What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research?

29 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Yuzhuo Cai Introduction In the last 15—20 years, the mixed methods approach has gained a central place in social science research, thanks to its introduction and promotion by a few researchers, such as Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, and Hanson (2003) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003). In 2007, the Journal of Mixed Methods Research was established, and within 10 years, it has become one of the most influential journals in the social sciences. In higher education studies, mixed methods has tended to become increasingly popular as well (Papadimitriou, Ivankova & Hurtado 2013). However, it has continued to present challenges in terms of how to justify and ensure the validity or quality of a mixed methods study in social sciences in general (Teddlie & Tashakkori 2009), particularly in higher education research (Papadimitriou et al. 2013). In response, Papadimitriou et al. (2013) sought to draw lessons by analysing two examples of higher education studies. Their main conclusion was that when conducting mixed methods research in higher education, one must follow methodological conventions of both qualitative and quantitative research as well as specific procedures of mixed methods design. They also suggest that 30 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) in seeking to publish mixed methods research, researchers must make explicit the value-added of using mix methods so that the journal editors and reviewers can easily justify the quality of their research. Their inferences are important, but when it comes to the practice of conducting mixed methods, there are high demands on more comprehensive and concrete suggestions regarding how to do it, particularly in the field of higher education research. Above all, it is essential to know when and why one needs to choose mixed methods. The research methodology literature tends to suggest a correspondence between the research question and the methodological design (Newman & Benz 1998a). In particular, the research question is more important in mixed methods research (Creswell 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie 2004), in that, it determines whether a mixture of methods is suitable (Curral & Towler 2003, 521; Teddlie & Tashakkori 2006) and what specific designs should be chosen (Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2006). The position that research questions guide decisions about research methods and research designs has been challenged. For instance, drawing on interviews with 20 mixed methods researchers as well as analyses of some mixed methods studies, Bryman (2007) asserts that there is a dilemma between the textbook account and practical research. While textbooks mainly provide a normative position, researchers are more ambivalent about the role of research questions in connection with research methods. Bryman found that some researchers adopt mixed methods for practical or tactical purposes. Moreover, Newman et al. (2003) argue that while the research question is important, it is not sufficient to determine methodology. They stress the importance of research purpose in determining research design. As they put it: Without having one’s purpose (or purposes) clarified, and without time to reflect on that purpose, one cannot have a question that will directly dictate the research methodology. … The research question alone will not produce links to methods unless the question is thought through seriously, as well as iteratively, and becomes reflective of purpose. (Newman et al. 2003, 168) 31 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Higher Education Management and Transformation The methodological debates imply an ambiguity regarding what drives the choice of mixed methods design. To contribute to the discussions on the topic, in this chapter, I analyse my own experience of conducting mixed methods research in the field of higher education studies and compare this with discussions in the mixed methods literature. My analysis is intended to answer the question: What factors actually drive the choice of using mixed methods? The remainder of the chapter is structured as follows. First, it introduces the mixed methods approach and then discusses possible influencing factors on the choice of using mixed methods, as indicated by the mixed methods literature. Next, using these factors as a benchmark, I review what actually affected my choice of mixed methods in my doctoral research as an illustration. At the end, I draw some conclusions regarding what drives the choice of mixed methods in higher education research and suggest some important avenues for future research. Mixed methods Traditionally, qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches have largely been used on separate tracks in social science research, despite the rich acknowledgement of the drawbacks of such a methodological bifurcation. Most quantitative research is confirmatory, involving theory verification, whereas much qualitative research is exploratory, involving theory generation or discovery. However, the phenomena to be explored are often too complicated to be tackled within the singularity of either a qualitative or quantitative approach. Thus, an emerging methodology, mixed methods, has become increasingly popular. Mixed methods research is a research design (or methodology) in which a researcher collects, analyses and mixes (integrates or connects) both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or a multiphase programme of inquiry (Creswell 2005, 510). The attempt to incorporate both qualitative and quantitative methods into a mixed methods study is always a challenge. An extensive body of literature on research methodology sharply divides the two 32 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) methods according to their philosophical beliefs between interpretivism and post-positivism. Quantitative studies emphasise the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, often associated with population generalisation. Qualitative methods allow for the articulation of many truths in meaningful social actions, stressing how social experiences are created and given meanings (Denzin & Lincoln 2003, 13). Despite the dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research strategies, “the two philosophies are neither mutually exclusive (i.e. one need not totally commit to either one or the other) nor interchangeable (i.e. one cannot merge methodologies with no concern for underlying assumptions)” (Newman & Benz 1998a, xi). It follows that studies at the operational level are located on different points of a continuum between qualitative and quantitative. This is consistent with Creswell’s (2003, 4) vision that while traditional paradigms of social science research exist on two opposing stances, requiring either quantitative or qualitative approaches, “the situation today is less quantitative versus qualitative and more how research practices lie somewhere between on a continuum between the two”. This means that the mixed methods approach is located in the realm of pragmatism in the middle of the continuum between interpretivism and post-positivism. For pragmatists, understanding the problem is more important than being committed to any one system of methodological philosophy (p. 12). By mixing both qualitative and quantitative methods, it offers the best chance for answering many important and complex research questions (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie 2004). The rationale for using mixed methods “is grounded in the fact that neither quantitative nor qualitative methods are sufficient, by themselves, to capture the trends and details of a situation” (Ivankova, Creswell & Stick 2006, 3). Despite the lack of a clear definition of what exactly are mixed research questions, it has been commonly agreed that mixed methods studies answer questions that embed both qualitative and quantitative inquires (Creswell 2003, 114). Qualitative research questions often begin with the words “what”, “how” and “why” in relation to discovering/exploring a process, describing experiences or understanding a phenomenon that has not been 33 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Higher Education Management and Transformation well understood (Creswell 2003, 106; Griffiths 1996, 27; Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2006, 482). While qualitative research questions are characterised as “open-ended, evolving, and non-directional” (Creswell 1998, 99), quantitative research questions are specific in nature, either descriptive, comparative or relationship oriented (Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2006, 480). In the last two categories (comparative or relationship oriented), research questions are often formulated in the form of hypotheses, predicting relations among variables (Creswell 2003, 108). In short, qualitative studies are usually exploratory, while quantitative ones tend to be explanatory. The advantages of using mixed methods for social science research have been argued and evidenced by a number of researchers (Creswell 2003; Miles & Huberman 1994, Chapter 3; Newman & Benz 1998b; Tashakkori & Teddlie 2003). Among these, the convergent view is that the two methods are complementary and compatible. For instance, Newman and Benz (1998b) illustrate that the strength of mixed methods is based on their self-correcting feedback loops (Figure 1). There are different ways of combining or mixing qualitative and quantitative research. The mixed methods literature presents a variety of typologies of mixed methods designs (Creswell 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie 2004; Leech & Onwuegbuzie 2009; Onwuegbuzie, Slate, Leech & Collins 2007; Tashakkori Figure 1. The structure of social science research Source: Adapted from Newman and Benz (1998b, 21) 5 Data analysis B 2 Review Literature 3 Hypothesis 4 Data collection A 6 Conclusion C Hypothesis D 1 Theory Theory E 1–5: Quantitative approach; A–E: Qualitatitive approach 34 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) & Teddlie 1998; Tashakkori & Teddlie 2003; Teddlie & Tashakkori 2006). For instance, in Tashakkori and Teddlie’s (1998, 160–166) typology, three dimensions are used: the nature of the research (confirmatory/exploratory), data collection and operation (qualitative/quantitative), and data analysis (statistical/qualitative). For Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004, 20), a mixed methods design is determined by two primary decisions by the researcher: “(a) whether one wants to operate largely dominant paradigm or not, and (b) whether one wants to conduct the phases concurrently or sequentially”. More recently, Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009) sought to create an integrated three-dimensional typology of mixed methods designs based on an extensive review of the mixed methods literature: (a) level of mixing (partially mixed versus fully mixed); (b) time orientation (concurrent versus sequential) and (c) emphasis of approaches (equal status versus dominant status). Their typology is not very different from the more commonly used scheme proposed by Creswell et al. (2003), who used four dimensions to categorise mixed methods designs: implementation, priority, integration and theory. Implementation is similar to “time orientation” in Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009) and refers to whether researchers collect quantitative and qualitative data in different phases (sequentially) or at the same time (concurrently). Concurrent procedures are often used by researchers who are attempting to obtain a comprehensive analysis of the research problem, including concurrent triangulation, concurrent nested and concurrent transformative. In sequential procedures, the researcher seeks to elaborate or expand the findings of one method with another. The sequential strategy includes three models: sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory and sequential transformative. The priority accorded either the qualitative or quantitative approach is similar to Leech and Onwuegbuzie’s (2009) concept of “emphasis of approaches”, which pertains to whether greater priority is given to the quantitative or qualitative approach, especially in terms of data analysis. Priority can also be expressed as dominance. Priority for one type of data or the other depends on the researcher’s interests, reader expectations or the nature of the investigation (e.g. inductive or deductive). In mixed methods studies, there 35 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Higher Education Management and Transformation are three possibilities: the quantitative approach is prioritised; the qualitative approach is prioritised; both quantitative and qualitative approaches have equal priority. Integration refers to the stages in the research process involving the mixing or integration of the quantitative and qualitative methods, ranging from the stage of addressing research purposes or research questions to that of analysing or interpreting data. This is very much in line on a continuum of the “level of mixing” described by Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009), on which mixed methods research falls from “not mixed” (i.e. mono-method designs) at one end of the continuum to “fully mixed” at the other end. Partially mixed method designs are located between the two ends. They further elaborate that mixed methods research involves mixing both quantitative and qualitative research within one or more of the following four stages of the research process: 1) formulation of the research objective, 2) data collection, 3) data analysis and 4) inference. Similarly, for Creswell et al. (2003, 220), “integration might occur within the research questions (e.g., both quantitative and qualitative questions are presented), within data collection (e.g., open-ended questions on a structured instrument), within data collection (e.g., transforming qualitative themes into quantitative items or scales), or in interpretation (e.g., examining the quantitative and qualitative results for convergence of findings)”. Leech and Onwuegbuzie’s (2009) typology does not include the dimension of the theoretical perspective suggested by Creswell (2003). According to Creswell et al. (2003), the use of a theoretical lens in mixed methods research may be explicit or implicit. Explicit use of a theoretical perspective refers to situations in which theories have a direct and strong impact on the questions to be asked, the subjects and participants to be studied, the data to be collected and the preference of conclusions. The studies in this kind are value-based and action-oriented and have an advocacy purpose. This is called the transformative model in mixed methods research, whereby researchers use a theoretical lens as an overarching perspective that embraces both qualitative and quantitative data. 36 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) Factors affecting the choice of mixed methods The literature suggests three factors that affect the choices of mixed methods. These are research questions, research purposes, practical reasons and beliefs in research paradigms. Types of mixed research questions Research questions can be formulated on the basis of theories, past research, previous experience or the practical need to make data-driven decisions in a work environment. “Thus, they serve as signposts for the reader, foreshadowing the specific details of the study” (Onwuegbuzie & Leech 2006, 478). Mixed methodologists believe that mixed methods are suitable for certain kinds of research questions (Creswell 2003; Tashakkori & Teddlie 2003), and especially for complex research questions (Plano Clark 2005). Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2006) made an initial attempt to develop a framework linking mixed methods research questions and mixed methods designs. They categorised five types of mixed methods research questions: 1)mixed methods research questions for descriptive research designs, 2)mixed methods research questions for causal-comparative research designs, 3) mixed methods research questions for experimental research designs, 4) mixed methods research questions for qualitative comparative designs and 5) the most compatible mixed methods research questions. Their study is inspiring, as it not only corroborates the argument that research questions drive the methods used (Newman & Benz 1998a; Tashakkori & Teddlie 1998), but it also tasks researchers to establish relations between mixed methods research questions and mixed methods designs. Nevertheless, the framework established by Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2006) remains largely ambiguous. On one hand, the descriptions of these types of research questions are on a general and abstract level, despite the provision of a number of exampling questions. On the other hand, the categories of the mixed methods designs used in their framework need to be benchmarked 37 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Higher Education Management and Transformation with reference to other similar typologies developed elsewhere (for example: Creswell 2003; Tashakkori & Teddlie 1998; Teddlie & Tashakkori 2006). Research purpose and mixed methods designs Newman et al. (2003) argue that the research question alone is not sufficient to determine the methodology. Rather, “by considering the question and purpose iteratively, one can eventually get to a design or set of designs that more clearly reflect the intention of the question” (p. 168). By research purpose, they mean the reasons for conducting a study. Nine general research purposes can be categorised (p. 185): 1) Predict: using all the things we known in this knowledge “base” to explain a field and what might yet unfold in the future 2) Add to the knowledge base: organising all the things we know into a “base” of knowledge 3) Have a personal, social, institutional and/or organisational impact: struggling with the complex environments we experience, particularly when we know that some things we know and experience are not just, fair and in keeping with our ethical or professional purpose 4) Measure change: measuring what happens when we change things 5) Understand complex phenomena: understanding what things we now experience and know 6) Test new ideas: testing these new things 7) Generate new ideas: Discovering some new things 8) Inform constituencies: telling what things we know to those who need to know them 9) Examine the past: what things we already know from the past This typology of research purpose can serve as a valuable tool for researchers to initiate proper research questions and to identify appropriate research methods. In particular, research purposes 2, 3, 5 and 6 (sometimes in combination), due to their complex nature, may lead to mixed methods approaches. 44 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) mixed methods approach because it was appropriate for the research question in my doctoral study. In this respect, it reflects a particularistic discourse or a conventional view that research questions guide decisions about research design and methods (Bryman 2007). Besides the research question, my general purpose for conducting my doctoral research was to gain a fuller understanding of a complex phenomenon—academic staff integration in post-merger universities. I chose a specific merger case for investigation because I had gained work experience in one of the three pre-merger institutions and some later experience as an administrator in the provisional Education Commission, which approved the merger and was involved in the process of dealing with a number of postmerger issues. As an observer, I was fully aware of the complexity of the issues regarding academic staff integration and the challenges faced by both the academic staff and managers of the post-merger university in dealing with these issues. To respond to the situation, it was important to generate new knowledge for understanding the issues and to test new ideas. As implied by Newman et al. (2003), such purposes often lead to mixed methods research. In terms of making decisions about my research design, both my considerations regarding my research question and purpose corroborate general suggestions from the mixed methods literature. Here, I want to stress that my use of mixed methods is part of my case study design. Although case studies have often been considered in the realm of qualitative research (Creswell 1998), Yin (1994) suggests that both qualitative and quantitative approaches can be applied to case studies. I am inclined to Yin’s position because of my subscription to the research paradigm of pragmatism. Although the quantitative research in my doctoral research partially reflects a positivist paradigm, my study was not intent on making a broader generalisation. Rather, I believe that the meaning of causality can only be interpreted within a specific context. As such, my study finds its root in pragmatism, in the middle of the continuum between positivism and interpretivism. 45 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Higher Education Management and Transformation As mentioned earlier, researchers following the pragmatist paradigm often think that mixed methods are a necessity, which is similar to the he universal discourse. However, based on my own research practice, I do not see the universal and particularistic discourses as mutually exclusive. Regardless of my belief in pragmatism, which is consistent with the universal discourse, my choice of mixed methods in my doctoral research was primarily driven by my research question. Nevertheless, because of my inclination towards pragmatism, I am more likely to raise research questions that are more suitable for mixed methods. My decision regarding the use of mixed methods was also based on my experience of and confidence in using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Before I started my PhD research, I wrote two master’s theses, which respectively applied quantitative and qualitative methods. Thus, I believed that by using mixed methods, I could make use of my strengths. Moreover, I thought that a PhD thesis applying mixed methods could be an advantage in terms of demonstrating my research capacity. Especially in the higher education research communities in Europe, the vast majority of studies are qualitative in nature. My proven skills in using both qualitative and quantitative methods would possibly make my research distinctive. Nevertheless, such practical reasons were secondary to my main considerations following the suggestions of the methodology literature. Finally, the type of research question I raised was suitable for one specific mixed methods approach, namely a sequential exploratory approach. Other kinds of questions may require different types of mixed methods approaches. Conclusions Based on a review of the mixed methodology literature and my own practice of conducting mixed methods research, I can conclude with the following inferences regarding the question: What drives the choice of mixed methods in higher education research? First, the primary drive regarding the choice of mixed methods should follow the doctrine of the methodology textbooks, 46 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) which accentuates the fitness between research question/purpose and research design/method. Although there are different types of mixed methods research, a shared feature of most is that the research question entails both exploratory and explanatory inquiries. Second, researchers’ beliefs in research paradigms may be a motive for them to conduct mixed methods research. The literature suggests that if researchers follow a pragmatist paradigm, then they will likely apply mixed methods in their research because it would best achieve the research goal. The paradigm of research pragmatism may also influence researchers to pose certain questions, which by nature require mixed methods to gain a full understating of the truth. As implied by Creswell et al. (2003), mixed methods add special value to research when the methods better serve the research purpose. Regardless of my strong beliefs in pragmatism, I have not always use mixed methods in my research. In many cases, my research tackles qualitative explorations only for practical reasons, though I see my qualitative research as one part of a mixed methods approach, with the expectation that the other part could be done in future studies. Third, reasons of practicality do affect the choice of research design. Although one may be keen to conduct research by applying a mixed methods approach, one may not be able to simply because of time constraints and resource shortages. Conducting mixed methods research generally takes significantly longer than when a mono-method is employed. When conditions do allow, Bryman (2007) suggests a number of practical reasons to consider mixed methods, such as to be attractive to stakeholders, to have a better chance of getting funding or being published, etc. The use of mixed methods could be a way to make both a researcher and his or her research distinctive in the field of higher education research. In this chapter, I have engaged in a preliminary effort to explore possible reasons driving researchers’ decisions regarding mixed methods. In the higher education literature, there has been very few studies addressing issues relating to the use of mixed methods. It is much rarer to see discussions addressing the reasons behind researchers’ decisions regarding mixed methods. I take the 47 What drives the choices of mixed methods in higher education research? Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Higher Education Management and Transformation opportunity to call for future research to review and analyse existing higher education studies in the area of mixed methods. It would also be interesting and useful to interview and survey the writers of these studies about what drive their choices of using mixed methods design. 48 Yuzhuo Cai Elias Pekkola & Jussi Kivistö & Vuokko Kohtamäki & Yuzhuo Cai & Anu Lyytinen (Eds.) References Bryman, A. (2007). The research question in social research: What is its role? International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 10(1), 5–20. Cai, Y. (2007). Academic staff integration in post-merger Chinese higher education institutions. Tampere: Tampere University Press. Corbetta, P. (2003). 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