Immersive Virtual Reality in Experiential Learning : A Value Co-creation and Co-destruction Approach
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Imme si e Vi ual Reali y in Expe ien ial Lea ning : A Value Co-c ea ion and Co-
des uc ion App oach
© Au ho s 2023
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Ton e i, Tomi; Holopainen, Jani; Lumi alo, Juuli; Tuunanen, Tuu e; Pa inen,
Pe i; Laukkanen, Tommi
Ton e i, T., Holopainen, J., Lumi alo, J., Tuunanen, T., Pa inen, P., & Laukkanen, T. (2023).
Imme si e Vi ual Reali y in Expe ien ial Lea ning : A Value Co-c ea ion and Co-des uc ion
App oach. In T. X. Bui (Ed.), P oceedings o he 56 h Annual Hawaii In e na ional Con e ence on
Sys em Sciences (HICSS 2023) (pp. 1313-1322). Uni e si y o Hawai'i a Manoa. P oceedings o
he Annual Hawaii In e na ional Con e ence on Sys em Sciences.
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10125/102792
2023
Imme si e Vi ual Reali y in Expe ien ial Lea ning – A Value Co-c ea ion
and Co-des uc ion App oach
Tomi Ton e i
Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland
omi. . on[email p o ec ed]
Jani Holopainen
Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland
jani.ho[email p o ec ed]i
Juuli Lumi alo
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä
juuli.k.[email p o ec ed]
Tuu e Tuunanen
Pe i Pa inen
Tommi Laukkanen
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä
Uni e si y o Helsinki
Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland
uu e@ uunanen. i
pe i.pa [email p o ec ed]
ommi.laukkanen@ue . i
Abs ac
Imme si e Vi ual Reali y (la e VR) has i s
po en ial in enabling lea ning expe iences. Se e al
s udies adop expe ien ial lea ning as a key concep o
unde s and he ou comes o VR. This s udy consis s o
wo pa s – he i s pa conduc s a sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew on VR expe ien ial lea ning and sugges s se en
main dimensions o he concep iden i ied by he
exis ing li e a u e: engagemen , sociabili y, con ex ual
in o ma ion, physical sensa ion, in e ac i i y,
cogni ions, and p esence. The second pa adop s a
alue co-c ea ion and co-des uc ion app oach o
empi ically es he cons uc ion unde lying VR
expe ien ial lea ning. The indings indica e 33 alue co-
c ea ion and 19 alue co-des uc ion cons uc s
con ibu ing o he se en dimensions. The sugges ed
se en alue cons uc dimensions combined wi h ou
own empi ical indings and he heo y o expe ien ial
lea ning, ou esea ch esul s build unde s anding
abou he expe ien ial lea ning in he VR con ex and
u he encou ages u u e VR lea ning esea ch o es
and alida e hese p oposi ions.
Keywo ds: Vi ual eali y, expe ien ial lea ning, alue
co-c ea ion, alue co-des uc ion, design ea u es.
1. In oduc ion
This s udy conside s imme si e Vi ual Reali y
(la e VR) pla o ms combining a so wa e o p esen a
i ual en i onmen and a ha dwa e, such as Head-
Moun ed Display (HMD) (Pallo & Richi , 2016). Fully
imme si e VR solu ions ha e shown hei po en ial in
imp o ing use s’ lea ning mo i a ion, engagemen , and
enjoymen in a ious educa ion and aining con ex s
(A sikpasi & Fokides, 2021). By p o iding ealis ic
expe iences, VR is especially powe ul in gene a ing
expe ien ial lea ning (Kwon, 2018; F omm e al., 2021).
The expe ien ial lea ning heo y is a holis ic model o
he lea ning p ocess whe e he ole o expe ience is
cen al in he lea ning p ocess (Kolb 1984). Expe ien ial
lea ning consis s o ou s ages: ac i e expe imen a ion,
conc e e expe ience, e lec i e obse a ion, and abs ac
concep ualiza ion (Kolb, 1984). Al hough some s udies
sugges ha hese s ages o expe ien ial lea ning a e
cen al in a ious VR educa ion and aining con ex s
(e.g., Kwon, 2018; F omm e al., 2021), we need
esea ch and unde s anding o he alue cons uc s ha
con ibu e o expe imen al lea ning.
In he p esen s udy, we p opose alue cons uc s
which consis o pe cei ed use alue, ela ion o he VR
pla o m o sou ce o he alue, and ela ion o lea ning
dimensions. To explo e how hese alue cons uc s can
cla i y cons uc ion o VR expe ien ial lea ning, his
s udy consis s o wo pa s – he i s pa sys ema ically
e iews he li e a u e on VR expe ien ial lea ning and
sugges s se en main alue cons uc dimensions o he
concep : engagemen , sociabili y, con ex ual
in o ma ion, physical sensa ion, in e ac i i y,
cogni ions, and p esence. The second pa is empi ical,
adop ing a no el app oach o alue co-c ea ion and co-
des uc ion (Pl & Cce es, 2010; Eche e i & Skln,
2021) o u he es and analyze alue cons uc s
unde lying VR expe ien ial lea ning. By conside ing
bene icial, bu also disad an ageous cons uc s, i.e.,
ensions, he p esen s udy can p o ide imp o ed
heo e ical in e es and con ibu ions (Palma ie , 2016).
The indings o he p esen s udy indica e 33 alue
co-c ea ion and 19 alue co-des uc ion alue cons uc
i ems con ibu ing o he se en main alue cons uc
dimensions which a e hen p oposed o con ibu e o
expe ien ial lea ning s ages. These indings p o ide a
be e unde s anding o he u u e esea ch o he
s uc u e o expe ien ial lea ning in a VR con ex and
encou age o u he s udies o alida e he p oposi ions.
P oceedings o he 56 h Hawaii In e na ional Con e ence on Sys em Sciences | 2023
Page 1313
URI: h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10125/102792
978-0-9981331-6-4
(CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
2. Theo e ical backg ound
2.1. Expe ien ial lea ning
Kolb's (1984) heo y o expe ien ial lea ning has
in luenced he unde s anding o lea ning in imme si e
VR. P e ious esea ch p omo es VR’s abili y o enable
expe ien ial lea ning (F omm e al., 2021). The
expe ien ial lea ning heo y is a holis ic model o human
lea ning, explaining how humans adap o a social and
physical en i onmen (Kolb, 1984). To lea n a skill, he
lea ne needs o go h ough he ou expe ien ial
lea ning s ages: conc e e expe ience, e lec i e
obse a ion, abs ac concep ualiza ion, and ac i e
expe imen a ion (Kolb, 1984). The lea ning s ages o m
a cycle whe e conc e e expe ience wo ks as a basis o
e lec i e obse a ions, which hen can be dis illed in o
new abs ac concep s and es ed in he ac i e
expe imen a ion s age (Kolb & Kolb, 2012).
Being a high-le el heo y, he Kolb’s expe ien ial
lea ning heo y’s cen al hemes and concep s a e open
o in e p e a ion by schola s (Howa d-Mo is, 2020).
Since de ailing he heo y in a clea con ex is necessa y
o implemen a ion, es ing and u he heo e ical
de elopmen , he ou s ages should be cla i ied. This
also gi es an oppo uni y o explo e some easoning
why he p e ious s udies conside expe ien ial lea ning
o be p e alen in VR.
Fi s ly, a conc e e expe ience is conside ed a eal-
wo ld expe ience wi h hands-on pa icipa ion (Howa d-
Mo is, 2020). Real-wo ld expe ience is ich wi h
con ex ual in o ma ion while hands-on pa icipa ion
equi es ac i e in ol emen wi h objec s, en i onmen ,
and people. The collec ion o subjec i e pe sonal
meanings o abs ac concep s is impo an in he
conc e e expe ience s age (Kolb, 1984). Fu he ,
p e ious s udies p esen he idea ha VR enables
conc e e expe iences h ough imme sion and
in e ac i i y esembling eali y (e.g., Kwon, 2018).
The second s age, he e lec i e obse a ion s age,
is a s age du ing which he lea ne akes a mo e passi e
ole by obse ing he subjec and wha is happening
because o he ac ions o o he s o hei own. Less
in e ac i e VR expe iences whe e he lea ne is
a eling along p ede ined pa h wi hou in e ac i i y
wi h i ual en i onmen induces obse e ype lea ning
(Kwon, 2018; Radian e al. 2020). Re lec ing equi es
analy ical skills om he lea ne (Kolb & Kolb, 2012).
The hi d expe ien ial lea ning s age, abs ac
concep ualiza ion, is an ac o dis illing e lec ions abou
a subjec in o an abs ac concep which can hen be used
o explain mul iple si ua ions (Kolb, 1984).
Las bu no leas , in he ac i e expe imen a ion
s age, a lea ne es s o med pe sonal implica ions by
ying o sol e he phenomenon a hand (Kolb & Kolb,
2012). VR expe iences wi h ins an eedback and high
in e ac i i y, such as being able o pick up and play wi h
i ems ound in a i ual en i onmen , enable ac i e
expe imen a ion (Kwon, 2018; F omm e al., 2021).
The main di e ence be ween eal expe ience and
VR media ed expe ience is ha in many cases he use s
need o lea n o use he VR pla o m be o e hey can
ocus on he subjec . S e ens and Jouny-Ri ie (2020)
a gued ha expe ien ial lea ning would be an an eceden
o echnology accep ance model’s pe cei ed usabili y
and pe cei ed use ulness o an in o ma ion sys em.
These quali ies a e also impo an o VR as shown by
p e ious s udies whe e usabili y has hinde ed lea ning
ou comes (e.g., Mak ansky e al., 2017; Holopainen e
al., 2019; Rupp e al., 2019). This sugges s ha
expe ien ial lea ning may play a dual ole in assessing
he ad an ages and disad an ages o VR.
2.2. Value co-c ea ion and co-des uc ion
Value mani es s as an imp o emen o de e io a ion
in he well-being o he ac o (Va go & Lush, 2018). The
alue o a se ice is de e mined in use by he bene icia y
and co-c ea ed h ough esou ce in eg a ion by he
ac o s (Va go & Lusch, 2008; Va go, Maglio & Akaka,
2008). Value co-c ea ion ocuses on collabo a ion
be ween he cus ome and he se ice p o ide , du ing
which he alue o he se ice eme ges (Va go & Lusch,
2008; Va go e al., 2008). This means he collabo a o s
a e ac i e pa icipan s in he alue co-c ea ion,
combining hei esou ces o gene a e alue (Va go e
al., 2020). Commonly, alue co-c ea ion is e e ed o in
a posi i e sense (Va go, Akaka, and Vaughan, 2017). In
hei wo k, Ranjan and Read (2016) p esen co-
p oduc ion as an impo an an eceden o alue co-
c ea ion, o ming om knowledge, equi y, and
in e ac ion, which can be he collabo a o s esou ces.
In con as , alue co-des uc ion is an in e ac ional
p ocess, much like co-c ea ion, bu one ha leads o a
decline in well-being o a leas one o he in ol ed
pa ies (Plé & Cáce es, 2010). Value ou comes depend
on he ac o and he con ex (Va go, Akaka, & Vaughan,
2017) which means one p ocess can c ea e alue in one
si ua ion o one pe son while o ano he i des oys
alue (Plé & Cáce es, 2010; Eche e i & Skålén, 2021).
Bo h alue co-c ea ion and co-des uc ion a e
c ucial o unde s anding use expe iences.
Unde s anding he alue co-c ea ion p ocess and
ou comes allows one o p edic he e ec s o a se ice
o i s use s (Ranjan & Read, 2016). Lea ning ou comes
a e a angible way o e alua e and imp o e VR
applica ions. As he concep o alue co-c ea ion and co-
des uc ion has no been u ilized in he con ex o
expe ien ial lea ning and VR, i hus has i s po en ial o
Page 1314
c ea e new knowledge on he e ec s he ecognized
dimensions ha e on VR expe ien ial lea ning.
3. Resea ch Me hodology
The p esen s udy applies wo esea ch me hods: a
sys ema ic li e a u e e iew (SLR) o concep ualize
dimensions ha a ec VR expe ien ial lea ning, and an
empi ical s udy es ing and building he s uc u e o
expe ien ial lea ning in a VR con ex .
3.1. Sys ema ic li e a u e e iew
The SLR was chosen as a me hod o
comp ehensi ely unde s and how academic li e a u e
pe cei es imme si e VR dimensions ha a ec
expe ien ial lea ning. The li e a u e sea ch was done
using ou online academic esea ch da abases: Else ie
ScienceDi ec , Else ie Scopus, IEEE Xplo e, and
Sp inge Link. These da abases we e chosen because
hey comp ehensi ely co e VR and lea ning ocused
academic li e a u e.
Fo he sea ch, he keywo ds used we e s ic o
ensu e ele ance o he esul s o he imme si e VR and
expe ien ial lea ning con ex . The keywo ds used we e
“expe ien ial lea ning”, “ i ual eali y”, “head-
moun ed display”, “imme si*”, and “Kolb”. Synonyms
conside ed we e “expe imen al lea ning”, “VR”, and
“head moun ed display”. The main keywo ds ega ding
expe ien ial lea ning, i ual eali y, imme si* we e
sea ched o in he i le, abs ac , o keywo ds. Because
o his o iginal in luen ial expe ien ial lea ning heo y
publica ions, Kolb was sea ched om he e e ence
ield. As he inal sea ch e m o speci y he solu ion
ype, head-moun ed display keywo d was used.
Du ing he sea ch p ocess, esul s we e es ic ed o
only include pee e iewed con e ence pape s and
jou nal a icles, esul ing in a o al o 39 pape s. Nex ,
he pape s we e ini ially e iewed by i le and abs ac
o emo e duplica es, o eign languages, and pape s
wi hou ull ex a ailable. Following his, he esul ing
35 pape s we e e alua ed by i le, abs ac , and
keywo ds o ini ial i . The condi ions o inclusion in
he li e a u e e iew we e hose s udies o conside VR
expe ien ial lea ning and ocusing on imme si e VR.
A e he ini ial e alua ion, 20 pape s emained. Finally,
he wen y emaining a icles we e ho oughly examined
o dis inguish s udies conside ing dimensions a ec ing
expe ien ial lea ning. The inal numbe o s udies
ul illing all he p esen ed c i e ia was ou . In o ma ion
ega ding he ecognized dimensions, how hey a ec
VR expe ien ial lea ning, esul s, and used me hodology
we e hen ex ac ed om he s udies.
3.2. Empi ical s udy
The empi ical s udy consis ed o da a collec ion
using a ocused in e iew me hod and hema ic con en
analysis o he collec ed da a. In he s udy, a alue co-
c ea ion and alue co-des uc ion pe spec i e is cen al
and is used as an analy ical lens in he empi ical s udy.
Fo ocused in e iews, i is especially impo an
ha he pa icipan s ha e simila expe iences ega ding
he subjec o s udy (Me on & Kendall, 1946). Thus, all
pa icipan s we e selec ed om olun ee s in e es ed in
es ing VR so ha hey had li le o no p e ious
expe ience wi h imme si e VR and hey es ed a
speci ic VR solu ion. In o al, he s udy in ol ed eigh
Finnish adul s: 4 emale, 3 male, and 1 o he be ween 18
and 47 yea s old, wi h a mean age o 23 yea s ( e e ed
as Pa icipan s 1 o 8 o P1 o P8). All pa icipan s we e
ac i ely s udying in a local uppe seconda y o
oca ional school.
As ma e ial, he es ed VR solu ion employed a
360-deg ee ideo based educa ional ou o a me al
e ining plan wi h some in e ac i e elemen s such as
op ional anima ed ideos and a sho ques ionnai e. The
expe ience was designed o a head-moun ed display
Oculus Ques 2 and ook ad an age o i s hand acking
ea u es so ha he pa icipan did no need hand-held
con olle s o in e ac wi h he i ual en i onmen .
Each pa icipan es ed he VR solu ion o 20 o 25
minu es, going h ough he ull ou and he
ques ionnai e while being obse ed by a esea che . The
in en ion was o s imula e expe ien ial lea ning whe e
he pa icipan s would explo e a eal-li e like
en i onmen ela ed o a me al e ining p ocess as well
as expe ien ially explo e he applica ion o imme si e
VR o lea ning. A e he es ing, i s imp essions we e
collec ed and wi hin i e days he ocused in e iew was
conduc ed.
As he ocused in e iew me hod only loosely
ollows a p e-planned se o ques ions and a he ocuses
on hemes (Me on & Kendall, 1946), i is especially
e ec i e o explo ing subjec i e expe iences. The
in e iew hemes we e chosen o ollow hypo he ically
signi ican alue cons uc ion dimensions disco e ed in
he li e a u e e iew: p esence, physical sensa ion,
engagemen , cogni ion, sociabili y, in e ac i i y,
con ex ual in o ma ion, and expe ien ial lea ning s ages.
The ocused in e iew segmen s las ed an a e age o 38
minu es and 55 seconds pe in e iew.
To analyze he esul ing ansc ip ion da a hema ic
con en analysis (TCA) ollowing Ande son (2007)
me hodology was used. The main ad an age o TCA o
he s udy is i s low ho e ing app oach o da a analysis
making i excel in disco e ing new iews acco ding o
how he da a p esen s hem. Hence, he in en ion is o
Page 1315
dis inguish common oices om he da a, a he han
in e p e i (Ande son, 2007).
Fo he TCA, an analy ical lens o alue co-c ea ion
and co-des uc ion (Va go & Lusch, 2008, Pl &
Cce es, 2010; Eche e i & Skln, 2021) was applied
o be e unde s and how he VR dimensions a e
e lec ed in expe ien ial lea ning s ages. The
pa icipan s’ subjec i e pe spec i es on how VR
ha dwa e, so wa e, use si ua ion, and pe sonal
ins i u ions in combina ion a ec he VR alue cons uc
dimensions is cen al o he s udy. Thus, he in e ac i e
and phenomenological app oach o alue by co-c ea ion
and co-des uc ion (Va go, Akaka & Vaughan, 2017)
was seen as especially bene icial.
The TCA esul ed in wen y hemes con aining
de ailed cons uc s a ound alue co-c ea ion and alue
co-des uc ion, wi h eme ging hemes ha ing common
mo i es o in e connec ions. Fo example, in e ac i i y,
p esence, and eedom o mo emen hemes all pa ly
conside locomo i e in e ac i i y bu ha e o he
di e ing elemen s, hus hese we e kep sepa a e o
a oid o e gene aliza ion du ing analysis. This app oach
also ensu ed ha he in e connec ions we e p ese ed.
Al hough wen y hemes eme ged using he TCA
me hod, no all eme ging hemes conside ed VR
expe ien ial lea ning because he TCA me hod ex ac ed
common oices o he ele an con en was ep esen ed
by he examined dimensions (e.g., in e ac i i y,
engagemen , and p esence dimension ep esen all alue
cons uc s in he eedom o mo emen heme). The
eme ging alue cons uc s unde each dimension a e
u he discussed in sec ion 5.
4. Resul s o he SLR: dimensions a ec ing
VR expe ien ial lea ning
The conduc ed SLR ound ou een s udies ha use
expe ien ial lea ning heo y in imme si e VR educa ion
con ex , while only ou o hem mo e closely
conside ed dimensions a ec ing he VR expe ien ial
lea ning. In o he s udies, he expe ien ial lea ning
heo y has been applied o imme si e VR educa ion in a
a ie y o a eas: Eme gency aining (Mi suha a e al.,
2019; Xiao e al., 2020), nu sing (Hannans, Ne ins and
Jo dan, 2021), ma h (Zhou, Li and Bian, 2020), business
(F omm e al., 2021), o eign languages (Bian e al.,
2022), science (Kwon, 2018), chemis y (Edwa ds e al.,
2019), pedes ian a ic aining (Feng e al., 2021) and
e ail employee aining (Lau and Lee, 2021). All
ou een s udies a e ecen , da ing be ween 2018 and
2022.
P e ious s udies mos ly use quan i a i e
me hodology and su ey da a collec ion. Two s udies
did in e iew da a collec ion (F omm e al., 2021; Feng
e al. 2021), while one s udy u ilized obse a ions o
da a (Li. Ip & Ma, 2019). One s udy used an SLR
ocusing on VR in pos -second le el educa ion and skill
aining, al hough hei ocus was no on expe ien ial
lea ning bu a he ecognized i and social
cons uc i is app oaches o be ecommended
(Concannon, Esmail & Robe s, 2019).
Fou s udies ha e alua ed dimensions a ec ing
VR expe ien ial lea ning we e F omm e al. (2021),
Kwon (2018), Bian e al. (2022), and Lau and Lee
(2021). The me hodology, dimensions hey ecognize,
and key indings a e p esen ed in Table 1.
In hei ecen wo k, Bian e al. (2022) used a
quan i a i e s udy o explo e VR lea ning en i onmen s
which p omo e expe ien ial lea ning. Guideline 1
sugges s dec easing he amoun o a ac i e bu ask-
i ele an dis ac o s, while guideline 2 sugges s
guiding a en ion om ask-i ele an dis ac o s o
ask- ele an elemen s (Bian e al., 2022). Thei s udy
ocuses on imp o ing pe o mance by main aining low
while educing dis ac o s. Recognized impo an
an eceden s o expe ien ial lea ning pe o mance we e
ocus, in e ac ion, mo i a ion and engagemen .
Fu he mo e, he esul s o he s udy by Bian e al.
sugges ha ask-i ele an con ex ual in o ma ion is a
dis ac o causing cogni i e load which hen esul s in
wo se expe ien ial lea ning pe o mance.
In he quali a i e s udy by F omm e al. (2021),
ocus was placed on c ea ion and es ing imme si e VR
lea ning en i onmen s which enable expe ien ial
lea ning. Thei s udy p esen ed se e al design p inciples
which a ec speci ic s ages o expe ien ial lea ning in
VR. Fo example, VR social ea u es o sys em-enabled
ins uc ions enhance he abs ac concep ualiza ion
s age, and he e lec i e obse a ion s age equi es
app op ia e pe o mance eedback om he sys em
(F omm e al., 2021).
Kwon’s s udy (2018) ocuses on con i ming
expe ien ial lea ning o be possible in VR. His indings
show ha he expe ienced p esence allows o a mo e
conc e e expe ience which hen enables expe ien ial
lea ning. Acco ding o Kwon, p esence is media ed by
i idness and in e ac i i y, bu also physical sensa ion
con ibu es o i .
In hei s udy, Lau and Lee (2021) explo e
knowledge sha ing and ans e in o ganiza ions using
imme si e VR o ain e ail employees. They ound ha
a success ul VR lea ning en i onmen can imp o e
lea ning mo i a ion, p ocess, and sa is ac ion. Lau and
Lee sugges h ee p inciples o he implemen a ion o
such ac o s: ca e ul selec ion, app op ia e design and
pedagogical s a egies, and e ec i e use o i ual
s imuli such as s e eoscopic image, p esence, and
mul isenso y in e ac ions.
All in all, he SLR shows ha p e ious s udies ha e
ecognized engagemen (Bian e al., 2022), sociabili y
Page 1316
(F omm e al. 2021), con ex ual in o ma ion (F omm e
al. 2021; Kwon, 2018), physical sensa ion (Kwon,
2018), in e ac i i y (F omm e al. 2021; Kwon, 2018;
Bian e al., 2022; Lau and Lee, 2021), cogni ion (Bian
e al. 2022) and p esence (Kwon, 2018; Lau & Lee,
2021) dimensions a ec ing VR expe ien ial lea ning.
Table 1. Re iewed s udies
Ci a ion
Me hod
Key alue
cons uc
dimensions
Key indings
F omm
e al.,
2021
17 in e iews
(quali a i e)
Con ex ual
in o ma ion,
in e ac ion,
sociabili y,
ealis ic
scena io
Design elemen s o he
key dimensions enable
holis ic expe ien ial
lea ning p ocess.
Kwon,
2018
42 su eys
(quan i a i e)
In e ac i i y,
ideli y,
p esence,
physical
sensa ion,
low
Imme si e VR enables
expe ien ial lea ning.
Imme si e VR bene i s
lea ning due o i s
i idness, in e ac i i y,
and p esence.
Bian e
al., 2022
111 Su eys
& quiz
(quan i a i e)
Focus,
in e ac ion,
mo i a ion,
engagemen ,
low
Reducing ideli y
enhances ocus wi hou
damage o low
expe ience, enhancing
lea ning.
Lau &
Lee,
2021
326 su eys
(quan i a i e)
Knowledge
sha ing,
p esence,
s e eoscopic
image,
mul isenso y
in e ac ion
Fi ing applica ion o
VR inc eases lea ning
mo i a ion, p ocess, and
sa is ac ion. E ec i e
use o s e eoscopic
image, p esence, and
mul isenso y
in e ac ions imp o es
lea ning.
4.1. Theo e ical app oach
The SLR did p esen se en main dimensions
con ibu ing o expe ien ial lea ning: engagemen ,
sociabili y, con ex ual in o ma ion, physical sensa ion,
in e ac i i y, cogni ions, and p esence. Thei
cons uc ion as well as posi i e and nega i e e ec s on
expe ien ial lea ning a e o en no conside ed by
p e ious s udies. The ollowing indings o med he
basis o he amewo k es ed in he empi ical s udy.
P esence is mos ly ecognized as ha ing posi i e
e ec s on expe ien ial lea ning, such as be e
unde s anding o spa ial ea u es (Lau and Lee, 2021;
F omm e al., 2021), making a i ual expe ience mo e
conc e e (Kwon, 2018; F omm e al., 2021), and
posi i ely a ec ing engagemen (Zhou, Li, and Bian,
2020; Bian e al., 2022). Ne e heless, p esence can lead
o dis ac ions (Bian e al., 2022) which sugges s alue
cons uc s ela ing o p esence dimension could a ec
expe ien ial lea ning nega i ely.
Al hough he physical sensa ion dimension mainly
has nega i e e ec s on lea ning in he o m o simula o
sickness (e.g., Bian e al., 2022), Kwon (2018) p esen s
he iew ha i can ha e a posi i e e ec in imp o ing
he sensa ion o p esence because VR gi es sensa ions
simila o hose which one would expe ience in a eal
si ua ion.
As a combina ion o VR cha ac e is ics (Rupp e al.,
2019; F omm e al., 2021) and pe sonal elemen s
(F ed icks e al., 2004), he engagemen dimension
a ec s lea ning pe o mance. VR engagemen is
conside ed a esul o p esence (Rupp e al., 2019), o
game-like elemen s (F omm e al., 2021). Educa ion
li e a u e sees engagemen eme ge om an indi idual's
in e es s, goals, and pe sonali y (F ed icks e al., 2004).
Thus, i is a guable ha VR ea u es o con en can also
play a posi i e o nega i e ole in engagemen
depending on pe sonal ins i u ions. Indeed, engagemen
a ec s academic pe o mance (Rupp e al., 2019; Bian
e al., 2022) and willingness o u he explo e he
subjec (Rupp e al., 2019).
The p e ious s udies sugges ha he cogni ion
dimension has nega i e e ec s on VR expe ien ial
lea ning (e.g., Bian e al., 2022). Mo eo e , he
cogni ion dimension includes a cogni i e load which
educes pa icipan s’ abili y o ake in in o ma ion
(Ma kansky e al., 2017; Rupp e al., 2019). This may
be due o he ac ha VR’s excess ideli y can be a
dis ac ion (Bian e al., 2022) o o he ac o s equi ing
ask-i ele an cogni i e e o om he lea ne .
Due o co-p esence (F omm e al., 2021), imp o ed
mu ual unde s anding (Lau and Lee, 2021; Holopainen
e al., 2019), and eedback (F omm e al., 2021),
sociabili y posi i ely a ec s VR expe ien ial lea ning.
In addi ion, lea ning om collabo a ion o li e-like
in e ac ion ha e been a majo ocus o sca ce VR co-
c ea ion li e a u e (e.g., Pallo e al., 2017).
Fo VR expe ien ial lea ning a o dances,
in e ac i i y is especially impo an because i enables
hands-on expe ience (Kwon, 2018), bu VR lea ne s can
be wo se o due o added complexi y (Mak ansky e al.,
2017). Tac ile and locomo i e in e ac i i y con ibu e o
a mo e conc e e expe ience (Kwon, 2018; F omm e al.,
2021) and sensa ion o p esence (e.g., Kwon, 2018; Bian
e al., 2022; Lau & Lee, 2021). Fu he , in e ac i i y can
make less expe ienced VR use s ocused on usabili y
ins ead o he lea ning subjec (Mak ansky e al., 2017).
5. Resul s o empi ical s udy
In he p esen s udy, he heo e ical app oach
p oposed se en dimensions. In o al, 33 alue co-
c ea ion cons uc s and 19 alue co-des uc ion
cons uc s ela ing o he se en dimensions we e
disco e ed using TCA me hodology, as desc ibed in
sec ion 3. The ecognized alue cons uc s can be used
o be e unde s and he ole o he VR dimensions in
each expe ien ial lea ning s age and a e summa ized in
Table 2, whe e P1 o P8 a e e e ing o he pa icipan s
o he empi ical s udy.
Page 1317
Table 2. Value cons uc s by dimensions and expe ien ial lea ning s ages as ex ac ed by he empi ical s udy
Conc e e expe ience
Re lec i e obse a ions
Abs ac concep ualiza ion
Ac i e
expe imen a ion
Engagemen
In e es (P1, P2, P4, P5, P7), un (P2, P7),
exci emen (P2, P5, P7), imp essed by echnology
(P5), a ainmen alue (P2), imp o e wo k li e (P1,
P6), imp o e well-being (P4), imp o e socie y (P3,
P6), imp o e inancial decisions (P7), imp o e
pe sonal goals (P7), en i onmen al alues (P3, P6,
P7), imp o e ca ee planning (P2, P6), social
in e ac ion (P8), lea ning is ewa ding (P4, P5, P6,
P7), VR p o ides new lea ning me hod (P1, P7),
in insic in e es in VR echnology (P1, P5, P6, P7,
P8). Annoyance (P2, P4, P5), o ced expe ience
(P8), ea o alling (P3, P5, P8), T ied lea ning
me hods less e ec i e (P5, P7, P8)
Signi icance om
en i onmen al alues
(P3, P6 & P7), mo e
in o med decisions
(P3), imp o ed
gene al knowledge
(P4, P5, P6, P7),
changing
p econcep ions (P7),
new ound
engagemen o he
subjec (P4)
Sociabili y
U ili y alue (P7), lea ning
om sha ing and discussing
(P4, P6, P7), social anxie y (P4,
P6, P7), social judgmen (P2,
P3), sociabili y dis ac s om
subjec (P5, P7), VR hinde s
eal in e ac ion (P3)
Lea ning om sha ing and
discussing (P4, P6, P7),
sociabili y dis ac s om
subjec (P5, P7)
Con ex ual
in o ma ion
Remembe ing objec s (P2, P3,
P4, P5, P7), emembe ing
loca ions (P2, P3, P4, P6, P7,
P8), emembe ing ac ions (P4,
P3, P5, P7, P8), and o ming
connec ions (P3, P4)
Remembe ing objec s (P2,
P3, P4, P5, P7),
emembe ing loca ions (P2,
P3, P4, P6, P7, P8),
emembe ing ac ions (P4,
P3, P5, P7, P8), and o ming
connec ions (P3, P4)
educed ocus on o he
in o ma ion (P4, P7)
Physical
sensa ion
Exci emen om in olun a y
eac ion (P2, P5, P7), Ve igo
(P3, P4, P8)
Wo y o physical
oll (P3, P4, P5, P7)
In e ac i i y
Lea ning by ying hings (P3,
P8), imp o e spa ial
unde s anding (P5, P8), o ced
due o lack o con ol (P8),
us a ion om usabili y (P5)
Lack o con ol hinde s
ocus on in o ma ion (P4,
P7)
Lea ning by ying
hings (P3, P8),
imp o e spa ial
unde s anding (P5,
P8), us a ion om
usabili y (P5)
Cogni ion
VR educes cogni i e load
by ocus (P4, P8), oo much
in o ma ion P2, P4, P5, P6),
unable o con ol p og ess
(P4, P5, P7)
P esence
Being able o see hands (P5,
P7, P8), 3-deg ees o eedom
(P1, P3, P5, P6, P7, P8),
Fideli y o i ual en i onmen
(P7), isual isola ion (P8),
physical sensa ion (P2, P5, P7),
lacking eedom o mo emen
(P5), lacking ideli y (P8), Play
a ea bo de s educe p esence
(P3, P5)
3-deg ees o eedom (P1,
P3, P5, P6, P7, P8),
ideli y o i ual
en i onmen (P7, P8), social
imme sion (P7), lack o
na a ional con inui y (P7,
P8), lacking eedom o
mo emen (P5), lacking
ideli y (P7, P8)
5.1 Conc e e expe ience s age
In his s udy, con ex ual in o ma ion alue cons uc s
which eme ged du ing VR expe ien ial lea ning o
mul iple pa icipan s we e emembe ing objec s (P2, P3,
P4, P5 & P7), loca ions (P2, P3, P4, P6, P7 & P8),
ac ions (P4, P3, P5, P7 & P8), and connec ions (P3, P4).
The cos o ich con ex ual in o ma ion deli e ed by he
VR pla o m was educed ocus on na a ion o ex
o m in o ma ion (P4, P7).
The pa icipan s mainly expe ienced spa ial
imme sion (being able o see hands – P5, P7, P8), 3-
deg ees o eedom (P1, P3, P5, P6, P7, P8), o lacking
eedom o mo emen (P5) and ideli y alue cons uc s
( ideli y o i ual en i onmen – P7, and a lack o
ideli y – P8) con ibu ing o he p esence dimension.
Though he physical sensa ion dimension seems o
inc ease wi h a highe p esence, esul ing in exci emen
om in olun a y eac ion (P2, P5, P7) such as a ush o
being in a high place, i was also pe cei ed as a nega i e
sensa ion o e igo (P3, P4, P8).
Because o co-p esence, whe e coope a i e
lea ning du ing VR expe ience would enable ealis ic
lea ning scena ios, he sociabili y dimension con ibu es
o he conc e e expe ience s age. Thus, VR ea u es
Page 1318
which would enable social in e ac ion a e seen
impo an . The con ibu ing alue cons uc s we e
lea ning om sha ing and discussing (P4, P6, P7), u ili y
alue om sociabili y (P7), and sociabili y dis ac s
om he subjec (P5, P7). Using HMD solu ions in a
social si ua ion hinde s he conc e e expe ience, whe e
alue co-des uc ion occu s because using VR hinde s
eal in e ac ion (P3), and causes social anxie y (P4, P6,
P7) and eelings o social judgmen (P2, P3).
The es ed VR applica ion allowed no meaning ul
in e ac ion wi h he i ual en i onmen , which educed
he po en ial o hands-on expe ience. To imp o e hei
knowledge collec ion, he pa icipan s desi ed ac ile
and locomo i e in e ac i i y. While ac ile in e ac i i y
enables lea ning by ying hings (P3, P8) whe e
in e ac ing wi h a i ual en i onmen shows conc e e
connec ion be ween ac ions and esul s, locomo i e
in e ac i i y imp o es spa ial unde s anding (P5, P8) as
he lea ne can change hei pe spec i e and explo e.
5.2. Re lec i e obse a ions s age
In he empi ical s udy he e lec i e obse a ions
s age was seen especially impo an because he es ed
VR solu ion was designed o be a 360-deg ee ideo ou ,
esul ing in passi e lea ning du ing he VR expe ience.
New knowledge was acqui ed by he pa icipan s om
he VR s imuli which was added o hei p e ious
unde s anding o bo h he VR expe ience and he
subjec . This became clea as he pa icipan s had
p econcep ions abou VR being challenging o con ol
(e.g., Pa icipan 6: “I was su p ised ha I did no need
he con olle s. I was a posi i e su p ise, and I did no
need o lea n any speci ic con ols, so i wo ked
easily.”), o ha hei unde s anding abou he subjec
did change a e he expe ience. In he es ed VR
solu ion, lacking na a ional con inui y (P7, P8), lacking
eedom o mo emen (P5), and lacking ideli y (P7, P8)
appea ed o nega i ely e lec on his s age.
In he e lec i e obse a ions s age, he pa icipan s
we e especially ocused on con ex ual in o ma ion: “I
emembe speci ically when mol en mix u e was pou ed
in o a u nace o aken ou o he u nace” (P5), o “I
emembe how ha ac o y looked om ou side when I
was in a owe , and hen he e was a sea o some hing
close by” (P7). Such ocus on collec ing con ex ual
in o ma ion could be explained by he VR pla o m
ea u es such as ideli y, p esence, and s e eoscopic
image encou aging con ex ual in o ma ion collec ion.
The cogni ion dimension seems o con ibu e o he
e lec i e obse a ions s age because o he p e e ence
o in e nalizing con ex ual in o ma ion. Indeed, as
pa icipan s we e unable o con ol he pacing o
in o ma ion, hei ocus u ned away om de ailed
in o ma ion (P2, P4, P5, P6, P7). This was appa en in
bo h cogni ion and in e ac i i y dimensions. Con a ily,
isual isola ion by HMD eme ged as a alue cons uc
easing he cogni i e load, educing impac o he
su oundings on he lea ning expe ience (P4, P8).
When VR pla o ms enable lea ning om sha ing
and discussing (P4, P6, P7), he sociabili y dimension
seems o ein o ce he e lec i e obse a ion s age.
Mo eo e , lea ne s bene i om he co-p esence o
o he pa icipan s. Howe e , sociabili y can dis ac
om he subjec (P3, P7), hence educing he lea ne ’s
ocus on obse ing.
5.3. Abs ac concep ualiza ion s age
We p opose ha engagemen has wo oles o
enhancing and enabling expe ien ial lea ning especially
in he abs ac concep ualiza ion s age. Fi s , he
pa icipan s o med gene aliza ions o he u u e
depending on he pe cei ed use ulness o he
in o ma ion. The engagemen alue cons uc s sugges
easoning o wha in o ma ion he pa icipan s abs ac .
Engagemen was ound o s em om pe sonal easons
and depending on he pe sonal alues, bene i s, o
mo i a ion acco ding o which he pa icipan s ocused
hei expe ien ial lea ning e o s on di e en aspec s o
he VR expe ience. In pa icula , hedonic alues like
exci emen (P2, P5, P7) and en i onmen al impac s o
he me al e ining indus y enabled emo ional
engagemen o he subjec (P3, P6, P7). In addi ion,
pe sonal u u e bene i s we e impo an o wha
in o ma ion he pa icipan s dis illed: imp o ing wo k-
li e (P1, P6), ca ee planning (P2, P6), well-being (P4),
inancial decisions (P7), socie y (P3, P6), and pe sonal
goals (P7).
The second ole o engagemen in expe ien ial
lea ning is imp o ing ocus and pa icipa ion because o
VR. The pa icipan s in his s udy expe ienced
emo ional engagemen and in insic in e es in he VR
echnology, which made he pe cei ed bo ing subjec
in e es ing. Howe e , engagemen ocused only on VR
echnology does no always help in lea ning he subjec .
As h ee o he pa icipan s s a ed he subjec was
i ele an o hei li e (P1, P3, P8), hei willingness o
gene alize concep s and es hem was g ea ly hinde ed,
ye hey s ill in e nalized in o ma ion abou VR
echnology and how hey could bene i om i .
5.4. Ac i e expe imen a ion s age
The usabili y o he VR pla o m was he clea es
case o pa icipan s indulging in ac i e expe imen a ion.
In his s udy, he pa icipan s had assump ions abou
using VR echnology. The hand-con olled VR
expe ience was pe cei ed in ui i e and easy o use by
he pa icipan s despi e hem no ha ing p e ious VR
Page 1319
expe ience. The e o e, we p opose his in ui i eness
comes om he pa icipan s ac i ely expe imen ing wi h
con olling he VR expe ience, and i esponds o hei
ac ions as expec ed because hei p e iously lea ned
gene aliza ions a e wo king o he new use case. This
was because he pa icipan s did no need o lea n new
con ol schemes bu a he used hei hands o in e ac
wi h he i ual en i onmen like in he eal wo ld.
The pa icipan s o his s udy expe imen ed wi h he
use ulness o VR o lea ning. The pe cei ed alue o
VR o lea ning pu poses eme ged om he dimensions
o spa ial lea ning, sociabili y, in e ac i i y, and
engagemen . Gene ally, hese bene i s a e he esul o
expe ien ial lea ning s ages and he ac i e
expe imen a ion s age con i ms p e ious assump ions o
be ue o un ue. Fo example, his esul ed in
con i ma ions o how o bene i om VR in he u u e,
such as aining o li e sa ing si ua ions (P3), lea ning
om conc e ely seeing su oundings (P6), making
pe cei ed dull subjec s in e es ing (P7), o VR enabling
con incing expe iences (P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P8). As well
as hese posi i e aspec s, nega i e p econcep ions we e
es ed, such as wo y o VR’s physical oll (P3, P4, P5,
P7) which did educe he pa icipan s' willingness o es
VR, hus hinde ing lea ning possibili ies.
While only wo o he pa icipan s s a ed hey had
some in e es in he subjec o a me al e ine y,
connec ions o u ilizable in o ma ion abou he subjec
encou aged comple e expe ien ial lea ning cycles such
as signi icance om sha ed alues (P3, P6 & P7), mo e
in o med decisions (P3), imp o ed gene al knowledge
(P4, P5, P6 & P7), changing p econcep ions (P7), o
new ound engagemen o subjec (P4).
6. Discussion
6.1. P oposi ions
Se en main dimensions we e p oposed eme ging
om he SLR: engagemen , sociabili y, con ex ual
in o ma ion, physical sensa ion, in e ac i i y,
cogni ions, and p esence. Mo eo e , he SLR ound ha
he main bulk o he VR expe ien ial lea ning s udies
employ quan i a i e me hodology in a a ie y o
educa ional con ex s. Despi e he ac ha he
expe ien ial lea ning heo y is conside ed he mos
in luen ial lea ning heo y in a VR (Radian i e al.,
2020), only ew s udies ha e been ound which conside
he e ec o VR dimensions on he expe ien ial lea ning
heo y, namely Kwon (2018), Bian e al. (2022), F omm
e al. (2021), and Lau and Lee (2021). Fu he mo e, he
a o emen ioned ou een VR expe ien ial lea ning
s udies all da e om be ween 2018 and 2022, which
shows he eshness and g owing academic in e es
owa ds imme si e VR expe ien ial lea ning.
In he p esen wo k, he empi ical s udy p oposes o
con ibu e o he li e a u e and p ac ice in a numbe o
ways. Fi s , he s udy pilo s he use o bo h he alue co-
c ea ion and co-des uc ion in he con ex o VR
educa ion esea ch and shows ha i is e ec i e o
un a eling how he dimensions a e e lec ed in
subjec i e expe ien ial lea ning in imme si e VR. In
addi ion, i exposed de ailed connec ions be ween VR
ea u es, pe sonal ins i u ions, and he s ages o
expe ien ial lea ning oo ed in expe ienced alue, whe e
p e ious s udies ha e only ocused on he gene al
connec ion o dimensions (Kwon, 2018; Lau & Lee,
2021) o a limi ed se o design guidelines (F omm e
al., 2021; Bian e al., 2022).
Secondly, he conc e e expe ience s age was ound
o be cons uc ed by dimensions o con ex ual
in o ma ion, p esence, in e ac i i y, and sociabili y
which is aligned wi h indings o p e ious s udies (e.g.,
Kwon, 2018; F omm e al. 2021). The co-des uc ion
alue cons uc s o sociabili y, physical sensa ion,
in e ac i i y, and p esence dimensions p esen design
choices which esul ed in a dis ac ion om he conc e e
expe ience; in con as , he co-c ea ion alue cons uc s
expose p oposed enhancing ea u es (Table 2).
Thi dly, he e lec i e obse a ions s age was ound
o be domina ed by con ex ual in o ma ion and
obse a ions esul ing om i . We p opose ha he
cogni ion dimension limi s he lea ne s om abso bing
all he in o ma ion because o how in o ma ion dense
he VR lea ning en i onmen can be and how VR
ea u es boos con ex ual and spa ial in o ma ion
acquisi ion. P e ious s udies ecognize cogni i e load o
hinde VR lea ning, bu he e ec s o i on speci ic
in o ma ion ypes we e no explo ed in he s udies
(Mak ansky e al., 2017; Bian e al., 2022).
Fou hly, we p oposed ha in he abs ac
concep ualiza ion s age he lea ne ’s engagemen
de e mines wha in o ma ion hey gene alize. In
pa icula , emo ional engagemen , pe sonal alues,
u ili y alues, and pe cei ed pe sonal bene i s we e
ound o a ec he ocus o abs ac concep ualiza ion.
The esul o his did mani es as ask-i ele an
in o ma ion being gene alized; du ing he use o he VR
echnology, he lea ne s ocused hei a en ion on
lea ning abou he VR echnology a he han he subjec
which educes ask- ele an lea ning po en ial. P e ious
li e a u e has conside ed engagemen as a bene i o
imme si e VR o lea ning (e.g., A sikpasi & Fokides,
2021; Bian e al., 2022) bu he p esen s udy p esen ed
a mo e nuanced iew o how some o he expe ien ial
lea ning bene i s o engagemen dimension occu .
Fi h o all, he indings o he ac i e
expe imen a ion s age p opose ha VR lea ne s indeed
employ expe ien ial lea ning o bo h VR use and
subjec lea ning, which would ex end S e ens and
Page 1320