PewDiePie, racism and Youtube's neoliberalist interpretation of freedom of speech

Article P e w Di e Pi e, r a cis m a n d Y o ut u b e’s n e oli b er alist i nt e r pr et ati o n of fr e e d o m of s p e e c h J e n ni H o k k a Ta m p er e U niv ersity, Fi nla n d A bst r a ct H o w a n d w hy t h e s ocial li mits of racist s p e e c h hav e b ec o m e o bsc ur e a n d ‘ o ut dat e d’ f or a Y o u T u b e star P e w Di e Pi e a n d his ov er 1 0 0 milli o n fa ns? H o w ha v e t h e p olici es of Y o u T u b e aff ect e d t h e g e n eral u n d ersta n di ng of t h e li mits of racist disc o urs e i n t h e digital m e dia c o nt e xt? I n t his articl e, I arg u e t hat t h e cas e of P e w Di e Pi e s h o ws h o w Y o u T u b e e x ercis es a n e oli b eralist u n d ersta n di ng of fr e e d o m of s p e ec h. I n my a nalysis, I c o nt e xt ualis e P e w Di e Pi e’s o w n c o m m e nts a n d Y o u T u b e’s p u blicati o ns i nt o t h e hist ory of I nt er n et c ult ur e a n d i ntr o d uc e t h e d ev el o p m e nt of Y o u T u b e i nt o a n e oli b eralist s p h er e. I ill ustrat e h o w n e oli b eral i d e ol ogy is n o w i m pl e m e nt e d o n t hr e e l ev els o n Y o u T u b e: t hr o ug h cr eati ng a n ill usi o n of i nti macy b et w e e n a cr eat or a n d his/ h er fa ns, t hr o ug h t h e pr o mis e of e q ual o p p ort u nity o n Y o u T u b e a n d t hr o ug h a n e oli b eralist i nt er pr etati o n of t h e mar k et plac eof-i d eas pri n ci pl e. T h e a nalysis r ev eals h o w Y o u T u b e’s p olici es a n d practic es as i d e ol ogical c h oic es c o ntri b ut e t o t h e n or malisati o n of racis m o n s ocial m e dia. K e y w o r ds E q uality of o p p ort u nit y, fr e e d o m of s p e ec h, hist ory of t h e I nt er n et, i nti m a c y, n e oli b eralis m, p olitical c orr ect n ess, racis m, vl ogg ers, Y o u T u b e I nt r o d u cti o n I n Fe br u ar y 2 0 1 7, t h e W all Str e et J o ur n al (W SI ) p u blis h e d a n e ws st or y a b o ut P e w Die Pi e, t h e m ost s u bscri be d Y o u T u ber, clai mi n g t h at he is s u p p orti n g a ntiS e mitic i d e ol o g y i n his vi d e os. T h e m ost i nf a m o us of t h e m i ncl u d e d a n i n ci d e nt w h er e Pe w Die Pie t este d t h e Fi v err ser vice a n d p ai d fi v e d ollars t o get I n dia n freela nce a ct ors t o l a u g h a n d s h o w a si g n sa yi n g ‘ Deat h t o all Je ws’ o n 1 1 C orr es p o n di n g a ut h or: J e n ni H o k ka, Fac ult y of I nf or mati o n T ec h n ol ogy a n d C o m m u nicati o n Sci e nc es, Ta m p er e U niv ersity, P. O. B o x 6 0 7 FI3 3 0 1 4, Ta m p er e, FI3 3 0 1 4, Fi nla n d. E mail: j e n ni. h o k ka @g mail.c o m C o nv erg e nc e: T h e I nt er nati o nal J o ur nal of R es earc h i nt o N e w M e dia T ec h n ol ogi es 1–19 ªT h e A ut h or(s) 2 0 2 0 Articl e r e us e g ui d eli n es: sag e p u b.c o m/j o ur nalsp er missi o ns D OI: 10.1177/1354856520938602 j o ur nals.sag e p u b.c o m/ h o m e/ c o n Ja n uar y 2 0 1 7. As a res ult of t h e W SI ’s st or y o n 1 4 Fe br u ar y 2 0 1 7, P e w Die Pie l ost his fi n a n cial a gr e e m e nts wit h his cr e at or net w or k, Ma k er St u di os, a n d t h e G o o gle Pr eferr e d a d v ertisi n g pr ogr a m m e. Pe w Die Pie (a ka t he n 2 8yearol d S we d e, Feli x Kj ell b er g) w as q uic k t o de n y t hat his vi de os w er e racist or off e nsi v e. I nstea d, h e bl a m e d W SI f or n ot u n d ersta n di n g t he ir o nic nat ure of his vi d e os, s a yi n g t h at t h e y wer e t a ki n g his j o k es o ut of c o nte xt. He als o clai m e d t h at W SI ha d a li mite d u n d ersta n di n g of I nter n et c ult ur e a n d t h at t he y e n vi e d hi m f or his p o p ularit y. Pe w Die Pie’s case u n d erli nes t he i m p orta nce of u n d ersta n di n g t h e p olitical val u es of Y o u T u b e a n d t h eir e nt a n gle me nt of ‘ platf or me d ra cis m’ ( Mata m or osFer na n de z, 2 0 1 7). It s h o ws h o w r acist disc o urs e i n t he di git al m e dia c o nte xt ar e ofte n veile d b y ir o n y, a n d t her ef ore a c c e pte d b y t h e platf or ms, w hic h ma kes it diffic ult t o c o u nter ra cis m. E v e n t h o u g h P e w Di e Pie clai ms t h at h e has n o c o n n e cti o n t o alt-ri g ht m o v e m e nt, he has b e e n cel e br ate d a m o n g alt-ri g ht s u p p orters after t h e c o ntr o v ers y. As Pa ul Gilr o y ( 2 0 1 9: 3) h as ar g ue d, fascis m has b e e n s u c c essf ull y r e bra n d e d, n ot as e vil a n d destr o yi n g, b ut as ‘ dari n g, tra ns gressi ve, c o mic, ir o nic a n d f ut uristi c’, a n d P e w Die Pie’s c o nte nt s e e ms t o fit t hat p ur p ose well. T he alt-ri g ht m o ve me nt has b e e n ver y s kilf ul i n t a ki n g o p p ort u niti es f or t h e net w or ki n g c a paciti es of o nli n e me dia a n d f or t he r el uct a nce of s ocial me di a pl atf or ms t o s et r estri cti o ns f or ‘fr e e s p e ec h’ (J a k u b o wi c h, 2 0 1 9; L e wis, 2 0 1 8; M at a m or osFer n a n d e z, 2 0 1 7; T o pi n k a, 2 0 1 8). I n t his articl e, I as k h o w a n d w h y t he s oci al li mits of racist s p e e c h ha ve bec o me o bsc ur e a n d ‘ o ut date d’ f or a Y o u T u b e star a n d his o v er 1 0 0 milli o n fa ns. H o w ha v e t h e p oli cies of Y o u T u b e as a m e dia c o m pa n y affecte d t h e g e n eral u n d ersta n di n g of t he li mits of ra cist dis c o urs e i n t he di git al me dia c o nte xt? T his disc ussi o n is mai nl y d o n e i n t he A meric a n c o nte xt; alt h o u g h Pe w Die Pie is ori gi nall y S w e dis h, he is n o w a gl o b al star w h o w or ks o n a n A m erica nb as e d platf or m, a n d h e is part of a n I nt er n et c ult ur e t h at has b ee n hist oric all y m o difie d b y A merica n p oliti c al t h o u g ht (see Mar wic k, 2 0 1 3; Streeter, 2 0 1 1). T his arti cle ar g ues t hat Y o u T u b e e x er cis es a n e oli b eralist u n d erst a n di n g of fr e e d o m of s p eec h. T hr o u g h a n al ysi n g P e w Die Pie’s vi d e os t o g et her wit h Y o u T u be’s pr o m oti o n al a n d us er g ui da nce material, I will d e m o nstrate h o w t h e li b ertaria n herit a g e of I nter n et c ult ur e aff e cts h o w me dia c o m pa nies li k e Y o u T u be u n derst a n d t h eir r ole as a ‘ platf or m’ or ‘te c h n ol o g y c o m p a n y’ a n d h o w t he y, as a c o m pa n y, f or m ulate t h eir p oli cies t o w ar ds cr e at ors, a d vertisers a n d l a w m a k ers. I n m y a nal ysis, I pl a ce P e w Die Pi e’s o w n c o m me nts a n d Y o u T u be’s p u blic ati o ns i nt o t h e hist oricall y f or m e d, ne oli b eral p oliti c al c o nte xt of I nt er n et c ult ure. M y a nal ysis r e veals h o w Y o u T u be’s p olicies a n d pr a cti c es as i de ol o gical c h oices c o ntri b ute t o t he n or malisati o n of racis m o n s oci al me dia. I i ntr o d u c e t h e de v el o p m e nt of Y o u T u b e i nt o a n e oli b er alist s p h ere a n d c o nte xt ualise it as a part of a s pecific I nter n et c ult ure. T h e n, I d e m o nstrate h o w ne oli b er al i de ol o g y is i m ple me nt e d o n t hr e e l e v els o n Y o u T u be: t hr o u g h cr eati n g a n ill usi o n of i nti m a c y bet w ee n a cre at or a n d his/ her fa ns, t hr o u g h t h e pr o mis e of e q u al o p p ort u nit y a n d t hr o u g h a n e oli b er alist i nt er pr etati o n of t h e mar k et pl aceof-i d e as pri nci ple. Y o u T u b e as n e oli b er alist s p h er e W he n Y o u T u be w as l a u n c h e d i n 2 0 0 5, t h e c o m pa n y’s s elfd efi niti o n e m p hasise d t h e us er’s a bilit y t o s h are s elfm a d e vi de os wit h t h eir pers o n al net w or k ( B ur g ess a n d Gr e e n, 2 0 0 9: 1 – 4). I n li n e wit h t hat, ma n y j o ur nalists a n d s o m e earl y m e dia r es earc hers c ele br ate d Y o u T u be as t h e e pit o me of t h e ne w parti ci p at or y a n d DI Y c ult ur e al o n g wit h ot her s o cial m e dia a p plicati o ns t h at pr o mis e d t o de m ocr atis e di git al tec h n ol o g y – a n d c o ns e q u e ntl y, t he w h ole s o ciet y ( Mar wic k, 2 0 1 3: 2 1 – 2 5). Yet, t he o per ati o n al l o gic of Y o u T u b e, w hi c h w as b o u g ht b y G o o gle i n Oct o b er 2 0 0 6, has b e e n 2 Co nverge nce: T he I nter n atio n al Jo ur n al of Rese arc h i nt o Ne w Me di a Tec h n ol ogies X X( X) m o difie d se ver al ti mes o v er t h e years dir e cti n g it t o war ds i ncr e asi n g c o m m er cialit y ( L o b at o, 2 0 1 6; S nic kars a n d V o n d er a u, 2 0 0 9). I n 2 0 0 7, Y o u T u b e la u nc he d t h eir P art ner Pr o gra m, w hic h ga ve cr e at ors a n o p p ort u nit y t o m o netise t h eir vi de o c o nte nt t hr o u g h G o o gle A d S e ns e, s plitti n g a d re ve n u e r o u g hl y half a n d half ( 5 5% / 4 5% ) wit h Y o u T u b e. I n 2 0 0 8, t h e c o m p a n y la u nc he d t he Clic k-t oB u y ec o m m erce f u ncti o n wit h t h e p ossi bilit y t o pr o m ote vi de os a n d pre-r oll a d ds a n d t h e Y o u T u be I nsi g ht a nal ytics t o ol t h at g a v e cr e at ors t he p ossi bilit y of f oll o wi n g t heir users’ d at a. I n 2 0 0 9, t h e y starte d I n di vi d u al Vi de o Part ners hi p i n w hic h t he cr eat or e ar ns f or clic ks a n d vie ws of a ds c o n n ect e d t o t heir vi d e os, a n d t he Vi d e o T ar g eti n g t o ol t hr o u g h w hi c h a d vertis ers c a n tar g et t heir a ds t hr o u g h ke y w or ds, vie w er de m o gr a p hics, i nter estb as e d c ate g ories, a n d s o o n a n d e v e n o verla y a ds t o i n di vi d ual vi d e os ( Y o u T u b e 5 Y e ar/ Hist or y of M o n eti z ati o n at Y o u T u be) Mer c h a n disi n g, c h a n n el s u bs cri pti o n pa y me nt a n d diff er e nt ki n ds of a d v ertisi n g o pti o ns, i ncl u di n g pr o d u ct place me nt a n d s p o ns or e d c o nt e nt, h a v e b e e n i ntr o d u c e d o n Y o u T u b e vi d e os, a n d ste pb y-st e p, e ver y s urf a c e of Y o u T u b e fr o m c o m m e nts t o p o p u ps h as bee n o p e n e d t o b usi ness. T h e gr o wi n g set of m o n etisi n g me as ures h as ma na g e d t o e ntice tr a diti o n al m e dia c o m pa nies t o u pl o a d pr of essi o nall y pr o d uc e d c o nte nt o nt o Y o u T u be a n d m a ke t h e site m ore attr a cti v e f or a d v ertis ers ( G er har ds, 2 0 1 7; L o bat o, 2 0 1 6: 3 4 9; R a u n, 2 0 1 8). All i n all, t h e t e c h n ol o gi c al aff or da nc es of Y o u T u b e h a ve bee n refi ne d t o e na ble eff e cti v e pr ofitm a ki n g f or its o w n ers ( P osti g o, 2 0 1 6). T his h as als o h a d a str o n g i m p a ct o n t h e c o nte nts of vi de os. I n 2 0 1 1, Y o u T u be a c q uir e d N e xt N e w N et w or ks a n d t heir N e xt Ne w Cr e at or Pr o gra m t h at was f osteri n g u p c o mi n g Y o u T u bers t o t ur n t h e ms el v es fr o m a mate urs t o pr of essi o n als b y pr ovi di n g t h e m wit h t he k n o wh o w t o gr o w t h eir a u die nces a n d i n c o m e ( C o he n, 2 0 1 1; C u n ni n g ha m et al., 2 0 1 6). T h e Ne xt N e w Cr e at or Pr o gra m was t he n tr a nsf or m e d i nt o Y o u T u b e’s Creat or Aca d e m y ( L ore nz, 2 0 1 9). T he Cr e at or A c a d e m y ( a n d t h e Y o u T u be Creat ors c ha n n el fr o m 2 0 1 8 o n war ds) pr o vi d es Y o u T u bers wit h fr e e o nli n e l ess o ns o n h o w t o gr o w a n d s ustai n a l o y al a u die nce, h o w t o b o ost t heir c h a n nel’s s e ar c h a n d disc o ver y, h o w t o us e G o o gle A nal ytics, h o w t o pr o m ote vi d e os a n d h o w t o ma k e m o ne y ( Le ar n wit h t h e Y o u T u be Cr e at or Aca d e m y). Y o u T u be e n c o ura g es cr e at ors t o c o m p ete f or atte nti o n a n d r e w ar ds t h e m ec o n o mi c all y f or pr o m oti n g t h e ms el v es. As a res ult, selfc o m m o dificati o n a n d selfbr a n di n g h a v e bec o m e i nte gral part of w or ki n g as a cr e at or. T h e self is a n e nter pris e; t he s elf is prese nte d, bra n d e d a n d d e v el o p e d t hr o u g h s oci al me dia a p plic ati o ns a n d str ate gi c all y cr eati n g a n a u di e nce-tar g et e d i de ntit y ( Marwic k, 2 0 1 3: 1 9 1 – 1 9 4). Self-c o m m o dificati o n a n d selfbr a n di n g ar e n ot o nl y r elat e d t o or e nc o ur a g e d b y Y o u T u b e, b ut t h e y ha ve bec o me i n creasi n gl y d o mi na nt i n all s o cial m e dia platf or ms as I nter n et h as t ur n e d m or e e x pli citl y i nt o a mar ket plac e l a b ell e d b y o nli ne a d v ertisi n g a n d ec o m m erc e ( Se nft, 2 0 1 3: 3 4 8). C urre ntl y, s elfbr a n di n g h as be c o m e platf or m-s p e cific as pr od ucers tr y t o b ala nce t heir br a n d acc or di n g t o t heir i ma gi n ati o ns of platf or m aff or da n c es, a u die n ces a n d t h e pr o d u c er’s o w n selfc o n c e pt, a n d t h e y c o nti n u o usl y ha ve t o re w or k t h eir di git al ‘self’ ( Sc oler e et al., 2 0 1 8). I n Y o u T u b e, m ar keti n g a n d h u m a n i nteracti o n are f use d t o g et h er as t h e creat ors e n g a g e wit h t heir fa ns o n t h eir c h a n n els a n d o n ot her s ocial me dia platf or ms b ot h t o cr e ate a str o n g s o cial b o n d a n d ‘ c o m m u nit y’ wit h t he m a n d t o g ai n visi bilit y s o t hat t h e y ca n l ur e n e w f oll o w ers a n d a d vertis ers. T h e f usi o n of pr o m oti o n a n d s o cial rel ati o ns is als o e vi d e nt i n t he c o o p erati o n b et w e e n Y o u T u be cr e at ors. W hile cr e at ors, s u c h as P e w Die Pie a n d Jac ks e pti c e y e, pr es e nt t h e ms el v es as cl ose frie n ds, r ec o m m e n d eac h ot her a n d visit o n eac h ot h er’s vi de os, b ot h cr e at ors, t h eir s p o ns ors a n d a d v ertis ers, a n d Y o u T u be als o be n efit e c o n o micall y w h e n t h es e ‘frie n dl y’ a cti o ns i n cr e as e t h e n u m ber of f oll o w ers. Y o u T u b e h el ps cr e at ors i n self-c o m m o dificati o n t hr o u g h t heir t ut orial materials a n d b y pr o vi di n g t h e m a nal yti cs re gar di n g t h e vi e wi n gs of t heir vi de os. H o k k a 3 M ost of t he p o p ular Y o u T u bers n o w ha ve a c o ntr act wit h m ultic ha n nel net w or ks ( M C Ns), li k e Pe w Die Pie ha d wit h M a k er St u di os. M C Ns offer ‘a d v ertisi n g, pr o d u cti o n, a u die n c e, tale nt a n d br a n d m a n a ge me nt’ a n d pr o mis e t o b o ost a d v ertisi n g r e v e n u e t hr o u g h br a n d i nte gr ati o ns a n d m ulti platf or m a d s ales wit h t h e h el p of d at a a nal ysis ( C u n ni n g h a m et al., 2 0 1 6: 1 0). Als o, al g orit h ms ha ve t h eir place i n t h e c o m mer ci alis ati o n of Y o u T u b e. T h e pl atf or m has a mac hi n e-le ar ni n gb as e d al g orit h mi c s yste m t h at s orts, cate g oris es a n d r e c o m m e n ds vi d e o c o nte nt base d o n sc a n n e d i ma g es, k e y w or ds, titles, descri pti o ns, w ater mar ks a n d ot h er m eta dat a ( K u mar, 2 0 1 9). Y o u T u be’s cat e g oris ati o n, s e ar c h a n d rec o m me n dati o n al g orit h ms f a v o ur c ertai n ki n ds of ke y w or ds a n d titl es, w hi c h s u g gests t hat t he vi d e o c o nt e nt will easil y m atc h wit h c ertai n ki n ds of c o ns u mer gr o u ps, pr ofile d, f or e xa m ple, b y ge n d er, a ge a n d l o c ati o n. Si n c e cr eat ors are a bl e t o f oll o w t heir us er d ata a n d k n o w t hat al g orit h mic pr o c ess es ha v e a str o n g i m pa ct o n visi bilit y a n d o n p ossi ble p o p ularit y, a n d t her ef ore o n t he a d vertisi n g r e v e n u es, cre at ors l e ar n t o s elfo pti mis e a n d t o a da pt t h eir ke y w or ds, titles a n d descri pti o ns i n s u c h a wa y t hat t h eir vi de os will be fa v o ure d b y Y o u T u be’s al g orit h ms ( Bis h o p, 2 0 1 8). E v e n t h o u g h Y o u T u b e has a n n o u n ce d t h at it f a v o urs w atc h ti me of vi d e os i n its r e c o m me n d ati o n al g orit h m t o i ncr e as e t h e q u alit y of vi de os, a n e m piri c al st u d y ( Rie der et al., 2 0 1 8) s u g g ests t h at t h e Y o u T u b e’s searc h al g orit h m – t hat ma y h el p i n gai ni n g ne w f oll o w ers – ofte n e m p h asises c o ntr o v ersi al vi d e os as t he y c a n q ui c kl y g ai n atte nti o n t hr o u g h acti vel y c o m m e nti n g a u die n c es. I n a d diti o n, it s e e ms t h at c h a n n els t h at c o nsta ntl y u pl oa d ne w vi de os are f a v o ur e d. T his o b vi o usl y c o ntri b utes t o t h e pr ess ure t he creat ors, li k e P e w Die Pi e, e x perie nce w hil e tr yi n g t o c o nti n u o usl y re ne w t h eir bra n d a n d p u blis h c o nte nt t h at rais es l ot of atte nti o n a m o n g users. F urt h er m or e, t her e is a str o n g, e vi d e n c eb as e d s us pici o n t h at s e arc h a n d rec o m me n dati o n al g orit h ms gr a nt f ar m or e visi bilit y t o m o n etis e d vi de os t ha n t o c h a n n els a n d vi de os wit h o ut a d v ertisers a n d s p o ns ors, e ve n t h o u g h Y o u T u be offici all y de ni es t his li n k ( K u mar, 2 0 1 9). Clearl y, Y o u T u b e has c o m e a l o n g wa y fr o m t he i d e als of DI Y a n d partici p at or y c ult ur e. H o we v er, I nter n et c ult ure has al wa ys e m b o die d t he t e nsi o n bet w ee n beliefs i n o pe n s h ari n g a n d mar k et-le d c a pit alis m. I n t er ms of i d e ol o g y, t his te nsi o n has its r o ots i n c or e li ber alist v al u es: pr otecti n g pr o pert y a n d ci vil li b erties, pr o m oti n g i n di vi d ual a ut o n o m y a n d t oler a n c e, sec uri n g a fr e e pr ess, r uli n g t hr o u g h li mit e d g o ver n m e nt a n d u ni vers al l a w a n d pr es er vi n g a c o m mit me nt t o e q ual o p p ort u nit y a n d merit o cr a c y ( C ole ma n a n d G ol u b, 2 0 0 8). Hist oricall y s p e a ki n g, t he te nsi o n bet w ee n o pe n-s h ari n g We b c ult ure a n d t h e I nt er n et’s m ar ketle d ca pitalis m d ates b a c k t o t h e d a w n of I nt er n et c ult ure i n t h e 1 9 8 0s a n d t o t h e a g e of micr oc o m p uters a n d hac k ers. F or t he h a c k er c ult ur e of t h e 1 9 8 0s, it w as ess e nti al t h at pe o ple ha ve u nli mite d a c c ess t o c o m p uters; i nf or mati o n is free a n d a ut h orities are n ot tr uste d. Yet, at t he v er y sa me ti me, t h e m ai nstre a m pr ess haile d St e v e J o bs a n d Ste ve W o z nia k as h er oi c, i n de pe n de nt e ntr e pr e n e urs, a n d t h e micr o c o m p uter m ar ket was cit e d as pr o of of freem ar k et ca pitalis m o ptimall y ser vi n g p e o ple’s nee ds b y gi vi n g t h e m t h e o p p ort u nit y t o b u y t h e ms el v es u nli mit e d a c c ess t o ‘i nf or mati o n’. T h us, t h e wa y I nter n et c ult ure d e v el o pe d was cl os el y i ntert wi n e d wit h t he ris e of a n ‘a d va n c e d’ f or m of li ber alis m, t h at is, n e oli b eralis m ( Streeter, 2 0 1 1: 6 9 – 9 2; T ur n er, 2 0 0 6). Later t h e ‘ W e b 2. 0 disc o urs e’ i n herite d t his f usi o n of h ac k er a n d o p e n-s o ur c e m o ve me nt a n d t h e fr e em ar ket m ar ket i d e ol o g y of e ntr e pre n e urial ca pitalis m. Acc or di n g t o t his li n e of t hi n ki n g, a fr e e mar k et will b est g u ara ntee fr e e c h oice, cr e ati vit y is d o mi n a nt a n d s u ccessf ul e ntr e pre ne urs are tr e ate d as m yt hic her o es ( Mar wic k, 2 0 1 3: 2 1 – 2 9). G o o gle h as act e d as a pri me e xa m pl e of t his i de ol o gical f usi o n a n d c o ntr a dicti o n. W hil e t he c o m p a n y’s f o u n ders ha ve pr o clai m e d p hila nt hr o pic i deals a n d a ntia ut h orit aria nis m, br ace d n er d c ult ur e a n d fr e e fl o w of i nf or mati o n a n d t o ute d t e c h n ol o g y as s ol uti o n t o w orl d’s pr o ble ms, t he c o m p a n y h as, at t he s a m e ti m e, d e v el o pe d 4 Co nverge nce: T he I nter n atio n al Jo ur n al of Rese arc h i nt o Ne w Me di a Tec h n ol ogies X X( X) t he m ost a d va nce d o nli ne a d v ertisi n g s yste m i n w hic h p ers o n al us er d ata are eff ecti v el y s ol d t o a d vertis ers, h as be e n willi n g t o o be y C hi n a’s c e ns ors hi p r ules t o e nter its mar k et a n d h as sec ur e d its r uli n g p ositi o n i n o nli n e m ar ket t hr o u g h p ur c h asi n g k e y c o m petit ors, s uc h as Y o u T u be ( Hillis et al., 2 0 1 3: 3 0 – 5 2). O n We b 2. 0 c ult ur e, c a pit alis m is pri m aril y e m br a c e d as a n a ge nt of t his f ut ur e s ocial c h a n g e a n d n ot q u esti o n e d. Alr e a d y, Ste ve n Le v y’s 1 9 8 4 b o o k, H ackers: H er o es of t h e C o m p uter Rev ol uti o n , decl ar e d i n m erit o cratic s pirit t hat hac ki n g s kills m att er m ore t h a n ‘ b o g us’ realw orl d criteria li ke r a c e, g e n d er or e d u cati o n. T h e We b 2. 0 c ult ure h as n ot b e e n a ble or willi n g t o rec o g nise t he hi n dr a n c es of t his merit o cr a c y a n d t h e hist oricall y f or me d s o cial a n d p olitical hier ar c hies t h at n e oli b er alist fr e emar k et c a pit alis m o nl y rei nf orces ( C ole m a n a n d G ol u b, 2 0 0 8; Mar wic k, 2 0 1 3: 2 1 – 2 9). Ne oli ber alis m is a wi d e a n d c o nteste d c o nce pt t hat c a n b e u n d erst o o d i n t hr e e w a ys: as a n i de ol o g y, as a m o d e of re g ulati o n a n d as a m ar k etorie nt e d g o ver n m e ntalit y ( B yr n e, 2 0 1 7). G o ver n m e nt’s r ol e is n ot t o kee p a s af e dist a n ce fr o m mar kets as i n classical li beralis m b ut t o e ns ur e t hr o u g h r e g ulati o n t hat c o m petiti ve mec ha nis ms r ule i n e ver y as pect of s ociet y, i n cl u di n g pr a cti c es of t he s elf ( B yr ne, 2 0 1 7; R ose, 1 9 9 9). T h us, n e oli b eralist g o v er n me ntalit y e nc o ur a g es pe o ple t o r e g ulat e t h eir o w n b e h a vi o ur al o n g b usi n ess i d e als ma ki n g selfpr o m oti o n a n d s elfc o m m o dificati o n al m ost i n dis pe ns a ble practices ( Mar wic k, 2 0 1 3: 1 2). F oll o wi n g t h e i dea of g o v er n me ntalit y, t his arti cle sees pri v atis ati o n, c o m m o dificati o n, s elfbr a n di n g a n d c o nsta nt c o m petiti o n bet wee n i n di vi d u als as ess e nti al s y m pt o ms of u n d erst a n di n g t he mar k et as t h e g o v er ni n g pri n ci pl e of s o ciet y. I n w hat f oll o ws, I d e m o nstrate h o w t h e Y o u T u be user g ui d a n ce a n d t ut orial mat erials s p ur cr eat ors, i n t h e n e oli b er alist s pirit, t o pr o m ot e t h e ms el ves t o t heir o w n t ar g ete d a u die n ces a n d t o u n d ersta n d t h eir c o nte nt, n ot as p u bli c c o m m u ni c ati o n b ut as a pri vat e c o m m o dit y t hat is e x c h a n g e d o nl y b et wee n t he cr e at or a n d his/ h er fa ns. F urt h er m ore, I e x pl ai n h o w t h e pri n ci pl es of m erit ocr ac y a n d e q u al o p p ort u nit y, w hic h I nter n et c ult ure h as e m br a c e d si n c e 1 9 8 0s, are n o w m ostl y i nter prete d i n a ne oli b eralist wa y. I n t his ki n d of t hi n ki n g, e ver y o ne, i n pri nci ple, is a bl e t o st a n d u p f or hi ms elf/ h ers elf a n d c o m pet e as i n di vi d uals i n t h e sa me vai n, w hic h m a k es p oliti c al c orr ect n ess u n necessar y a n d e v e n h ar mf ul. Y o u T u b e bac ks u p t his li n e of t h o u g ht t hr o u g h t h eir C o m m u nit y G ui d eli n es, a n d I s h o w h o w Pe w Die Pie, eit h er k n o wi n gl y or u n k n o wi n gl y, a p p e als t o t his ne oli ber alist i nter pretati o n of m erit o crac y a n d e q u al o p p ort u nit y i n his vi d e os. I will de m o nstr ate h o w Y o u T u b e’s C o m m u nit y G ui deli nes a n d t h e c o m pa n y’s a ct ual pr a cti c es rel ate d t o Pe w Die Pie’s i nf a m o us vi d e o s h o w t hat t he c o m pa n y is e xer cisi n g a n e oli b eralist i nter pr etati o n of t he mar k et placeof-i deas pri n ci ple. T h at is, w h e n me dia c o nte nt is u n d erst o o d as a c o m m o dit y t h at c o m p etes f or p o p ularit y i n t h e m ar ket place, m ar kets ma y det er mi ne t he li ne of a c c e pta bl e c o nte nt, e ve n w he n t he c o nte nt is r a cist. M et h o d a n d d at a T he e m piri cal d ata of t his st u d y c o nsist of t w o ki n ds of m aterials. First, I h a v e a n al yse d fi v e vi de os i n w hic h P e w Di e Pie c o m me nts o n t h e acc usati o ns of r acis m. T he first o n e, ‘I’ m R a cist’ ( Pe w Die Pie, 2 0 1 6 b) is r elat e d t o his vi d e o p u blis h e d i n D ece m b er 2 0 1 6 i n w hic h h e sai d t h at Y o u T u be w o ul d r at her se e ‘s o m e o ne els e o n t h e t o p’ ot h er t h a n hi m b e c a us e h e is W hit e (‘ Deleti n g M y C ha n nel at 5 0 Milli o n’), w hi c h g ai n e d p u blic att e nti o n fr o m t he Britis h me dia ( e. g. Griffi n, 2 0 1 6). I n J a n u ar y 2 0 1 7, P e w Die Pie r elease d t h e i nf a m o us vi d e o i n w hic h he c o m missi o n e d t w o I n dia n a ct ors t o h ol d u p a si g n t h at sai d ‘ D e at h t o all J e ws’. T his vi de o is n o l o n g er a v ail a ble o n Pe w Die Pie’s o w n c h a n n el b ut was r e u pl o a d e d ma n y ti mes b y ot her users. H o we ver, i n t his arti cle, I h a v e a n al ys e d f o ur vi d e os t h at c o m me nt o n t h e p u blic r e acti o n o n t h at vi d e o as t h os e vi de os are H o k k a 5 i ntri g ui n g as part of t h e disc ussi o n o n t he c o ntr o vers y. T h es e i ncl u d e ‘I n m y def e ns e’ ( P e w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7c), ‘I’ M B A N N E D’ ( Pe w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7 b), ‘ M y R es p o ns e’ ( Pe w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7 d ) a n d ‘ H o w A b o ut T h at ...’ ( P e w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7 a). I w or k e d fr o m tr a ns cri pti o ns of all t h e fi v e vi d e os. Sec o n d, m y r es e ar c h m aterial i ncl u d es diff ere nt ki n ds of p u blicl y a v ail a ble user g ui d a n c e a n d pr o m oti o n al mat eri als fr o m Y o u T u b e. T h us, I a m a n al ysi n g Y o u T u b e’s pr es e ntati o n of t h e ms el ves a n d t heir missi o n’s f o ur ess e nti al fr e e d o ms ( Missi o n). Ess e nti al f or t his st u d y are als o t he g e n er al C o m m u nit y G ui deli nes ( C G), a n d es peciall y, t h eir s e cti o n o n Hate S peec h ( H S). I n a d diti o n, I scr uti nise t h e Y o u T u be P art n er Pr o gra m O ver vie w ( P P), A d v ertiser-frie n dl y C o nte nt G ui d eli n es ( A F), a n d Y o u T u b e Cr e at ors Aca d e m y M ai n Sit e ( C A). T hes e te xts ar e ke y f or u n d erst a n di n g h o w t he c o m p a n y wa nts t o r e pres e nt t heir a cti o ns a n d p olici es t o w ar ds b ot h a d v ertis ers a n d cr e at ors. T he fi ve vi d e os a n d pr o m oti o n al mat erials ar e a n al yse d i n relati o n t o eac h ot h er usi n g critic al disc o urs e a n al ysis. T he mai n pri n ci ple is t o t a k e n oti c e of t h e f a c ets of dis c o urs e, c o g niti o n a n d s ociet y i n t he a nal ysis pr oc ess. Dis c o urse, her e, is u n derst o o d i n a br oa d s e ns e as ‘ c o m m u nicati ve e ve nts’ i n cl u di n g c o n v ers ati o n, ass oci at e d g est ur es a n d f aci al e x pr essi o n, writte n te xt, i m a g es a n d ot her di m e nsi o ns of si g nificati o n. C o g niti o n ref ers t o beliefs, g oals, e v al u ati o ns a n d e m oti o ns b ot h o n a p ers o nal le vel a n d o n a s o cial l e v el. S o ciet y i ncl u d es l ocal micr ostr uct ures as well as gl o b al, s ocietal a n d p oliti c al str uct ures i n cl u di n g s u c h t hi n gs as gr o u ps, gr o u ps-r elati o ns, or g a nis ati o ns a n d p oliti c al s yste ms ( V a n Dij k, 2 0 0 9). I a m a nal ysi n g t he disc o urs es of t w o m ai n m aterials: Pe w Die Pie’s t al k ( a n d t o s o m e e xte nt als o his gest ures a n d ot h er a cts) i n his vi d e os a n d t h e writte n disc o urs e o n Y o u T u be’s pr o m oti o n al a n d us er g ui d a nce material. T hes e disc o urs es ar e u n derst o o d t o r e pres e nt c ertai n s ocial b eli efs a n d i d e ol o gi cal e v al uati o ns. I n m y a n al ysis, I s h o w h o w t h es e beliefs, s u c h as b eli ef i n t h e I nter n et as a n ulti mat el y d e m o cr ati c place, are hist oricall y c o nstr u cte d a n d pr o d u c e d i n c ertai n A merica n p oliti c al a n d s oci al sit u ati o ns at t h e ti me t he Wester n I nter n et c ult ur e was tra nsf or m e d. A n d fi n all y, I li n k t h e dis c ursi v e a n d c o g niti v e as pects of m y a nal ysis t o t he p oliticall y a n d s o ciall y f or m e d str u ct ur es of s o cial me dia, t hat is, le gisl ati v e a n d e c o n o mic fact ors t hat Y o u T u be as a c o m p a n y utilises. I n t he f oll o wi n g secti o n, I will d e m o nstrate h o w ne oli ber alist i de ol o g y is i m ple me nt e d o n t hr e e l e v els: t hr o u g h creati n g a n ill usi o n of i nti mac y bet w e e n t he cr e at or a n d his/ her f a ns, as a pr o mise of e q ual o p p ort u nit y t h at a b olis h es t h e n e e d f or p olitical c orrect n ess a n d t hr o u g h a ne oli b er alist i nter pretati o n of t h e mar k et pl aceof-i d e as pri nci ple. B e hi n d t h e v eil of i nti m a c y b et w e e n a Y o u T u b e r a n d his/ h e r t a r g et a u di e n c e: R a cist j o k es j ust b et w e e n 5 0 milli o n of us A n u m ber of resear c h ers ha v e d e m o nstrate d h o w i nti mac y h as b e c o m e a c e ntr al m o d e of e x pr essi o n o n Y o u T u b e. T h es e a n al yses s h o w h o w i n lif est yl e a n d b e a ut y vl o g gi n g, i nti mac y is t h e i nte gr al feat ure b ot h o n t he le vel of c o nt e nt (iss ues of b o d y, e ver y d a y h a p p e ni n gs, et c.) a n d o n t he le vel of f or m, as vl o g g ers use self-re pr es e ntati o nal tec h ni q ues t h at cr e ate a n ill usi o n of m ut ual a n d cl ose rel ati o ns hi p bet w e e n hi m/ h er a n d t h e f oll o wers ( A bi di n, 2 0 1 5; H o u, 2 0 1 8; Jersle v, 2 0 1 6; Ra u n, 2 0 1 8) H o we ver, I clai m t h at i nti m a c y is n ot o nl y a matter of c o nte nt or self-r e pr es e ntati o n tec h ni q u es; i nstea d, I cl ai m t h at i nti m a c y is a f o u n dati o nal feat ur e of Y o u T u b e as a platf or m. I n t h eir ‘ a c a d e m y’ f or cre at ors, Y o u T u b e str ess es a n u n d ersta n di n g t h at cr eat ors p oss ess t h eir o w n ‘c o m m u nit y’ of l o y al vie w ers a n d str o n gl y s u p p os es t hat t he cre at or’s ai m is t o ‘str e n gt h e n [t heir] rel ati o ns hi p wit h [t h eir] a u di e n c e’. I n less o n 1, cr e at ors l e ar n t hat ‘ w he n creat ors t a k e t h e ti me t o i nter act a ut h e nti c all y wit h t h eir l o y al c o m m u nit y, it c a n e n c o ur a g e a u die n ce p artici p ati o n a n d ulti m atel y r es ult i n a lar ger fa n base’ a n d t hat t h e y s h o ul d b e ‘sa v v y a n d res p o nsi ble le a d ers’ of 6 Co nverge nce: T he I nter n atio n al Jo ur n al of Rese arc h i nt o Ne w Me di a Tec h n ol ogies X X( X) t heir c o m m u nit y’ ( C A). T h us, t h e dis c o urs e of t h eir ‘e d ucati o n al’ ac a d e m y pa ges f or creat ors is cr e ati n g a n ill usi o n of a cl os e d, i nti mat e c o m m u nit y bet wee n t h e i n di vi d u al creat or a n d his/ her fa ns. T h e c o m p a n y g ui des t h eir cr e at ors t o u n dersta n d t h eir c o nt e nt, n ot as p u bli c a n d o p e n f or ge ner al dis c ussi o n b ut as s o met hi n g t hat is s e mipri vat e a n d o nl y s h ar e d b et wee n t h e cr eat or a n d his/ her f oll o w ers. T his d o es n ot o nl y a p pl y t o lif est yle vl o g gers w h os e c o nte nt is r elat e d t o i nti m ate t o pics b ut a p pl y t o all ki n ds of c h a n n els. W he n Pe w Die Pi e was a c c us e d of r a cis m, o n e of his mai n c o u nter ar g u me nts was t h at his c o nte nt was o nl y m ea nt f or his fa ns. He clai me d t h at all his fa ns u n derst o o d t h at his c o nte nt was mea nt as a j o ke, a n d he a p peare d t o b e offe n de d a n d s ur pris e d t hat ne ws pa pers wer e i nter este d i n it. I n res p o ns e t o t he fact t hat D aily St or m er , t h e wellk n o w n A merica n ne onazi a n d W hite s u pre macist we bsite a n n o u n c e d itself as ‘t h e w orl d’s # 1 P e w Die Pie f a nsite’ ri g ht after t h e c o ntr o v ers y. P e wDie Pi e res p o n de d: I ha v e a bi g pr o ble m wit h t he w h ole t hi n g i n g e n eral be ca us e t his w h ole t hi n g was n’t a pr o bl e m u ntil it was br o u g ht u p c a use m y a u di e n ce u n derst a n ds t he y w ere j o kes. T he y wer e n’t a ct uall y d oi n g a n y o ne a n y h ar m. B ut t h e w a y, t h e W all Str e et J o ur n al def e n d e d t his was t hat N e oN a zi w e bsites w er e s u p p orti n g m e. C alli n g it t he n u m b er o n e P e w Die Pie fa nsite, w hic h o b vi o usl y, I ha d n o i de a a b o ut. Belie ve it or n ot, I d o n’t g o t o N e oNazi we bsit es [ gi ves a la u g h]. (‘ H o w A b o ut T h at . ..’; Pe w Di e Pi e, 2 0 1 7a) At t h e ti me of t h e e ve nts, Pe w Die Pie ha d a p pr o xi m atel y 5 2 milli o n s u bscri bers; si nce t h e n, t h e n u m ber has rise n t o o ver 1 0 2 milli o n (i n Dece m ber 2 0 1 9). Fr o m t h e pers pecti v e of m ass me dia t he ories, a n d i n t he ti m es of ‘fra g me nte d a u di e n ces’, a n a u die nce of 5 0 – 1 0 0 milli o n w o ul d definitel y be c o nsi der e d a lar g e p u blic. I n n or m ati v e m ass m e dia t he ories, t h e basi c pr es u m pti o n is t hat p u blic n ess of t his ki n d s h o ul d h a v e certai n et hical g ui deli nes t o cre ate a p u bli c s p here t h at w o ul d be nefit s o ciet y i n t he best p ossi ble wa y ( C hristia ns et al., 2 0 0 9: i x – x, 7 5 – 7 8). J o ur n alisti c et hics is base d o n t his ki n d of t hi n ki n g. T h e i nter est t h at t h e W SI a n d ot h er ne ws pa pers ha d i n t h e c as e was at l east partl y base d o n t hi n ki n g t hat e ver y act or is hel d p u bli cl y r es p o nsi ble f or his cl ai ms – j o kes or n ot. Y o u T u be, li k e ot her s o cial me dia platf or ms’ l o gics of acti o n, differs dr a m ati c all y fr o m t hat. Y o u T u be’s t ut orial m aterial ur g es cr e at ors t o b eli e v e t hat p u blis h e d c o nt e nt will n ot b e j u d g e d acc or di n g t o a n y m or al crit eria be y o n d t h e fa ns’ a c c e pta nce. B e c a us e of t hat, creat ors ma y ha ve diffic ult y u n d ersta n di n g t hat t h eir p u bli cl y a v ail a ble vi d e os c o ul d als o b e wat c h e d a n d e v al u ate d b y ot h er ki n ds of criteria t ha n c h a n n el statistics a n d f a n c o m m e nts. I n f a ct, i n o ne of his vi de os relate d t o t h e c o ntr o vers y, P e w Di e Pie u n derli n e d t he f a ct t h at a m o n g his f a ns, t he r eacti o n t o his vi de o w as m ai nl y p ositi v e. F urt h er m or e, h e se e m e d t o j ustif y t h e releas e of t h e vi de o b y a n u m b er of fa n c o m m e nts t h at praise d t he vi d e o as b ei n g ‘ v er y f u n n y’: T h e r es p o nse i n t h e vi de o, i nitiall y, was r eall y gr eat! I k n e w pe o ple w o ul d b e off e n d e d, a n d I k n e w pe o ple w o ul d n’t li k e it. B ut I als o k ne w pe o ple w o ul d se e t h e j o ke i n it, a n d w o ul d fi n d it f u n n y. A n d, h o n estl y, t he c o m me nts w h e n t h e vi de o c a m e o ut w here li ke ‘t his is t he f u n niest vi de o I’ v e e v er se e n’. A n d I’ m n ot j ust str a w pi c ki n g .. .p e o ple l o ve d t h e vi de o, t h e y t h o u g ht it w as ver y f u n n y. (‘I’ M B A N N E D’; Pe w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7 b) It is p ossi ble t hat Pe w Di e Pie si m pl y wa nt e d t o s h o w t he ‘ cr a zi n ess of t h e we b’ wit h his vi d e o, as he st ate d ( S ol o m o n, 2 0 1 7). I n a d diti o n, he is ri g ht, i n a w a y, b y s a yi n g t hat t h e vi de o was ta ke n o ut of c o nte xt (‘ M y R es p o ns e’), si n c e t h e i nfa m o us vi d e o w as part of a series of vi d e os w h ere he was c o n d ucti n g e x peri me nts wit h diff er e nt o nli n e s er vi ces. Al o n g wit h t h e ‘ De at h t o all Je ws’ vi de o, h e H o k k a 7 c o n d ucte d ot h er pr o v oc ati v e e x p eri m e nts i n Fi v err, s uc h as c o m missi o ni n g a gra p h of a p e nis ma d e b y a fe mal e m at h e m aticia n ( w h o r ef use d t h e c o m missi o n), ma de a girl d a n ce t o a Dj A d olf’s s o n g a n d or d er e d a pr o c ess e d i m a g e of Her m a n G o¨ri n g, ‘ his gra n d a d’, t h at m a d e hi m l o o k y o u n ger (‘I’ M B A N N E D’; Pe w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7 b). E ve n aft er t he c o ntr o v ers y, Pe w Di e Pi e c o nti n u e d a n d varie d his i d e a b y tr yi n g a fac e s wa p a p plicati o n, a gai n pl a yi n g wit h a pi ct ur e of Hitler b ut als o wit h a n i ma ge of a n Africa nA m erica n a ct or, Lesle y J o n es, w h os e fa c e i n t he e x peri me nt w as mi xe d wit h g orilla H ara m be (‘ H o w A b o ut T h at ...’; Pe w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7 a). T h e r es ult m a y ha ve bee n c a us e d b y t h e al g orit h m be hi n d t h e face s w a p a p pli c ati o n, b ut b y c h o osi n g t o s h o w it after t h e e diti n g p h as e, Pe w Die Pie p artici p ate d t o t h e wi del y s pr e a d racist o nli n e attac k a g ai nst J o n es. Ma ki n g racist j o kes a m o n g a n i nti mate a u di e n ce o b vi o usl y h as hist oric al r o ots t hat pr e d ate Y o u T u be c ult ure. As Ja n e Hill ( 2 0 0 9: 1 0 9) e x plai ns: ‘ Li g ht tal ki n g a n d j o ki n g ar e pr ot ot y pi c all y pri v at e, ass oci ate d wit h s p aces of i nti mac y w h er e i nter p ers o n al s oli d arit y is m ore i m p orta nt t h a n strict a d h ere nc e t o tr ut h’. Hill ( 2 0 0 9: 9 6), f oll o wi n g J o e R F e a gi n a n d V er a H´er n a n ( F e a gi n, 2 0 0 6: 2 7), uses t h e t er m ‘s o ci al ale xit h y mia’ t o descri be t he W hit e c ult ur al patter n i n w hi c h feeli n gs of t he r aci all y i ns ult e d are t otall y b y p ass e d i n j u d gi n g w h et her or n ot racis m w as i n v ol ve d. T his c ult ur al m o del h as pr o vi d e d W hite pe o ple wit h a lice nce t o us e r a cist l a n g ua g e ‘ a m o n g frie n ds’ wit h a s h ar e d u n d ersta n di n g t h at ‘i n realit y’ t h e y ar e n ot r acists. T his u n d ersta n di n g c o ntai ns pers o n alist i d e ol o g y c o nsi d eri n g t h at it is t h e p ers o n’s i nte nti o ns a n d ‘tr ue’ i d e ol o gies ar e w h at matter, n ot t he use d w or ds t hat s o meti mes ma y ‘sli p’. A c c or di n g t o Hill ( 2 0 0 9), b y t he pers o n alist i de ol o g y, t o c e ns ur e ‘li g ht’ off e nsi ve t al k is c o nsi d er e d a n att a c k, n ot t o t he i nt er est b ut t o t h e c har a ct er or j u d ge me nt. I n Pe w Di e Pie’s c as e, he t o o, w as a p p e ali n g t o t h e fact t hat he w as t elli n g j o kes f or his f a ns, a n a u die n c e t h at ‘ w o ul d u n d ersta n d’ a n d w o ul d fi n d t h e m f u n n y a n d was offe n de d b y t h e r a cist acc us ati o ns. W hate ver o n e t hi n ks of t h e h u m or o us n ess a n d p ossi bl y ir o nic nat ure of Pe w Di e Pie’s pr a n ks, it is q uite clear t h at t he j o k es P e w Di e Pie c h os e t o s h o wcas e t h e ‘ cr a zi n ess of w e b’, u n derli n e t h at his pr es u m e d a u di e n ce c o nsists of y o u n g, W hite m ales w h o s har e his s e ns e of h u m o ur a n d t he p o wer r elati o ns reflecte d i n it. Usi n g l o wp ai d I n di a n a ct ors t o ma ke a n ‘ir o nic’ a ntiS e mitic vi d e o, h e cr e ates a c ult ur al b o u n dar y t o war ds b ot h t h e I n dia n a ct ors a n d t h e Je ws bet w e e n hi m a n d his f a ns – bet w ee n t h os e w h o are la u g h e d at a n d t h os e w h o c a n l a u g h at t heir ‘cr a zi n ess’ a n d ri dic ul o us ness fr o m o ut a n d a b o v e. W hile t h e v ers e ‘ D e at h t o all J e ws’ as part of t he pra n k li n ks it wit h t h e l o n g li n e of o nli n e a ntiSe miti c j o k es t h at fi n d a m us e m e nt i n t he H ol oca ust ( We a v er, 2 0 1 3), t h e fact t h at t h e I n di a n a ct ors are f o ol e d i nt o d oi n g it f or fi v e d oll ars u n derli n es Pe w Die Pie’s a n d his fa ns’ s u peri or c ult ur al a n d ec o n o mi c p ositi o n. O v erall, P e w DiePie’s pr a n ks a n d j o kes o n t he H ol o c a ust a n d N a zis m, L esle y J o nes a n d f e m ale fre ela n c ers cr e at e a n d s ustai n a disc ursi v e c o m m u nit y ( H utc h e o n, 1 9 9 4: 4 5 – 4 9) i n w hi c h t h e massacr e of J e wis h pe o ple, i nsi n u ati o ns of Blac k pe o ple as a n i nf eri or race a n d atte m pts t o ri dic ul e y o u n g w o m e n ar e pri maril y m aterial f or e ntertai n m e nt. C har a cteristi c all y f or racist o nli n e c o m m u nities ( Ni k u n e n, 2 0 1 5), ir o n y w or ks her e as a g ui di n g s e nsi bilit y of disc o urs e, a n d t her ef ore, as a n effe cti v e t o ol t h at bi n ds t h e c o m m u nit y t o g et h er. S a dl y, j u d gi n g fr o m Pe w Die Pie’s risi n g p o p ularit y, pr o m oti o n of his n e w st yle was well recei v e d a m o n g his tar g et a u die nce. T he e x a m ple of Pe w Die Pie d e m o nstr ates h o w Y o u T u b e n e oli b er alist p olicies a n d pr a cti c es l e a d t o a sit uati o n i n w hic h t h e li mits of acc e pta ble c o nte nt e ve nt u all y b e c o m e a pri vat e matter, a q u esti o n of i n di vi d u al ca p a cit y of ‘ u n dersta n di n g s atir e’ a n d willi n g n ess t o be p art of ( def a ult W hite) ‘c o m m u nit y’ r at her t ha n a n ar e a f or p olitical disc ussi o n or s h are d s oci al r es p o nsi bilit y. Racis m is s uc c essf ull y c o m m o difi e d a n d ‘ pri vatise d’ t o t h e a u die nce t h at w or ks at t h e s a me ti me as a t h or o u g hl y a n al ys e d c o ns u m er gr o u p a n d a n ‘i nti m ate’ c o m m u nit y of li k emi n d e d p e o ple ar o u n d t he cr e at or. 8 Co nverge nce: T he I nter n atio n al Jo ur n al of Rese arc h i nt o Ne w Me di a Tec h n ol ogies X X( X) P oliti c al c orr e ct n ess, e q u alit y of o p p o rt u niti es a n d ri g ht t o ‘i r o ni c r a cis m’ i n t h e n a m e of t h e f r e e s p e e c h I n ‘I n m y d ef e ns e’ ( P e w Die Pie, 2 0 1 7c), P e w Die Pi e sai d: I t hi n k b ei n g a p olitical c orr ect ness p olic e is ess e nti all y j ust g oi n g t o f uc k us all o ver. A n d t his ye ar 2 0 1 7, I d eci de d, I’ m ta ki n g a sta n ce ba c k, I’ m g o n n a b e tr u e t o m yself, I wa n na d o t he se ns e of h u m o ur t h at I e nj o y. A n d t his is t h e price f or it. I’ m fi n e wit h t h at. T his vi de o r eall y has n o p oi nt. A n d y o u g u ys ...A n d I’ m ki n d of pr ea c hi n g t o t he c h oir ri g ht n o w. I j ust wa n na s a y t h a n ks f or s eei n g t hr o u g h t h e b ulls hit. I s ee t h e c o m m e nts, I s e e t h at y o u g u ys see t he b ulls hit a n d criticize, j ust li k e I’ m d oi n g ri g ht n o w. A n d I t hi n k t hat’s ... I t hi n k t h at’s prett y c o ol. T ha n k y o u, I a p pr eciate t h at [ bl o ws a kiss]. P olitical c orrect ness is a c o nce pt t hat has g ai ne d m or e pr o mi ne n c e i n A n gl oA merica n c ult ur e i n re ce nt d ec a des. D uri n g t h e 1 9 8 0s, t he p olitic al b attl e ar o u n d fr ee d o m of s p e ec h, p olitic al c orr ect ness a n d h at e s pe e c h s pr ea d fr o m a c a d e mi a t o n ati o n al p u bli c c o n vers ati o n. A str o n g c o nser v ati v e m o ve me nt rallie d a g ai nst a n y ki n d of restricti o n a gai nst h ate s p e e c h cl ai mi n g t h at t he y w o ul d vi olat e t h e U S C o nstit uti o n. T he c o nser v ati v e i nter pr etati o n of ‘ p olitical c orr e ct ness’ bec a me wi d es pre a d i n t h e m ai nstr e a m me dia s o t hat i n t h e 1 9 9 0s, n e ws p a p ers w ere fille d wit h c o mi c st ories d es cri bi n g t he a bs ur dities of p oliti c al c orr ect n ess as well as t h e o v erse nsiti vit y a n d estr a n g e m e nt of its pr o p o ne nts fr o m t h e e v er y d a y c o n c er ns of t h e g e n er al A m eri c a n p u bli c ( B atc his, 2 0 1 6: 4 5 – 4 6). Ver y rece ntl y, w h e n D o n al d Tr u m p m a d e his s u c c essf ul ca m p ai g n t o bec o me presi d e nt, h e p o p ularis e d a n e x pr essi o n of ‘ p oliti c al i nc orrect ness’ t h at i n his a n d his s u p p orter’s r h et ori c ca me t o si g nif y b ol d n ess t o sa y t h e ‘tr ut h’ a n d i g n ore t he li mits of ‘ p olitical c orr e ct n ess’ ( S haf er, 2 0 1 7). T he I nter net a n d dis c ussi o ns c o n c er ni n g it ha ve act e d as a n i m p ort a nt ve n ue f or t he p olitical battle r e g ar di n g fre e d o m of s peec h a n d p oliti c al c orrect n ess. As a n ess e nti al part of I nter net c ult ur e, hac k ers ha ve et hicall y b as e d t heir a cti o ns o n li ber alist val u es of fr e e d o m, free s p e e c h, pri v ac y, t he i n di vi d ual a n d merit o crac y. F urt h er m or e, h a c k er c ult ur e h as e ntaile d t he c o nce pt t hat tec h n ol o g y w as m e a nt t o b e pla y e d wit h a n d s h o ul d n ot be r estricte d i n a n y wa y. I n practic e, t his als o m e a nt tr a ns gr essi v e pr a n ks ( C ole m a n a n d G ol u b, 2 0 0 8; P hili ps, 2 0 1 5: 1 2 1 – 1 2 2). H a c k er c ult ur e’s i d eas of u nr estri ct e d i n di vi d ual e x pr essi o n a n d s o me patter ns of t h eir acti vities ha ve als o ser v e d as see ds f or tr olli n g. I n t he sa me v ai n as hac k ers, tr olls c o nsi der a n y f or m of o nli n e ce ns ors hi p, i ncl u di n g m o derati o n, a vi olati o n of fr e e d o m of s p e e c h. F or tr olls, off e n di n g p e o ple ver b all y t o wi n a d e b ate, t o gai n ‘l ul z’ a n d a d mirati o n fr o m t h e c o m m u nit y is s o m et hi n g t h at s h o ul d ha ve n o m oral or le gal r ules w hats o e v er ( P hili ps, 2 0 1 5: 2 7 – 3 6). T h us, tr olls hate ‘ p oliti c al c orr e ct n ess’ a n d s e e it as a n atte m pt t o restrict t h eir ri g ht t o s a y w h ate ver t he y wa nt, offe nsi v e or n ot ( Hi g gi n, 2 0 1 3). O p p ositi o n t o p olitical c orr e ct ness has ne oli ber al r o ots i n t h e se ns e t hat it e ntails a belief i n t h e fair n ess of t h e m ar ket a n d c o m p etiti o n. I n ne oli b eralist t hi n ki n g, t h e state s h o ul d o nl y e ns ure t h at t her e are n o l e g al o bst a cles t o f air c o m p etiti o n, a n d aft er t h at, it is o nl y u p t o a n i n di vi d u al’s merits a n d c a p a bilit y is he/s he is a ble t o s u c c e e d i n c o m petiti o n. T h us, a c c or di n g t o ne oli b eralist i de ol o g y, it w o ul d n ot be f air t o t a ke i nt o a c c o u nt hist oricall y f or me d str uct ural hier arc hies t h at w o ul d affect a n i n di vi d ual’s s uccess si n c e t h at w o ul d r ui n ‘ e q u alit y of o p p ort u nit y’ as fair c o mpetiti o n a m o n g i n di vi d uals ( A ma ble, 2 0 1 1). I n t his disc o urs e, r acist h u m o ur is a c c e pta bl e as l o n g as si milar j o kes ar e tar g et e d at ‘e ver y o n e’. Ra cist h u m o ur is prese nte d as a n e x pr essi o n of free s pee c h a n d li b er alis m, w hil e t h os e w h o d o n ot a cce pt t h at are pr o n o u n c e d ‘illi b er al’. E q ualit y of o p p ort u nit y is pr es e nte d t o ma ke p oliti c al c orr e ct ness u n n e c ess ar y as e v er y o ne c a n s p ea k f or H o k k a 9 B yr ne C ( 2 0 1 7) Ne oli b eralis m as a n o bje ct of p olitical a nal ysis: A n i de ol o g y, a m o d e of re g ulati o n or a g o v er n m e ntalit y? P olic y & P olitics 4 5( 3): 3 4 3 – 3 6 0. C hristi a ns C G, Gl ass er T L, M c Q uail D, et al. ( 2 0 0 9) N or m ati v e T h e ori es of t h e Me di a. J o ur n alis m i n De m o cr atic S ocieties . C hica g o, I L: U ni v ersit y of Illi n ois Pr ess. Clar ke S ( 2 0 0 5) T h e ne oli ber al t he or y of s o ci et y. I n: Sa a dFil h o A a n d J o h nst o n D ( e ds), N e oli b er alis m: A Criti c al R e a d er . L o n d o n, U K: Pl ut o Pr ess, p p. 5 0 – 5 9. C o h e n D ( 2 0 1 1) Y o u T u be’s g ot ne xt (a n d ne xt n e w n et w or ks). A d We ek , 7 Mar c h. A v aila ble at: htt ps:// w w w. a d w e e k.c o m/ di git al/ y o ut u b e % e 2 % 8 0 % 9 9sg otn e xta n dn e xtn e wn et w or ks/ ( a c c ess e d 9 D e c e m b er 2 0 1 9). C ole m a n E G a n d G ol u b A ( 2 0 0 8) H ac ker pr actic e: M oral g e nr es a n d c ult ur al arti c ulati o ns of li b er alis m. A nt hr o p ol o gic al T he or y 8( 3): 2 5 5 – 2 7 7. C u n ni n g h a m S, Gr ai g D a n d Sil ver J ( 2 0 1 6) Y o u T u be, m ultic ha n nel net w or ks a n d t h e ac celerate d e v ol uti o n of t h e ne w s cr ee n e c ol o g y. C o n ver g e nce 2 2( 4): 3 7 6 – 3 9 1. Fe a gi n J R ( 2 0 0 6) S yst e mic R acis m . Ne w Y or k a n d L o n d o n: R o utle d g e. Ger h ar ds C ( 2 0 1 7) Pr o d u ct pla c e me nt o n Y o u T u be: A n e x pl orati v e st u d y o n creat ors’ e x p erie nces wit h a d v ertisers. C o n ver g e n ce 2 5( 3): 5 1 6 – 5 3 3. Gilles pie T ( 2 0 1 7) R e g ulati o n of a n d b y pl atf or ms. I n: B ur g ess J, Mar wi c k A E a n d P oell T (e ds), S A G E H a n d b o ok of S o ci al M e di a . L o n d o n, U K: S A G E. p p. 2 5 4 – 2 7 8. Gilr o y P ( 2 0 1 9) A g o nisti c bel o n gi n g: T he b a n alit y of g o o d, t h e “ Alt Ri g ht” a n d t h e n ee d f or s y m pat h y. O p e n C ult ur al St u di es 3: 1 – 1 4. Griffi n A ( 2 0 1 6) P e w Die Pi e: Y o u T u be c o ul d b e ‘ killi n g’ m y c h a n n el be ca us e I’ m w hite, s o I’ll d elete it. T he I n d e pe n de nt, 5 De ce m ber. A v aila bl e at htt ps:// w w w.i n d e pe n de nt. c o. u k/ ne ws/ p e o ple/ pe w die pi ey o ut u bedelete-ac c o u nt-s u bscri bersa nal yticsw hit e-lil y-si n g ha 7 4 5 7 1 7 1. ht ml ( ac cesse d 1 Oct o b er 2 0 1 8). Har v e y D ( 2 0 0 5) A Brief Hist or y of Ne oli ber alis m . O xf or d, U K: O xf or d U ni versit y Pr ess. Hi g gi n T ( 2 0 1 3) F CJ1 5 9 / b/l ac k u p: W hat tr olls ca n te ac h us a b o ut r ac e. T he Fi br ec ult ure J o ur n al 1 5 9. A v aila ble at: htt p://t we nt yt w o.fi br ec ult ur ej o ur nal. or g/f cj1 5 9bl ac ku pw h at-tr ollsc a n-t e ac husa b o utra ce/ (a cc ess e d 3 0 J u n e 2 0 2 0). Hill J H ( 2 0 0 9) Ev ery d ay L a n g u a g e of W hit e R a cis m . C hi c h ester, U K: J o h n Wil e y & S o ns. Hillis K, P etit M a n d Jarret K ( 2 0 1 3) G o o gle a n d t h e C ult ure of S e arc h . Ne w Y or k, N Y a n d L o n d o n, U K: R o utle d ge. H o u M ( 2 0 1 8) S o cial me di a cele brit y a n d t h e i nstit uti o n aliz ati o n of Y o u T u b e. C o nv er ge n c e: e I nter n ati o n al J o ur n al o Res e ar c h i nt o N e w M e di a T e c h n ol o gi es 2 5( 3): 5 3 4 – 5 5 3. H utc h e o n L ( 1 9 9 4) Ir o n y’s E d g e. T he T he or y a n d P olitics of Ir o n y. L o n d o n, U K: R o utl e d g e. J a k u b o wi c h A ( 2 0 1 9) Alt _ Ri g ht W hite Lite: Tr olli n g, h at e s p e e c h a n d c y b er r a cis m o n s o ci al m e di a. C os m o p olit a n Civil S ocieti es 9( 3): 4 1 – 6 0. Jersl e v A ( 2 0 1 6) I n t h e ti m e of t he micr ocele brit y. C el e brific ati o n a n d t he Y o u T u ber Z oella. I nt er n ati o n al J o ur n al of C o m m u nic ati o n 1 0: 5 2 3 3 – 5 2 5 1. K u m ar S ( 2 0 1 9) T he al g orit h mic da nc e: Y o u T u be’s A d p o cal y pse a n d t he gate k ee pi n g of c ult ur al c o nte nt o n di git al pl atf or ms. I nter n et P olic y Revie w 8( 2): 1 – 2 1. Le ar n wit h t h e Y o u T u be Creat or Ac a d e m y. A v aila ble at: htt ps://s u p p ort. g o o gle.c o m/ y o ut u be/a ns w er/ 2 8 5 4 3 1 9? hl ¼ e n ( ac cesse d 9 De ce m b er 2 0 1 9). L e vi n S ( 2 0 1 7) G o o gl e t o hir e t h o us a n ds of m o d er at ors aft er o utcr y o v er Y o u T u b e a b us e vi de os. T h e Guardian , De ce m ber 5. A vaila ble at: htt ps:// w w w.t he g uar dia n. c o m/t ec h n ol o g y/ 2 0 1 7/ de c/ 0 4/ g o o gley o u t u b ehirem o d er at orsc hil d-a b usevi de os (a cc ess e d 9 D ec e m b er 2 0 1 9). Le wis R ( 2 0 1 8) Alt er n ative I nfl ue nc e: Br o a d c asti n g t he Re acti o n ary Ri g ht o n Y o u T u be . D ata & S ociet y Res earc h I nstit ut e. A vail a ble at: htt ps:// dat as o ciet y. n et/ o ut p ut/alt er n ati v e-i nfl u e nc e/ (ac cesse d 9 D ec e mber 2 0 1 9). L o b at o R ( 2 0 1 6) T h e c ult ur al l o gi c of di git al i nter m e diaries: Y o u T u be m ultic ha n nel net w or ks. C o n ver g e nc e 22(4): 348–360. 1 6 Co nverge nce: T he I nter n atio n al Jo ur n al of Rese arc h i nt o Ne w Me di a Tec h n ol ogies X X( X) L or e n z T ( 2 0 1 9) T he re al diff ere nc e b et we e n creat ors a n d i nfl ue n cers. T he Atl a nti c , 3 1 Ma y. A vail a ble at: htt ps:// w w w.t h e atl a nti c. c o m/t e c h n ol o g y/ ar c hi v e/ 2 0 1 9/ 0 5/ h o wcr e at orsb e c a m e-i nfl u e n c ers/ 5 9 0 7 2 5/ (a ccess e d 9 D ec e m b er 2 0 1 9). Mar wi c k A E ( 2 0 1 3) St at us U p d ate. C ele brit y, P u blicit y, a n d Br a n di n g i n t h e S o ci al M e di a A ge . N e w H a v e n, C T: Yale U ni v ersit y Press. Mata m or osF er n a n dez A ( 2 0 1 7) Pl atf or me d r acis m: T he m e diati o n a n d circ ul ati o n of a n A ustralia n r ac ebas e d c o ntr o v ers y o n T witter, F ace b o o k a n d Y o u T u be. I nf or m ati o n, C o m m u nic ati o n & S ociety 2 0( 6): 930–946. Matsa kis L ( 2 0 1 8) Y o u T u be d o es n’t k n o w w here its o w n li ne is. Wire d , 3 Fe br u ar y. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. wir e d. c o m/st or y/ y o ut u be-c o nte ntm o d er ati o n-i nc o nsiste nt/ ( ac cesse d 9 Dec e m b er 2 0 1 9). Na p oli P M ( 1 9 9 9) T he mar k et pla ce of i de as meta p h or i n c o m m u ni c ati o ns r e g ulati o n. J o ur n al of C o m m u nication 49(4): 151–169. Ni k u n e n K ( 2 0 1 5) P olitics of ir o n y as e m er gi n g se nsi bilit y of a nti-i m mi gr a nt de bate. I n: A n dr easse n R a n d Vit us K ( e ds), Affecti vity a n d R ac e: St u di es Fr o m N or dic C o ntexts . L o n d o n, U K: R o utle d ge, p p. 2 1 – 4 2. Ortiz S M ( 2 0 1 9) T h e m e a ni n gs of ra cist a n d s e xist tr as h tal k f or me n of c ol or: A c ult ur al s o ci ol o gic al a p pr oac h t o st u d yi n g ga mi n g c ult ur e. N e w M e di a & S oci et y 2 1( 4): 8 7 9 – 8 9 4. P a ul K ( 2 0 1 9) Y o u T u b er P e w Die Pie scr a ps $ 5 0, 0 0 0 pl e d ge t o a ntihat e gr o u p aft er fa n ba c kl as h. T he G u ar di a n , 1 2 Se pte m b er. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w.t he g uar dia n.c o m/t ec h n ol o g y/ 2 0 1 9/s e p/ 1 2/ y o ut u b epe w die pied o nati o na ntid ef a m ati o n-lea g ue ( ac cesse d 9 De ce m b er 2 0 1 9). Per ez R ( 2 0 1 7) R acis m wit h o ut hatre d? R acist h u m o ur a n d t h e m yt h of ‘ c ol o urbli n d ness’. S oci ol o gic al Pers p ecti ves 6 0( 5): 9 5 6 – 9 7 4. Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 6a) Deleti n g m y c h a n n el at 5 0 milli o n. A v aila ble at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e.c o m/ w atc h ? v ¼ 6_ 4 U o o _ 7 Y 4 ( ac cesse d 1 Oct o b er 2 0 1 8). Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 6 b) I’ m r a cist. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u be. c o m/ w at c h? v ¼ Q G X 2 mJ 6I b S 0 &t ¼ 3 2 6s (a ccess e d 1 O ct o b er 2 0 1 8). Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 7a) H o w A b o ut T hat . .. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w atc h ? v ¼ s T C Df E _s K n M (a ccess e d 1 O ct o b er 2 0 1 8). Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 7 b) I’ M B A N N E D. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w atc h ? v ¼ 6 1 6 8 6 c q 6s 7c &t ¼ 1 1 7s (a ccess e d 1 O ct o b er 2 0 1 8). P e w Di e Pi e ( 2 0 1 7 c) I n m y def e nse. A v ail a bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w atc h ? v ¼ 9J d 1 b H V Y V 2 M & t¼ 1 1 3s ( ac cesse d 1 Oct o b er 2 0 1 8). Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 7 d) M y r es p o nse. Ori gi nall y p u blis he d i n 1 6 F e br uar y 2 0 1 7 N o w r e m o ve d fr o m Y o u T u be. P e w Di e Pi e ( 2 0 1 8 a) Bit c h l as a g n a. A v ail a b l e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w at c h ? v¼ 6 D hR L _ _ u N 4 (a ccess e d 9 D ec e m b er 2 0 1 9). P e w Di e Pi e ( 2 0 1 8 b) B O O K R E VI E W. A v ail a bl e a t: htt ps:// w w w. y o utu b e. c o m/ w at c h ? v ¼ o Z _ qi Y c 1 3 3 U (a ccess e d 9 D ec e m b er 2 0 1 9). Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 8 c) O k a y, T his Is E pic ( B o n us M e m e ft. Be n S h a pir o) [ M E M E R E VI E W]. A v ail a bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u be.c o m/ w atc h ? v ¼ H B D N b p W S U x 8 ( ac cesse d 9 De ce m ber 2 0 1 9) P e w Di e Pi e ( 2 0 1 9 a) C o n gr at ul ati o ns. A v ail a b l e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w at c h ? v¼ 6 D hR L _ _ u N 4 (a ccess e d 9 D ec e m b er 2 0 1 9). Pe w Die Pi e ( 2 0 1 9 b) E n di n g t h e S u bscri be t o Pe w Di e Pie Me me. A vaila ble at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ watc h? v ¼ A h 5 M Y G Q B Y R o &f eat ure ¼ y o ut u. b e ( ac cesse d 9 De ce m b er 2 0 1 9). Pe w Di e Pie ( 2 0 1 9 c) U n b o xi n g 1 0 0 MI L Y o u T u b e A w ar d. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u be.c o m/ w atc h? v ¼ D Yles H O a P k Y (a cc ess e d 9 D ec e m b er 2 0 1 9). P hili ps W ( 2 0 1 5) T his Is W h y We C a n’t H a v e Nic e T hi n gs: M a p pi n g t h e Rel ati o ns hi p Bet w e e n O nli ne Tr olli n g a n d M ai nstr e a m C ult ur e . C a m bri d ge, M A: MI T Pr ess. P osti g o H ( 2 0 1 6) T he s oci o-te c h nic al arc hite ct ur e of di gital l a b or: C o n v erti n g pla y i nt o Y o u T u b e m o n e y. Ne w M e di a & S oci et y 1 8( 2): 3 3 2 – 3 4 9. Ra u n T ( 2 0 1 8) C a pitalizi n g i nti m ac y: N e w s u bc ult ur al f or ms of micr o c el e brit y strat e gies a n d aff ecti ve la b o ur o n Y o u T u be. C o n ver g e nce 2 4( 1): 9 9 – 1 1 3. H o k k a 1 7 Rie der B, Mata m or osF er n a n dez A a n d C or o mi na O ( 2 0 1 8) Fr o m r a n ki n g al g orit h ms t o ‘r a n ki n g c ult ures’: I n v esti gati n g t h e m o d ulati o n of visi bilit y i n Y o u T u b e se arc h res ults. C o n ver g e nce 2 4( 1): 5 0 – 6 8. R os e N S ( 1 9 9 9) P o w ers of Fr e e d o m: R efr a mi n g P olitic al T h o u g ht . C a m bri d g e: C a m bri d g e U ni v ersit y Pr ess. Salter M ( 2 0 1 8) Fr o m ge e k m asc uli nit y t o G a m er g ate: T he t ec h n ol o gi cal r ati o n alit y of o nli ne a b use. Cri m e Me di a C ult ure 14(2): 247–264. Sc ol er e L, Pr uc h nie ws ka U a n d D uff y B E ( 2 0 1 8) C o nstr ucti n g t he platf or m-s pe cific s elfbra n d: T h e la b or of s o ci al me dia pr o m oti o n. S o ci al M e di a þ S o ciety 2 0 1 8: 1 – 1 1. Se k h ose M ( 2 0 1 9) P e w Die Pie vs TSeri es: Y o u T u ber p ulls diss vi de os after D el hi H C or d er. Hi n d ust a n Ti m es 1 1 A pril. A v ail a bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. hi n d usta nti m es. c o m/te c h/ p e w di e pi evs-t-seri esy o ut u b er-sdissvi d e osbl o c k e d-i n-i n di aaft erd el hih cor d er/st or yus m c P 6 2 q T y e m 6 b x 6 u k bf v M. ht ml ( a c c ess e d 9 De ce m b er 2 0 1 9). Se nft T ( 2 0 1 3) Micr ocele brit y a n d t he br a n de d s elf. I n: Hartl e y J, B ur g ess J a n d Br u ns A (e ds), A Co mpanion t o Ne w M e di a Dy n a mi cs. C hic h ester, U K: Wil e yBla c k well, p p. 3 4 6 – 3 5 4. S h afer J G ( 2 0 1 7) D o n al d Tr u m p’s “ p olitical i nc orr ect ness”: N e oli b eralis m as fr o ntsta g e r acis m o n s ocial me di a. S o ci al M e di a þ S o ciety 3( 3): 1 – 1 0. Sla gl e M ( 2 0 0 9) A n et hic al e x pl orati o n of fr ee e x pr essi o n a n d t h e pr o ble m of h ate s pe ec h. J o ur n al of M ass Me di a Et hics 2 4( 4): 2 3 8 – 2 5 0. S nic k ars P a n d V o n d er a u P ( 2 0 0 9) I ntr o d u cti o n. I n: S nic kars P a n d V o n d er a u P (e ds), Y o u T u be Re a d er . St o c k h ol m, S w e de n: Nati o nal Li br ar y of S we de n, p p. 9 – 2 2. S ol o m o n F ( 2 0 1 7) P e w Die Pie’s ‘ A ntiS e mitic Vi de o’ is still o n his Y o u T u be c ha n nel. Ti me , 1 4 Fe br u ar y. A v ail a bl e at: htt p://ti m e. c o m/ 4 6 7 1 4 2 9/ p e w di e pi edis n e yy o ut u b e - a ntis e mitis m ( ac c ess e d 1 O ct o b er 2 0 1 8). Stei n L ( 2 0 0 6) S pe ec h Ri g hts i n A m eric a. T he First A m e n d me nt, D e m ocr a cy, a n d t he Me di a . Ur b a na a n d C hica g o: U ni versit y of Illi n ois Pr ess. Str eeter T ( 2 0 1 1) T he Net Eff ect: R o m a nti cis m, C a pit alis m, a n d t h e I nter n et . N e w Y or k, N Y: N Y U Press. T o pi n ka RJ ( 2 0 1 8) P olitic all y i nc orr ect p arti ci pat or y m e dia: Racist nati o nalis m o n r/I m G oi n g T o H ell F or T his. Ne w M e di a & S oci et y 2 0( 5): 2 0 5 0 – 2 0 6 9. T ur ner F ( 2 0 0 6) Fr o m C o u nt erc ult ur e t o Cy ber c ult ure: Ste w art Br a n d, t he W h ole E art h Net w or k, a n d t h e Rise of Di git al Ut o pi a nis m . C hica g o, I L: T h e U ni versit y of C hi ca g o Press. U n k n o w n writ er ( 2 0 1 7) Y o u T u b e c a ncels series wit h P e w Die Pie o ver a ntiS e mitic re m ar ks. T h e Iris h Ti mes , 1 4 Fe br u ar y. A v aila bl e at: htt ps:// w w w.iris hti m es.c o m/ b usi ness/ me di aa n dm ar k eti n g/ y o ut u b e-ca n celsserieswit hp e w di e pieo vera nti-s e mitic-r e m ar ks1. 2 9 7 5 5 9 4 (a cc ess e d 1 O ct o ber 2 0 1 8). Va n Dij k T A ( 2 0 0 9) M ulti disci pli nar y C D A: A ple a f or di versit y. I n: W o da k R a n d M e yer M ( e ds), M et h o ds of Critic al Dis c o urs e A n alysis . L o n d o n, U K: S A G E. p p. 9 5 – 1 2 0. We a v er S ( 2 0 1 3) A r h et oric al disc o urse a n al ysis of o nli ne a ntiM usli m a n d a ntiSe mitic j o kes. Et h nic a n d R a ci al St u di es 3 6( 3): 4 8 3 – 4 9 9. Y o u T u be’s A d vertiserFrie n dl y C o nte nt G ui deli n es ( A F) ( 2 0 1 8) A vaila bl e at: htt ps://s u p p ort. g o o gle. c o m/ youtube/ans wer/6162278?hl¼ e n &r ef _t o pi c ¼ 1 1 2 1 3 1 7 (ac cesse d 1 Oct o b er 2 0 1 8). Y o u T u be’s C o m m u nit y G ui deli nes ( C G). A vail a ble at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u be. c o m/ yt/a b o ut/ p oli ci es/ #c o m m u nit yg ui deli n es ( ac cesse d 1 Oct o ber 2 0 1 8). Y o u T u be’s C o m m u nit y G ui deli nes o n H ate S pe ec h ( H S). A v aila bl e at: htt ps://s u p p ort. g o o gl e. c o m/ y o ut u be/ a ns w er/ 2 8 0 1 9 3 9? hl ¼ e n ( ac c esse d 1 O ct o ber 2 0 1 8). Y o u T u b e C o n gr at ul at es P e w Die Pi e f or 1 0 0 Milli o n S u b s cri b ers. A v aila ble at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ w atc h ? v ¼ z F X D zs 0Ii K w (a c c ess e d 9 Dec e m b er 2 0 1 9). Ori gi n all y p u blis h e d o n T witt er 2 4 A u g ust 2 0 1 9. Y o u T u be Cr eat ors A ca d e m y. L ess o n: M a ki n g a d vertis er frie n dl y c o nte nt. A vail a ble at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u be. c o m/ w at c h ? v = p k v uf 0 K o 0 0 8 ( ac cesse d 3 0 J u ne 2 0 2 0). Y o u T u be Cre at ors A ca d e m y Mai n Site ( C A). A vaila bl e at: htt ps://creat orac a de m y. y o ut u be. c o m/ p a ge/c o urse/ fa ns ? hl¼ e n (ac cesse d 1 Oct o b er 2 0 1 8). Y o u T u be’s Missi o n. A v ail a bl e at: htt ps:// w w w. y o ut u b e. c o m/ yt/a b o ut/ (a ccess e d 1 Oct o ber 2 0 1 8). 1 8 Co nverge nce: T he I nter n atio n al Jo ur n al of Rese arc h i nt o Ne w Me di a Tec h n ol ogies X X( X) Y o u T u be Part ner Pr o gra m me o v er vie w a n d eli gi bilit y ( P P) ( 2 0 1 8) A vaila ble at: htt ps://s u p p ort. g o o gle. c o m/ y o ut u be/ a ns w er/ 7 2 8 5 1 (a ccess e d 1 Oct o ber 2 0 1 8). Y o u T u be 5 Y ear/ Hist or y of M o neti zati o n at Y o u T u be. A vail a ble at: htt ps://sit es. g o o gl e. c o m/a/ pressat g o o gle. c o m/ y o ut u be 5 ye ar/ h o me/ hist or yofm o neti zati o naty o ut u be (ac cesse d 9 De ce m b er 2 0 1 9). A ut h or bi o g r a p h y Je n ni H o k k a h as wi de res earc h e x p ertise i n t h e fiel d of me dia st u di es fr o m m ulti platf or m pr o d u cti o ns t o t he cir c ulati o n of r a cis m o n s o cial m e di a. H er c urr e nt r ese arc h i nt erests i ncl u de p olitics of bel o n gi n g, affecti vit y, a n d d atafic ati o n. Pr e vi o usl y s h e h as p u blis h e d se veral articl es o n s o cial m e dia a n d tele visi o n i n j o ur n als s u c h as N e w M e di a & S o ci et y, E ur o p e a n J o ur n al of C o m m u ni c ati o n a n d I nt er n ati o n al J o ur n al of Di git al Tele visi o n. H o k k a 1 9