ex en o which
hey expe ienced IJDs in hei wo k. Howe e , his does no
necessa ily challenge en i ely he exis ence o a de imen al link
be ween IJDs and cogni i e s ess symp oms: o he dimensions o
IJDs, wo k in ensi ica ion and in ensi ied ca ee - ela ed planning
and decision-making demands e ained hei posi i e associa ion
wi h cogni i e s ess symp oms, bu he magni ude o his
associa ion depended on he le el o he esponden s’ compe ence
demands- ela ed nega i e a ec i i y and mul i asking p e e ence.
The indings highligh he impo ance o acknowledging
unde lying indi idual cha ac e is ics in seeking o unde s and he
expe ience o wo k- ela ed s ess symp oms. Mo e speci ically,
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 8Ap il 2021 | Volume 12 | A icle 607172