Emotional and musical factors combined with song-specific age predict the subjective autobiographical saliency of music in older adults

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Emo ional and musical ac o s combined wi h song-speci ic age p edic he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o music in olde adul s © The Au ho (s) 2023 Published e sion Salakka, Ilja; Pi käniemi, Anni; Pen ikäinen, Emmi; Saa i, Pasi; Toi iainen, Pe i; Sä kämö, Teppo Salakka, I., Pi käniemi, A., Pen ikäinen, E., Saa i, P., Toi iainen, P., & Sä kämö, T. (2023). Emo ional and musical ac o s combined wi h song-speci ic age p edic he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o music in olde adul s. Psychology o Music, Online Fi s . h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/03057356231186961 2023 h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/03057356231186961 Psychology o Music 1 –17 © The Au ho (s) 2023 A icle euse guidelines: sagepub.com/jou nals-pe missions DOI: 10.1177/03057356231186961 jou nals.sagepub.com/home/pom Emo ional and musical ac o s combined wi h song-speci ic age p edic he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o music in olde adul s Ilja Salakka1,2,3 , Anni Pi käniemi1,2, Emmi Pen ikäinen1,2, Pasi Saa i4, Pe i Toi iainen2,4 and Teppo Sä kämö1,2 Abs ac Music ha e okes s ong emo ional esponses is o en expe ienced as au obiog aphically salien . Th ough emo ional expe ience, he musical ea u es o songs could also con ibu e o hei subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency. Songs which ha e been popula du ing adolescence o young adul hood (ages 10–30) a e mo e likely o e oke s onge memo ies, a phenomenon known as a eminiscence bump. In he p esen s udy, we sough o de e mine how song-speci ic age, emo ional esponsi eness o music, musical ea u es, and subjec i e memo y unc ioning con ibu e o he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o music in olde adul s. In a music lis ening s udy, 112 pa icipan s a ed exce p s o popula songs om he 1950s o he 1980s o au obiog aphical saliency. Addi ionally, hey illed ou ques ionnai es abou emo ional esponsi eness o music and subjec i e memo y unc ioning. The song exce p s’ musical ea u es we e ex ac ed compu a ionally using MIR oolbox. Resul s showed ha au obiog aphical saliency was bes p edic ed by song-speci ic age and emo ional esponsi eness o music and musical ea u es. Newe songs ha we e mo e simila in hy hm o olde songs we e also a ed highe in au obiog aphical saliency. O e all, his s udy con ibu es o au obiog aphical memo y esea ch by unco e ing a se o ac o s a ec ing he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o music. Keywo ds emo ion, memo y, aging, hy hm, imb e, onali y, modeling 1 Music, Ageing and Rehabili a ion Team, Cogni i e B ain Resea ch Uni , Depa men o Psychology and Logopedics, Facul y o Medicine, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland 2 Cen e o Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and B ain, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä and Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland 3Rehabili a ion Founda ion, Helsinki, Finland 4Depa men o Music, A and Cul u e S udies, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland Co esponding au ho : Ilja Salakka, Depa men o Psychology and Logopedics, oom F212, P.O. Box 21, FI-00014, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Finland. Email: [email p o ec ed] 1186961POM0010.1177/03057356231186961Psychology o MusicSalakka e al. esea ch-a icle2023 O iginal Empi ical In es iga ions 2 Psychology o Music 00(0) Memo ies a e impo an o he sense o sel , and music is an excep ionally powe ul s imulus o e oking hem, e en in people wi h demen ia (Cuddy e al., 2015). Because music ends o be pe sonally salien o mos people, i is o en used o emo ional sel - egula ion h oughou adul hood (Saa ikallio, 2010). Tha being said, s ong emo ional esponses o music a e o en connec ed o s ong musical memo ies (Jana a e al., 2007; Salakka e al., 2021; Schulkind e al., 1999; Schulkind & Woldo , 2005) and hey can se e as a s eng hening ac o in episodic memo y encoding (Mado P o e bio e al., 2015). Musical memo y o ma ion has been ound o be in ima ely linked o he expe ience o ewa d om music, modula ed by he dopamine gic mesolimbic sys em (Fe e i e al., 2021, 2019), which can, a leas pa ially, explain his s ong connec ion be ween musical emo ions and memo ies. Con e sely, when a epea edly hea d song has become amilia , i ends o be expe ienced as highe in emo ional in ensi y and alence (Ali & Peyni ciogˇgˇlu, 2010; Pe e z e al., 1998). In gene al, hese indings sugges ha bo h he consolida ion o new musical memo ies and he ecall o old musical memo ies a e s ongly d i en by emo ions. S ill, indi idual di e ences in emo ional esponsi eness o music a ec wha kind o emo ional eac ion music is likely o e oke (Juslin e al., 2022); he e o e, hese di e ences migh also play a pa in he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o music. Musical memo ies a e no s a ic h oughou he li e cou se. In younge people, hey mo e ypically esemble speci ic li e e en s, whe eas in olde people, hey end o be mo e a ec i ely ocused and engage do somedial p e on al egions (Fo d e al., 2016), which a e known o bo h ack he onal s uc u e o music and encode i s emo ional and au obiog aphical saliency (Jana a, 2009; Jana a e al., 2002). Impo an ly, musical memo ies can o en be e ec i ely e ie ed e en in neu ological diso de s in which memo y e ie al is ypically s ongly impai ed, such as in Alzheime ’s disease (El Haj, Faso i, & Allain, 2012; El Haj, Pos al, & Allain, 2012). Gene ally, olde adul s end o emembe memo ies be e om hei you h when com- pa ed o newe memo ies ( e y ecen memo ies excluded) o memo ies om hei i s 10 yea s. Known as a eminiscence bump, his is a obus cogni i e phenomenon ound in adul s ac oss di e en ages (Janssen e al., 2005) and also c oss-cul u ally (Conway e al., 2005). I is cha - ac e ized by an inc eased ease o e ie al o memo ies om age 10 o 30, usually peaking somewhe e be ween 13 and 18 yea s on a e age (Janssen e al., 2005). Howe e , he es ima ed age ange o he eminiscence bump a ies o some ex en depending on he me hod used o ac i a e he memo ies (Munawa e al., 2018). The eminiscence bump has also been obse ed in he con ex o musical memo ies, ypically occu ing be ween 5 and 24 yea s and peaking somewhe e a ound 15 yea s (Jakubowski e al., 2020; Pla z e al., 2015; Schulkind e al., 1999; Schulkind & Woldo , 2005). In e es ingly, K umhansl and Zupnick (2013) ound e idence o he cascading eminiscence bump, meaning ha people show a bump in au obiog aphical memo y ecall o he songs hei pa en s lis ened o as young adul s, because as child en hey we e exposed o hose songs in hei home en i onmen . Al hough musical memo ies can usually be ecalled ela i ely well e en unde neu odegen- e a i e condi ions (Cuddy & Du in, 2005; Cuddy e al., 2012; El Haj, Pos al, & Allain, 2012; Vans one & Cuddy, 2009b), gene al subjec i e memo y changes also become mo e common du ing heal hy aging. While subjec i e memo y di icul ies do no necessa ily e lec a concu - en decline in objec i e memo y pe o mance, hey a e some imes ela ed o de e io a ion in o he cogni i e domains, such as slowe p ocessing speed (Vaski uo e al., 2018), and may p e- cede objec i e memo y p oblems (Reid & MacLullich, 2006), and e en demen ia (Schmand e al., 1996). Regula music lis ening has been obse ed o imp o e subjec i e memo y in olde adul s expe iencing ea ly signs o cogni i e decline (Innes e al., 2017), sugges ing a ela ion- ship be ween music and gene al memo y. Howe e , i is s ill unknown i subjec i e memo y di icul ies a e ela ed o he au obiog aphical saliency o musical memo ies. Salakka e al. 3 While he emo ional expe ience o music plays a cen al pa in he o ma ion and e ie al o musical memo ies, musical ea u es migh also independen ly con ibu e o he subjec i e au obiog aphical saliency o a song. B oadly comp ised o onal, hy hmic, and imb al aspec s, music can be iewed as s uc u ed sound. I can be b oken down in o smalle sou ces o in o ma ion, such as spec al p ope ies o musical signals, he ea e e e ed o as musical ea u es. Music In o ma ion Re ie al (MIR) me hods ha e made i possible o ex ac musical ea u es ela ed o basic musical elemen s such as imb e, hy hm, and onali y om he audio signal, which in u n can be used in s a is ical analy- ses explo ing hei ela ionship o he subjec i e expe ience o music. These compu a ion- ally ex ac ed musical ea u es ha e p e iously been success ully used o p edic bo h he subjec i e emo ional expe ience (Ging as e al., 2014; Schube , 2004; Singe e al., 2016) and he au obiog aphical memo ies e oked by a song (Salakka e al., 2021). Using MIR, Salakka e al. (2021) epo ed ha he salience o he musical pulse, he ela i e s eng h o high ha monics, and luc ua ion in equencies be ween 200 and 800 Hz p edic ed bo h music-e oked emo ions and memo ies in olde adul s. The esul s o hese p e ious s udies lea e us wi h an open ques ion o whe he musical ea u es may indi idually con ibu e o he au obiog aphical saliency o a song a e accoun ing o age and emo ional esponsi e- ness o music. Taken oge he , many di e en ac o s ela ed o he lis ene o o he music i sel po en ially unde lie he au obiog aphical saliency o a song. In he p esen s udy, ou ocus was o iden i y i some o hese, namely song-speci ic age (SSA, he age o he lis ene when he song was popula ), emo ional esponsi eness o music, subjec i e memo y unc ioning, and musical ea- u es, ha e an e ec on he o e all au obiog aphical saliency o music. Conce ning musical ea u es, we ook in o accoun some o he undamen al elemen s o music: onali y, hy hm, and imb e. Salakka e al. (2021) p oposed ha because olde music, compa ed o mo e con- empo a y music, ends o ha e a di e en kind o musical “p o ile” (i.e. di e ences in musical ea u es), people who g ew up lis ening o ha kind o music may ind simila ea u es mo e appealing also in newe music. The e o e, we expec ed o see ha in he g oup o newe songs, hose ha ing simila musical p o iles wi h olde songs (measu ed wi h MIR sco es) would be expe ienced as mo e au obiog aphically salien . Me hods Pa icipan s The pa icipan s o he lis ening expe imen we e 112 heal hy olde adul s, 86 women and 26 men, aged 60–86 yea s (M = 70.7, SD = 5.4), wi h a mean educa ion le el o 4.8 (SD = 2.0, ange = 1–8) on he In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Educa ion (ISCED) 8-poin scale. All we e om he Helsinki me opoli an a ea and we e pa icipa ing in an ongoing s udy on he neu ocogni i e e ec s o senio choi singing (78 pa icipan s we e ama eu choi singe s, and 35 we e nonsinge s). The possible esponses when asking abou gende we e “Man,” “Woman,” and “O he .” The pa icipan s we e ec ui ed om he Adul Educa ion Cen e s o he Ci ies o Helsinki, Espoo, and Van aa and om di e en senio ci izens’ associa ions and independen choi s h ough p esen a ions, lye s, and email ad e isemen s. All pa icipan s we e Finnish- speaking and had no his o y o neu ological (e.g. demen ia, s oke) o se e e psychia ic (e.g. schizoph enia, bipola diso de ) diso de s. The s udy was app o ed by he E hical Re iew Boa d in he Humani ies and Social and Beha io al Science o he Uni e si y o Helsinki, and all pa - icipan s ga e w i en in o med consen . 4 Psychology o Music 00(0) Music lis ening expe imen s and ques ionnai es The pa icipan s pe o med an old- ime music a ing ask (OMRT) consis ing o 70 song exce p s (see “S imuli and musical ea u e ex ac ion” sec ion). A web applica ion o OMRT was de eloped speci ically acco ding o he needs o his s udy. The Finnish company Sen ina L d was esponsible o he echnical implemen a ion o he applica ion and da a epo ing sys- em, which an on Sen ina’s cloud se ice. The pa icipan s a ed each o he song exce p s by answe ing i e ques ions assessing expe ienced alence, emo ional in ensi y, a ousal, amilia - i y, and he au obiog aphical saliency o he song (5-poin Like scale). In he p esen s udy, we used only au obiog aphical saliency as a dependen a iable on p edic ion models. I was meas- u ed wi h a ques ion, “Kuinka paljon omakoh aisia muis oja kappale sinussa he ä i?” which ansla es di ec ly as “How much did he song e oke pe sonal memo ies?” The a ing was om “ei lainkaan (none a all)” (1) o “e i äin paljon ( e y much)” (5). E en hough he ansla ion sounds somewha quan i a i e in na u e, he Finnish ph asing has a conno a ion no jus o he numbe o memo ies bu also o hei s eng h o in ensi y, indica ing how “pe sonally memo y-e oking” he song was. The answe ing o ma was a o ced choice, and ques ions we e p esen ed one a a ime. When answe ing ques ions, he pa icipan s we e able o lis en o he song exce p again as many imes as hey wan ed. Fo each song, he in e ace also allowed he pa icipan s o sha e any memo ies ela ed o he song by w i ing ex o eco ding audio ( his quali a i e da a is no pa o his s udy). The pa icipan s we e able o do he whole lis ening expe imen in hei p e e ed place (e.g. a home), using hei own compu e o a able com- pu e which was len and se up by he esea che s. The use o headphones o ex e nal speake s was ecommended, and he pa icipan s we e asked o se he olume o a com o able bu clea ly audible le el. The expe imen s a ed wi h a sho p ac ice session o amilia ize he pa icipan s wi h he basic unc ionali y o he in e ace. The whole expe imen ook 2.5 h o comple e on a e age. The pa icipan s sel -assessed hei subjec i e memo y by illing ou he P ospec i e- Re ospec i e Memo y Ques ionnai e (PRMQ; Smi h e al., 2000). In his s udy, we used a PRMQ o al sco e as a measu e o subjec i e memo y (n = 112, M = 31.08, SD = 7.50, ange = 16–52). The pa icipan s also illed ou he Musical Engagemen Ques ionnai e (MusEQ; Vans one e al., 2016) o sel -assess hei engagemen wi h music in daily li e. We decided a p io i o use only he Emo ion subscale o he MusEQ (n = 111, M = 3.60, SD = 0.65, ange = 1–5) in his s udy o assess he ela ionship be ween pa icipan s’ emo ional espon- si eness o music and hei a ings o he au obiog aphical saliency o music. S imuli and musical ea u e ex ac ion The song pool consis ed o 140 songs in o al di ided in o wo lis s (A and B, 70 songs in each), ma ched o song gen e and e a. Each lis comp ised 10 olk songs plus 15 songs om each o he ou decades om he 1950s o he 1980s, ep esen ing di e en musical gen es (popula , ock, and jazz) and languages (Finnish o English). This ime pe iod o s imulus songs was selec ed because i was op imal o e oking au obiog aphical memo ies in he pa icipan s o he p esen s udy (Jakubowski e al., 2020; Janssen e al., 2005; Pla z e al., 2015; Schulkind e al., 1999; Schulkind & Woldo , 2005). The pa icipan s we e alloca ed in o wo g oups (co - esponding o A and B song lis s) ma ching o age, gende , and choi singing backg ound. The e was no no able di e ence in he au obiog aphical saliency a ings be ween he g oups, Akaike in o ma ion c i e ion (AIC) 24,756 -> 24,755; χ2(1) = 3.506, p = .061. The ull song lis wi h a mo e de ailed desc ip ion o o ming i is p esen ed in Supplemen al Ma e ial 1. Fo Salakka e al. 5 each song, an exce p o he mos cha ac e is ic and well-known pa (e.g. he cho us) was selec ed. The a e age leng h o he exce p s was 30 s ( ange = 18–37 s), and hal sine wa e ade-ins (1 s) and ade-ou s (3 s) we e added o each exce p o make he lis ening expe ience smoo h. The MP3 o ma was used o all audio iles. Conce ning he selec ion o musical ea u es, many s udies ha e used a p incipal compo- nen analysis (PCA) app oach o combine many ea u es in o ewe componen s. Fo example, Salakka e al. (2021) used a se o 24 musical ea u es and applied he PCA, esul ing in a six- componen solu ion. Howe e , none o he componen s had a clea onal in e p e a ion despi e some onal ea u es in he o iginal se . In some o he s udies u ilizing he PCA o simila p oce- du es, pulse cla i y and key cla i y ha e had s ong loadings in hei own dis inc componen s, being also he only componen s ha do no ep esen imb e in any way (Allu i e al., 2012; Bu una e al., 2016; Toi iainen e al., 2020). In he p esen s udy, we wan ed o emphasize he in e p e abili y o he ea u es, so we decided o use pulse cla i y and key cla i y o ep esen hy hm and onali y. Tempo al and spec al cla i y has also led o be e ecogni ion o song ma e ial (Albouy e al., 2020), which u he suppo s using cla i y-based ea u es o hese domains. Fo imb e, we chose spec al cen oid o be he ep esen ing ea u e, which has p e i- ously been ound o cha ac e ize undamen al aspec s o imb e, such as b igh ness (Allu i e al., 2012; McAdams e al., 1995; Salakka e al., 2021). In his way, we o med a se o h ee musical ea u es, ep esen ing onali y (key cla i y), hy hm (pulse cla i y), and imb e (spec- al cen oid), wi h clea in e p e a ions o use in he p esen s udy. Supplemen al Ma e ial 3 shows all h ee musical ea u es plo ed agains he yea in which he song was popula . All musical ea u es we e ex ac ed wi h MIR oolbox 1.7 (La illo & Toi iainen, 2007) on MATLAB R2018a using a de aul sampling a e (44,100 Hz, ypical o MP3 iles). F ame leng hs o 0.025 sec ( o spec al cen oid) and 3 sec ( o pulse cla i y and key cla i y) we e used wi h a ame o e lap o 50%. The mean o each musical ea u e (compu ed ac oss he ames) was used in he s a is ical analyses. Because o he la ge skewness in pulse cla i y, loga i hmic ans- o ma ion was applied o a oid biasing e ec on he esul s (skewness = 0.94–> 0.37). S a is ical analyses S a is ical analyses we e conduc ed wi h R-language e sion 4.0.4 (R Co e Team, 2021) in RS udio en i onmen e sion 1.4.1717. Linea mixed-e ec s models (LMM) we e applied o i models p edic ing he au obiog aphical saliency o he songs using he R package lme4 (Ba es e al., 2015). LMM was used in his s udy o accoun o he s uc u e o he da a ( wo di e en song lis s wi h di e en pa icipan s) and o indi idual a iance in he au obiog aphical sali- ency a ings. The i o he models was assessed using ma ginal (R2m) and condi ional (R2c) R2 alues o LMM (Nakagawa & Schielze h, 2013) compu ed wi h he R package MuMIn (Ba on, 2020), and AIC and χ2 alues om he co e R packages (R Co e Team, 2021). Mul icollinea i ies in LMM p edic o s we e assessed by inspec ing VIF alues using he R package ca (Fox & Weisbe g, 2019). Residuals o he models we e examined isually using he co e R packages (R Co e Team, 2021). Di e ences and in e ac ions be ween SSA (low ⩽ 20 yea s/high > 20 yea s) and au obiog aphical saliency (low sco e ⩽ 3/high sco e > 3) g oups in he domains o he musical ea u es we e assessed wi h LMM. All g aphical plo s we e c ea ed wi h ggplo 2-pack- age (Wickham, 2016). Whe e compa ison be ween di e en p edic o s was needed, he s and- a diza ion o he p edic o a iables was done by sub ac ing he mean and di iding by he s anda d de ia ion o each a iable. This compu a ion esul ed in scaled a iables ha ing a mean o 0 and a s anda d de ia ion o 1. The SSA was calcula ed as he di e ence be ween he yea when he song was popula in he Finnish music cha s and he bi h yea o he 6 Psychology o Music 00(0) pa icipan . Fo he pu poses o his pape , olk songs we e emo ed om he da a because com- pu ing hei SSA is ambiguous. Resul s He e, we p esen h ee se s o LMM analyses o p edic au obiog aphical saliency. Fi s , we inspec he ela ionship be ween SSA and he au obiog aphical saliency accoun ing o he eminiscence bump. Second, we p esen i e models wi h mul iple p edic o s (subjec i e emo- ional esponse o music, subjec i e memo y unc ioning, musical ea u es, SSA, and age and gende as demog aphic co a ia es) o inspec hei indi idual p edic i e abili y a e accoun ing o o he s. Las , we p esen h ee models in which we examine he in e ac ions be ween SSA and au obiog aphical saliency in di e en musical domains. The ela ionship be ween SSA and he au obiog aphical saliency Along wi h he pa icipan ’s age and he yea he song was popula on Finnish adio channels, Figu e 1 p o ides dis ibu ions o SSA and au obiog aphical saliency. To examine he eminis- cence bump, we plo ed he au obiog aphical saliency agains SSA. Visual inspec ion o he LOESS cu e (locally es ima ed sca e plo smoo hing) shows a clea bump a ound he eenage yea s, peaking a he age o 11 (Figu e 2, dashed line). Because o his nonlinea ela ionship be ween he SSA and he au obiog aphical saliency, i was possible ha a simple linea unc ion was no he mos app op ia e model o use he e. Thus, we decided o i highe o de SSA e ms o he da a o see i hey do be e in accoun ing o he eminiscence bump phenomenon han a simple linea unc ion. As can be seen om Figu e 1 and Table 1, he cubic unc ion i s qui e well o he LOESS cu e, p o iding a mo e pa simonious i o e he quad a ic and linea unc- ions. The qua ic unc ion does no inc ease he i o he model enough compa ed o he cubic unc ion bu makes he model mo e complex and uns in o he dange o o e i ing. Based on hese examina ions, we used he cubic SSA model as a p edic o in he nex se o LMM analyses by including all ele an SSA e ms o he models. S ep-by-s ep models p edic ing he au obiog aphical saliency We buil i e LMMs s ep-by-s ep by adding new a iable(s) on op o he o he s o see how much hey imp o ed he model (in e ms o R2m/R2c and AIC) and wha con ibu ion each o he p edic o s had beside o he s (Table 2; VIF alues p esen ed in Supplemen al Ma e ial 2). Age and gende (Model 1) and subjec i e memo y unc ioning (PRMQ; Model 2) had no explana- o y powe o au obiog aphical saliency. Subjec i e emo ional esponsi eness o music (Model 3) signi ican ly p edic ed he au obiog aphical saliency a e adjus ing o Model 2 e ec s. This is seen as a dec ease in he be ween-pa icipan s a iance, a ising om he ac ha emo ional esponsi eness e lec s indi idual di e ences be ween pa icipan s. Model 4 added he cubic SSA e ec o he model. Unde se e e, bu ine i able, mul icollinea i y be ween di e en SSA e ms, hei be a coe icien s canno be eliably compa ed o o he e ms in he model. This, howe e , does no a ec hei added p edic i e alue in he model. Compa ed o Model 3, Model 4 inc eased R2 alues by o e 6% and dec eased esidual a iance by ~10%, indica ing ha SSA is he bes single p edic o o au obiog aphical saliency among he a iables used he e. In he ull model (Model 5), musical ea u es we e added, inc easing he ma ginal R2 o almos 11%. All h ee musical ea u es (pulse cla i y, key cla i y, and spec al cen oid) had a signi i- can s a is ical e ec . O he musical ea u es, pulse cla i y was he bes p edic o o Salakka e al. 7 au obiog aphical saliency, while he e ec s o key cla i y and spec al cen oid we e clea ly smalle . Fo bo h models (4 and 5), he e ec s we e seen only in he esidual a iance, e lec ing a e age consis ency ac oss he pa icipan s in hese ma e s. Figu e 1. Dis ibu ions o (a) Pa icipan Age (M = 70.7, SD = 5.4), (b) The Yea he Song was Popula in Finnish Radio Channels (M = 1,969, SD = 10.7), (c) SSA (M = 22.6, SD = 12.0), and (d) The Au obiog aphical Saliency (M = 2.5, SD = 1.3). Figu e 2. The Cubic Func ion (Smoo h Line) Ba ely Misses he Peak and he Ve y Ends o he LOESS Cu e (Dashed Line) bu O he wise Fi s Well Wi h he Reminiscence Bump Phenomenon in he P esen Da a. 8 Psychology o Music 00(0) O e all, a e SSA, he bes single p edic o was pulse cla i y, ollowed by a subjec i e emo- ional esponse o music. The condi ional R2 o he ull model was ~30%, meaning ha a ound a hi d o he a iance in he expe ienced au obiog aphical saliency was explained by a combi- na ion o ou ixed p edic o s (SSA, emo ions, and musical ea u es) and he di e ences in he o e all le el o au obiog aphical saliency o music be ween di e en pe sons ( andom ac o ). Compa ing he musical ea u es o he songs wi h low/high SSA and he au obiog aphical saliency He e, we es ed ou hypo hesis ha he songs wi h low SSA/high au obiog aphical saliency would ha e mo e simila i y o he songs wi h high SSA/high au obiog aphical saliency han o he songs wi h high SSA/low au obiog aphical saliency. Based on he isual inspec ion o Figu e 2 and he esul s o Jakubowski e al. (2020), we ca ego ized he SSA ange o he songs indi idually o each pa icipan using a cu -o o 20 yea s, o low SSA (⩽ 20 yea s) o high SSA (> 20 yea s). Simila ly, he au obiog aphical saliency o he songs was classi ied indi idu- ally o each pa icipan as low (sco e ⩽ 3) o high (sco e > 3). Fi s , we es ed i an in e ac ion be ween low/high SSA and low/high au obiog aphical saliency was p esen . Second, we inspec ed he means and con idence in e als o low/high SSA/au obiog aphical saliency ca - ego ies o see he ela i e di e ences be ween hem. In he domains o spec al cen oid and pulse cla i y, he s a is ical in e ac ion was clea ly p esen , AIC 123,491 -> 123,367; χ2(1) = 126.53, p < .001 and AIC 6,270.5 -> 6,178.7; χ2(1) = 93.84, p < .001, espec i ely. Fo key cla i y, he in e ac ion was no s a is ically signi ican , AIC -17054 -> -17055; χ2(1) = 2.83, p = .093. When inspec ing Figu e 3 and Table 3, we see ha o he songs om pa icipan s’ you h (low SSA), all musical ea u es we e ela i ely independen o he song’s a e age au obiog aph- ical saliency. In con as , o he la e songs (high SSA), he e we e clea di e ences be ween high and low au obiog aphical saliency in spec al cen oid and pulse cla i y. Fo pulse cla i y, in line wi h ou hypo hesis, i is clea ha he songs om he pa icipan s’ you h we e mo e simila o he la e songs wi h high au obiog aphical saliency han o he songs wi h low au o- biog aphical saliency. This means ha la e and less au obiog aphically salien songs ha e a clea e pulse on a e age han he es o he songs in ou sample. As an example, one can imag- ine ha songs om he 50s o he 60s ypically had less clea bea , and people who we e young Table 1. Compa ing Di e en Models P edic ing he Au obiog aphical Saliency by Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion and χ2- es . 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