Educational and family-related determinants of organized sports participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood : A four-year follow-up study

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Educational and family-related determinants of organized sports participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood : A four-year follow-up study © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published version Rinta-Antila, Katja; Koski, Pasi; Heinonen, Olli J; Korpelainen, Raija; Parkkari, Jari; Savonen, Kai; Toivo, Kerttu; Uusitalo, Arja; Valtonen, Maarit; Vasankari, Tommi; Villberg, Jari; Kokko, Sami Rinta-Antila, K., Koski, P., Heinonen, O. J., Korpelainen, R., Parkkari, J., Savonen, K., Toivo, K., Uusitalo, A., Valtonen, M., Vasankari, T., Villberg, J., & Kokko, S. (2022). Educational and familyrelated determinants of organized sports participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood : A four-year follow-up study. International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, Early online. https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2022.2116943 2022 Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rhpe20 International Journal of Health Promotion and Education ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rhpe20 Educational and family-related determinants of organized sports participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood: A four-year follow-up study Katja Rinta-Antila, Pasi Koski, Olli J Heinonen, Raija Korpelainen, Jari Parkkari, Kai Savonen, Kerttu Toivo, Arja Uusitalo, Maarit Valtonen, Tommi Vasankari, Jari Villberg & Sami Kokko To cite this article: Katja Rinta-Antila, Pasi Koski, Olli J Heinonen, Raija Korpelainen, Jari Parkkari, Kai Savonen, Kerttu Toivo, Arja Uusitalo, Maarit Valtonen, Tommi Vasankari, Jari Villberg & Sami Kokko (2022): Educational and family-related determinants of organized sports participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood: A four-year follow-up study, International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, DOI: 10.1080/14635240.2022.2116943 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2022.2116943 © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Published online: 05 Sep 2022. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 12 View related articles View Crossmark data Educational and family-related determinants of organized sports participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood: A four-year follow-up study Katja Rinta-Antila a , Pasi Koski b , Olli J Heinonen c , Raija Korpelainen d,e,f , Jari Parkkari a,g , Kai Savonen h,i , Kerttu Toivo g , Arja Uusitalo j,k , Maarit Valtonen l , Tommi Vasankari m,n , Jari Villberg a and Sami Kokko a a Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Research Centre for Health Promotion, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; b Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku, Rauma, Finland; c Paavo Nurmi Centre & Unit for Health and Physical Activity, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; d Medical Research Center (MRC), University of Oulu and University Hospital of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; e Oulu Deaconess Institute Foundation sr, Department of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Oulu, Finland; f Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; g Tampere Research Center of Sports Medicine, Tampere, Finland; h Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Science Service Center, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland; i Kuopio Research Institute of Exercise Medicine, Kuopio, Finland; j Clinic for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Foundation for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Helsinki, Finland; k Department of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; l Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Jyväskylä, Finland; m UKK Institute of Health Promotion Research, Tampere, Finland; n Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland ABSTRACT This study aimed to identify organized sports participation patterns and their prevalence from adolescence to emerging adulthood, and the educational and family-related determinants of the patterns. Adolescents in the Finnish Health Promoting Sports Club (FHPSC) study answered a health behaviour questionnaire and reported on sports club participation at ages 15 and 19 (N = 609). In emerging adulthood, dropouts (total 41.05%; females 43.72%; males 36.56%), maintainers (30.87; 26.44; 38.33), nonparticipants (27.59; 29.32; 24.67), and joiners (0.49; 0.52; 0.44) (p = .024) were identified. A mixed multinomial logistic regression analysis showed, that male gender, as compared to female gender, increased the odds of being a maintainer rather than a nonparticipant or dropout. Among females, high achievement at school and aspiration towards upper secondary school at age 15 increased the odds of being a maintainer at age 19 rather than a nonparticipant. High achievement at school and experiencing a (strong) decrease in parental support for physical activity/sport increased the odds of being a dropout rather than a nonparticipant. Having no experience of a strong decrease in parental support increased the odds of being a maintainer rather than a dropout. Among males, aspiration towards upper secondary school increased the odds of being a maintainer or dropout rather than a nonparticipant. The most common reason for dropping out was study, which was also the most prevalent life status at age 19. The findings highlight a need ARTICLE HISTORY Received 14 December 2021 Accepted 22 August 2022 KEYWORDS Cohort studies; health promotion; sports; academic success; parental support CONTACT Katja Rinta-Antila [email protected] Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH PROMOTION AND EDUCATION https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2022.2116943 © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. for more flexible possibilities to combine organized sports participation and school studies, and the importance of parental support for physical activity/sport. Introduction Organized sports (OS) constitutes a popular leisure activity among young people (Kokko et al. 2019; Mathisen et al. 2019). OS participation among adolescents supports physical activity (PA) in adolescence (Basterfield et al. 2015; Telford et al. 2016), emerging adulthood (Aira et al. 2021; Arnett 2000), and adulthood (Batista et al. 2019). Moreover, it has many physical (Telford et al. 2016), psychological, and social (Eime et al. 2013) benefits despite some disadvantages, including possible injuries (Mattila et al. 2009) and binge drinking (Wichstrøm and Wichstrøm 2008). OS can also be viewed as an informal education setting where, in addition to physical skills, transferable life skills are developed (Mossman et al. 2021). However, after an increase in OS participation during childhood, the participation rate tends not to change, or else to decrease during adolescence, in line with the overall PA trend (Kemp et al. 2019). In Finland too, OS participation reaches its peak among 11-year-olds (71%), but decreases into adolescence (44% at age 15) (Blomqvist et al. 2019) and into emerging adulthood (30% at age 18–20; Mononen et al. 2021). Beyond the overall change in OS participation, many longitudinal studies have identified a range of OS participation patterns (e.Desroches, Poulin, and Denault 2019; Howie et al. 2016; Kwon et al. 2015; Manz et al. 2016). For example, one study extending to emerging adulthood has shown patterns of consistent sports participation (46.2%), dropout from sports participation (40.2%), and no sport participation (13.6%) (Kwon et al. 2015). However, longitudinal studies on the transition to adulthood are lacking (Howie et al. 2016; Lounassalo et al. 2019). Systematic reviews – mainly based on cross-sectional, retrospective studies – have shown that various intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural factors may affect adolescents’ OS participation and dropout status (Balish et al. 2014; Crane and Temple 2015; Hopkins et al. 2022). The main factors in dropout include competing priorities (Crane and Temple 2015) or (partially school-related) time-use factors (Deelen, Ettema, and Kamphuis 2018; Hardie Murphy, Rowe, and Woods 2017; Persson et al. 2020). Educational factors such as high achievement at school (Jakobsson et al. 2012; Paakkari et al. 2017) have also shown an association with OS participation. Wattie et al. (2014) found an association between OS participation and the choice of academic (postcompulsory) education as opposed to vocational education, but a study by Jakobsson et al. (2012) found no significant association. Family-related encouragement towards sporting activities (Desroches, Poulin, and Denault 2019; Jakobsson et al. 2012) seem to predict adolescents’ OS participation. However, the findings concerning family affluence (Jakobsson et al. 2012; Paakkari et al. 2017) are inconsistent. Some findings have suggested that more males than females participate in OS (Desroches, Poulin, and Denault 2019; Howie et al. 2016; Manz et al. 2016), but Kwon et al. (2015) found that both participate equally. 2K. RINTA-ANTILA ET AL. Educational factors, family affluence and parental support for PA/sport have not been explored with regard to specific OS participation patterns; nor have they been followed to emerging adulthood. With the overall aim of promoting OS participation, this study aimed to identify OS participation patterns from age 15 to 19, the prevalence of each pattern, and the educational and family-related factors associated with the different patterns. Materials and methods Data The study was based on longitudinal online health behaviour questionnaire data from the Finnish Health Promoting Sports Club (FHPSC) Consortium study (Kokko et al. 2015). At baseline (years 2013–14), the study participants (aged 15) were recruited from civic sports clubs (SCs) and from schools. The SC participants were approached through SCs encompassing the ten most popular sport disciplines in the six districts of the Centres of Excellence in Sports and Exercise Medicine in Finland. The school participants were approached through schools in the same districts, and they included both SC participants and nonparticipants. A detailed description is provided in the protocol article (Kokko et al. 2015). Follow-up data collection was carried out when the study participants were at age 19 (years 2017–18) the approach being made via mail. Overall, 2149 adolescents took part in the baseline study. Of these, 651 (30%) participated in the follow-up study, and out of these, 609 (29%) reported OS participation at both time points. Informed written consent was collected from the participants, and from their guardians when the participants were aged under 18. Ethical approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of the Healthcare District of Central Finland for both time points (record number 23 U/2012&2016).The study was carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (Kokko et al. 2015). Measures and variables The questions were compiled from questionnaires validated in other studies (Currie et al. 2008; Kannas 2004; Kokko et al. 2015). We explored educational and family-related factors that have shown an association with adolescents’ OS participation, and were available from the data. The residential area correlated strongly with plans after comprehensive school, and was therefore excluded from the study. At baseline, the variable organized sports participation was formed. The adolescents approached through SCs were added to the category of participants. Adolescents approached through schools reported their membership in a sports club within three categories (no; yes, and I participate in training; yes, but I don’t participate in training). The respondents were categorized as participants and nonparticipants according to the participation in training. In the follow-up, all the study participants reported their membership of a sports club as follows: (i) no; (ii) yes, and I participate in training; (iii) yes, but I don’t participate in training; (iv) yes, I act as a coach or other club official; and (v) yes, and I participate in training and act as a coach or other club official. Follow-up respondents were categorized as participants and nonparticipants, as at baseline. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH PROMOTION AND EDUCATION 3 Thereafter, the variable longitudinal OS participation patterns was constructed by combining the information from the two time points into four categories: maintainers (i.e. those who maintained participation), dropouts, nonparticipants, and joiners. Gender (baseline data) was asked (female or male). The participants reported their school achievement at baseline (the response scale being from <6.5 to 10.0, with the grading scale in Finnish comprehensive school ranging from 4=fail to 10=excellent). Responses were re-categorized as low or medium (<6.5–8.9) and high (9.0–10.0). Plans after comprehensive school (i.e. compulsory education) were assessed (baseline data) (upper secondary school; vocational education; apprenticeship training; a double degree (upper secondary school and vocational education); go to work; be unemployed; I don’t know). The respondents were re-categorized into upper secondary school and other than upper secondary school. In 2013, 98.5% of the Finnish ninthgraders at the end of the compulsory education applied for upper secondary education, and of these 55% applied for upper secondary school and 45% for vocational school (StatFin. 2022). Family affluence (baseline) was assessed using the family affluence scale (FAS II). Sum scores (0–9) were obtained for number of computers (0, 1, 2, >2); cars (0, 1, ≥2); holiday trips during the last year (0, 1, 2,>2); participants having their own bedroom (no, yes). Scores were re-categorized into low (0–5), medium (6–7), and high (8–9) family affluence. Parental support for PA and sport (baseline and follow-up data) was assessed by the following questions: During a typical week: how often does your mother (stepmother)/father (stepfather) (asked separately) (i) encourage you to do PA or sport? (ii) take you to the PA/ sports venue or your sports activities? (iii) do PA or sport with you? A 6-point response scale was used: I don’t have/meet her/him; never; rarely; sometimes; often; very often. At both time points, sum scores were calculated (0–30). At baseline, scores were re-categorized into low (0–14), medium (15–19), and high (20–30) parental support for PA/sport. Changes were calculated by subtracting the sum score at baseline from the sum score at follow-up, and re-categorized into weak decrease/no change/increase (from 7 to 4), decrease (from 3 to −1), and strong decrease (from −2 to −21) in parental support for PA/sport. At follow-up, OS dropouts were asked to report the age they had dropped out. In addition, they were asked to report to what degree various reasons for dropping out had affected their decision to quit the SC participation. The items (23) included e.g. ‘a desire to concentrate on studies’ (see Supplementary file, Figure S1). A 5-point scale was used from not at all to very much. Responses were re-categorized as no (= not at all) and yes (= all the other options). At follow-up, the participants reported their life status (study; work/entrepreneur; temporary lay-off/unemployed; military/civilian service; maternity/parental leave; other). If the participants reported ‘study’, they were asked the educational institution (upper secondary school; vocational school; university of applied sciences; university; job training; apprenticeship training; open university/open university of applied science; other). These options were re-categorized into upper secondary school/university, vocational school/university of applied sciences, all other options. 4K. RINTA-ANTILA ET AL. Statistical analyses The analyses were conducted using SPSS Version 26, with the statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Frequency analyses were conducted by gender on both baseline and follow-up data regarding OS participation and nonparticipation, with analysis also of longitudinal OS participation patterns. The educational and family-related factors relating to the patterns were compared using Chi-square tests. A mixed multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to test how the statistically significant factors identified in the bivariate analyses were associated with patterns. As there were interactions between gender and the factors, the analyses were conducted separately for females and males. Descriptive analyses were conducted on dropout from OS. Chi-square tests were used to compare the life status and the current study institution in relation to OS participation patterns by gender. Results The patterns of dropouts (41.05%), maintainers (30.87%), nonparticipants (27.59%), and joiners (0.49%) (insufficient for further analyses) were identified (N = 609). The most prevalent patterns among males were maintainers (38.33%) and dropouts (36.56%) but among females the most prevalent pattern was that of dropouts (43.72%) (p = .024), see Table 1. The distributions of educational and family-related factors in the OS participation patterns are shown in Table 2. Being male as opposed to female increased the odds of being a maintainer rather than a nonparticipant (OR 2.04, CI 1.29 to 3.24, p = .002) or a dropout (OR 1.74, CI 1.15 to 2.62, p = .008) (see Supplementary file, Table S1). Among females, having high achievement at school (OR 1.96, CI 1.07 to 3.59, p = .029) and aspirations towards upper secondary school (OR 2.28, CI 1.04 to 4.97, p = .039) increased the odds of being a maintainer rather than a nonparticipant. Having high achievement at school (OR 2.5, CI 1.43 to 4.39, p = .001) and experiencing a strong decrease (OR 3.79, CI 1.97 to 7.30, p < .001) or decrease (OR 1.94, CI 1.07 to 3.50, p = 0.029) in parental support for PA/sport increased the odds of being a dropout rather than a nonparticipant. Not experiencing a strong decrease in parental support increased the odds of being a maintainer (OR 0.45, CI 0.24 to 0.86, p = 0.016) rather than a dropout. Among males, having aspirations towards upper secondary school increased the odds of being a maintainer (OR 2.13, CI 1.01 to 4.51, p = .048) or a dropout (OR 3.99, CI 1.79 to 8.88, p = 0.001) rather than a nonparticipant (Table 3). The dropout proportions varied per year the mean dropout age being 17.12 years among females and 17.02 among males (Table 4). The most common reason for dropping out was ‘a desire to concentrate on studies’ (70.23% females, 68.12% males) (see Supplementary file, Figure S1). In every OS participation pattern, the most prevalent life status at age 19 was ‘study’ (females 50.00–62.38%; males 41.07–56.10%). Among females, those who studied at upper secondary school or in a university were more typically dropouts (46.62%) or maintainers (34.46%) than nonparticipants (18.92%) (p = .002). This was also the case among males, but lacked statistical significance (Table 4). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH PROMOTION AND EDUCATION 5 Table 1. Distributions of organized sports participation at T1, T2, and of longitudinal organized sports participation patterns by gender (%). T1 Female n=382 Male n=227 Total n=609 T2* Female n=382 Male n=227 Total n=609 OS participation patterns* Female n=382 Male n=227 Total n=609 Participants 70.16 74.89 71.92 Participants 26.96 38.77 31.36 Maintainers 26.44 38.33 30.87 Joiners 0.52 0.44 0.49 Nonparticipants 29.84 25.11 28.08 Nonparticipants 73.04 61.23 68.64 Dropouts 43.72 36.56 41.05 Nonparticipants 29.32 24.67 27.59 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 T1=baseline, T2=follow-up, OS= organized sports. *significant difference between females and males in T2 (p = .002) and in OS participation patterns (p = .024). 6K. RINTA-ANTILA ET AL. Discussion The study explored OS participation patterns from adolescence to emerging adulthood, as evidence was lacking on this age cohort (Howie et al. 2016; Lounassalo et al. 2019). Moreover, it explored educational and family-related factors as these aspects have not previously been studied with regard to specific OS participation patterns and have not been followed to emerging adulthood (Desroches, Poulin, and Denault 2019; Jakobsson et al. 2012; Paakkari et al. 2017). The findings could help promoting OS participation, which in turn supports PA (Aira et al. 2021; Batista et al. 2019) and health (Eime et al. 2013; Telford et al. 2016). The patterns of dropouts, maintainers, nonparticipants and joiners were identified. Compared to previous research extending to emerging adulthood (Kwon et al. 2015), the proportion of dropouts was similar, but that of maintainers smaller, and that of nonparticipants larger. Also, gender differences emerged that were not previously identified in emerging adulthood (Kwon et al. 2015), insofar as males were more likely than females to be maintainers rather than nonparticipants or dropouts. The differences in the findings may be due to differences in the organizing bodies of the sports. Previous research (Kwon et al. 2015) explored OS in schools and sports clubs and showed that females had substantial opportunities to participate in school sports teams. The present study focused on SCs organized at local level mainly by associations typical in Finland. The implication would be that SCs, together with schools, need to find more ways of promoting females participation in particular. Note that in the current study, as in previous studies, there were very few joiners (Howie et al. 2016; Jakobsson et al. 2012), reinforcing the point that individuals rarely start OS participation in later adolescence. Table 2. Distributions of educational and family related factors in organized sports participation patterns (%). OS participation patterns (%) (n=601–606) n Maintainers n=186–188 Dropouts n=248–250 Nonparticipants n=167–168 p School achievement (T1) <.001 low or medium (<6.5–8.9) 376 29.79 36.70 33.51 high (9.0–10.0) 230 33.04 48.70 18.26 Plans after comprehensive school (T1) <.001 other than upper secondary school 133 26.32 29.32 44.36 upper secondary school 473 32.35 44.61 23.04 Family affluence (T1) .98 low 148 29.05 41.89 29.05 medium 279 31.90 40.50 27.60 high 179 31.28 41.90 26.82 Parental support for PA and sport (T1) <.001 low 151 17.22 27.81 54.97 medium 212 31.60 40.57 27.83 high 243 39.09 50.21 10.70 Change in parental support for PA and sport (T1->T2) .004 weak decrease/no change/increase 183 31.15 33.33 35.52 decrease 222 31.98 39.64 28.38 strong decrease 196 29.59 50.51 19.90 T1=baseline, T2=follow-up, OS=organized sports. (p-values from Chi-square test). 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