Exploring the conditions of English language education through the experience of Eritrean Sophomore English language learners and teachers

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Exploring the conditions of English language education through the experience of Eritrean Sophomore English language learners and teachers © 2021 Mussie Tewelde, Josephine Moate, Hanna Posti-Ahokas Published version Tewelde, Mussie; Moate, Josephine; Posti-Ahokas, Hanna Tewelde, M., Moate, J., & Posti-Ahokas, H. (2023). Exploring the conditions of English language education through the experience of Eritrean Sophomore English language learners and teachers. Apples : Journal of Applied Language Studies, 17(1), 104-123. https://doi.org/10.47862/apples.120265 2023 ________ Corresponding author’s email: [email protected] eISSN: 1457-9863 Publisher: University of Jyväskylä, Language Campus © 2023: The authors https://apples.journal.fi https://doi.org/10.47862/apples.120265 Exploring the conditions of English language education through the experience of Eritrean Sophomore English language learners and teachers: An ecological perspective Mussie Tewelde, University of Jyväskylä, Finland Josephine Moate, University of Jyväskylä, Finland Hanna Posti-Ahokas, University of Helsinki, Finland This study addresses the little studied context of English language education in Eritrea. Despite the teaching of English as a subject and the forward-looking mother tongue policy implemented in Eritrean elementary education, Eritrean students struggle to cope with English as the medium of instruction from the start of jun ior school to the end of tertiary education. This qualitative study analyses sixteen sophomore student interviews and six teacher interviews to critically explore the conditions of English language education in Eritrea. Using an ecological perspective, the findings from this study highlight how the affective, didactic, study and linguistic conditions interrelate with one another to form the characteristic features of the English language education ecosystem and provide insights into the different ways participants within this ecosystem respond to these conditions. The aim of this study is to better understand what supports and hinders students’ language development in order to be able to support the reformation and transformation of English language education in Eritrea. Keywords: English language education, ecological perspective, individual environment relationship, environmental conditions 1 Introduction Language as a social practice plays a profound role in the socialization of individuals, communities, societies, and nations through the building of relationships and sharing of cultural understanding across time and space (Ochs & Schieffelin, 2017). Language socialization acknowledges the importance of language as the mediator of meaning and its formative role in introducing – Apples – Journal of Applied Language Studies Vol. 17, 1, 2023, 104 - 123 M. Tewelde, J. Moate &. H. Posti-Ahokas 105 socializing – newcomers to their place and potential within the immediate and the international community (Friedman, 2021). Moreover, while a significant body of research has investigated language socialization in first and second language environments, less research has been conducted in English as a foreign language (EFL) in multilingual settings. In many African countries including Eritrea, multilingualism has a central position in language teaching (Turnbull, 2018) yet the nature of language discourses and preferences in classroom practices between English medium education (EME) that refers to English as the medium of instruction (MoI) where it is not the mother tongue of the learners, and mother tongue education (MTE) in schools is an unresolved issue (Ansah, 2014). EME is often preferred (Mohr & Ochieng, 2017) and has the socio-geopolitical alignment of nationwide elites and being seen as the linguistic means of achieving global citizenship (Trudell, 2016) and attaining economic success (Obondo, 2007). Due to the landscape of English language hegemony, many African countries consider English as a resource and continue to invest and promote EME as a shortcut to a high level of competency in English (Kedzierski, 2016) though it lacks cultural grounds. English is simply confined within classrooms with little access outside the classroom (Trudell & Area, 2008). This might have a disempowering effect on teaching and learning because students do not have sufficient ability in English to achieve grade-appropriate subject knowledge (Clegg & Simpson, 2016). As English plays such a dominant role as the medium of instruction (MoI) in so many different educational systems, it is important to understand how the conditions of different environments inform the language learning experiences of students. This study uses an ecological perspective to explore the conditions of English language education (ELE), that is how students learn English at different levels of education, in Eritrea. Eritrea, in the Horn of Africa, comprises diverse landscapes, peoples and cultures with nine ethnic groups living in the highlands and lowlands plains. Languages coexist in this multilingual nation with overlapping, heightened and complex socio-cultural, linguistic, and pedagogical diversities reflecting the mosaic nature of the country (Pollera 1996). As part of this mosaic (see Figure 1), rather than recognizing official languages (Asfaha et al., 2008), Eritrea follows an ‘all languages are equal’ policy (Negash, 1999, State of Eritrea, 1997) allowing for the presence of multiple languages within society and education (see Figure 2). However, ethnic languages are rarely used in government offices, workplaces or beyond elementary schools with Tigrigna used as a formal function in public offices, English being the working language of higher public offices and institutions of higher education and Arabic being the preferred medium of communication for some Eritreans due to religious and cultural affinities (Mohammad, 2016; Hailemariam et al., 1999). This multiplicity of languages is also reflected in the Eritrean educational system. 106 Apples – Journal of Applied Language Studies Figure 1. The mosaic of languages and ethnic groups in Eritrea, Tron9698, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons According to their demographic share, the Semitic languages Tigrinya and Tigre use Ge’ez script; the Nilo-Saharan languages Kunama and Nara, the Cushitic (Afro-Asiatic) Afar, Saho, Blin and Hedareb use Latin script and the Rashaida use Arabic script. (Asfaha et al., 2008, Bereketeab, 2010). 1.2 The Languages of education in Eritrea The Eritrean educational system includes pre-school (2 years; learners age: 4-5 years), elementary school (5 years; 6-10 years old), junior school (3 years; 11-13 years old), secondary school (4 years; 14-17 years old) and tertiary education (4-5 years) (Ministry of Education (MoE), 2016b). The MoI for education in Eritrea has long been a critical consideration. During the Italian period (1882-1941), education was provided in Italian for a small proportion of the population up to grade 4. During the British period (1941-52) the number of years in school were extended, Tigrigna and Arabic were the mediums of instruction (MoI) in elementary school depending on the locality with English taught as a subject from grade 1 until it became the MoI in junior school. This set-up continued during the Federal period (1952-61). Under Ethiopian governance (1961-1991), the MoI in elementary school was Amharic with English taught as a subject from grade 1 and the MoI from junior education onwards. Today Eritrea maintains a mother tongue (MT) policy for elementary education with English taught as a subject from grade 1. This multilingual policy is based on a pluralist approach to the language of education (Hailemariam, 2002; Asfaha & Sjaak, 2011) and the understanding that when children use their mother tongue (MT) throughout elementary education, they can quickly learn another language as the cognitive and meta-linguistic foundations have already been laid (Ball, 2010; Thompson & Junkyu, 2012). While this policy accommodates the socio-cultural and linguistic identities of students, how to prioritize the patterns of language learning starting from K1 to 12 grade is yet to be established. In practice Tigrinya has become a de facto MoI, but this does not serve the needs of all students (Asfaha, 2013; Mohammad, 2016), moreover, the switch to English as the MoI in junior school is demanding for both students and teachers. Nevertheless, ELE is part of formal education in Eritrea throughout junior, secondary and tertiary education. M. Tewelde, J. Moate &. H. Posti-Ahokas 107 Over the years, initiatives have sought to promote students’ English skills. In 1993, an Eritrea-UK collaboration promoted a learner-centered communicative approach to ELE. This project aimed to improve “teacher effectiveness at all levels, the quality of and access to, textbooks and other instructional materials, the effectiveness of English language examinations … and better indicators of ability…” (MoE, 1993, p.1). Despite the multilingual policy and the aims of the Eritrean National Curriculum Framework (MoE, 2008) to ensure that learners develop proficiency in English and operate at sufficient levels of competency to enable Eritrea to play its full part in the global community (EIT, 2015), students often struggle to attain mastery of English. The school location (rural and urban) and type (public 91.5%, private 8.5%) in Eritrea can impact students’ language proficiency significantly. Public schools are administered by the Ministry of Education and private schools administered by religious missionaries and domestic and foreign community schools (MoE, 2016a). Generally, more urban schools have better quality teachers and resources than rural ones. Private schools provide a better education than public schools in terms of teacher quality, resources, school management, and parental involvement (Benveniste et al., 2013). The reasons for students’ low English proficiency seem to be the lack of basic learning and teaching materials, shortage of qualified teachers, and the low proficiency of teachers, insufficient resources, unconducive school environment, lack of motivation and commitment on the part of teachers and students (Asfaha 2009; Rena, 2007). To overcome the shortage of English teachers, the Ministry of Education has employed non-English language graduates from various colleges. Idris et al. (2017) argue that the deployment of graduates without teacher education creates further resentment towards teaching and learning in schools despite the good intentions. Unsurprisingly, under these conditions, student achievement remains low and the struggle to master English continues. In 2001, a reading survey in eight languages and English indicated that children who completed grade 3 were reading at grade 1 level and English reading results were low across all grade levels in the country (MoE, 2002). Moreover, the Monitoring Learning Achievement project (MoE, 2009) reported that primary students studying in a MT with a shorter written history performed poorly in language learning. The national educational policy (MoE, 2011) highlights the need for empowering teachers, enhancing their status, motivation and professionalism as well as developing curriculum that is appropriate to the learning needs of children and relates the context of the Eritrean socio-economic needs. As a number of years have passed since these reports and as language proficiency has significant ramifications for overall educational achievement, there is a clear need to examine the current and underlying conditions for ELE in Eritrea. Responding to this need, this study uses an ecological perspective to explore the conditions of ELE in Eritrea from the perspective of college students and their teachers. 108 Apples – Journal of Applied Language Studies 2 Theoretical background 2.1 An ecological perspective on language education To be proficient in a language means to be able to use a language, to understand meaning shared and constructed through the language, and to “display creative and critical thinking through the language” (Kabilan, 2000, p. 1). Although students can follow various language learning pathways to develop FL proficiency, the dilemma of students studying English for years, yet failing to develop language proficiency has received considerable research interest (e.g., Trang & Baldauf, 2007). Language researchers continue to seek a better understanding how the conditions of language learning inform language development (e.g., Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2013; Spolsky & Sung, 2015; Oxford, 2016) by focusing on the ongoing negotiation between the individual and the environment in the development of shared ecosystem (e.g., van Lier, 2010). The ecosystem is the basic brick of ecology (Gignoux et al., 2011) that consists of a population of individuals living in their environment, and the inter-relationships that obtain between the individuals and the environment as well as between members of the population (Do Couto, 2014). From an ecological perspective, the relationship between individuals and the environment is mutually-constituting. On the one hand, the environment provides opportunities for different kinds of action, that is affordances, and on the other hand, individuals decide how to use these opportunities, in effect reforming the environment (van Lier, 2000; Ochs & Schieffellin, 2017). The interplay between the responses of the individual and the affordances of the environment can promote and inhibit the potential of the overall ecosystem (Guerrettaz & Johnston, 2013) and lead to the formation of recognizable ecosystems (Godfrey & Brown, 2019). To take the example of a seed sown in plastic rather than in soil, the seed will initially grow relying on its own resources as it seeks for further nourishment. As plastic affords minimal nourishment, however, the plant’s growth will be curtailed, and the seed will not attain its full potential. In this example, the plastic represents the environment, the lack of nutrition is a condition of the environment, the initial growth and subsequent demise of the seed represent the response of the individual, and the ecosystem is characterized by the formation of individualenvironment relationship. Through the ongoing interaction, however, the emergent features of an ecosystem begin to develop and habitual ways of participating form (Dewey, 1933). Language socialization paradigms also recognize the nested influence of linguistic and cultural conditions in student development and the bidirectional relationship between individuals and the environment (Ochs & Schieffelin, 2017; Friedman, 2021). In the isolated setting of Eritrea, however, English is “a neutral language without a strong social or political base” (Woldemikael, 2003, p. 123) little used outside classrooms. This research, therefore, draws on an ecological perspective (Steffensen & Kramsch, 2017) to explore the conditions of ELE in Eritrea rather than assume that English belongs to the community. Early examples of ecological approaches in language education research include Strawn’s (1981) conditions for success in language learning and Spolsky’s (e.g., 1989) general conditions. The general conditions include the linguistic basis for second language learning, the significance of the social context and individual factors that affect M. Tewelde, J. Moate &. H. Posti-Ahokas 109 language learning including: the freedom to learn, a genuine need for communication and practice, feedback on one’s language use, the time for learning, attitudes and motivation of the language learner. Language researchers have also used ecological approaches to support observation-in-action in contexts in which language use and language learning are situated (Duff & van Lier, 1997), to revise the theory-practice relationship in pedagogical decision-making (Tudor, 2003), and examine materials in language classrooms (Guerrettaz & Johnston, 2013; Lemieux, 2017) and activity-based curricula (Hahn & Rodriguez-Kaarto, 2015). Ecological perspectives provide tools for understanding how the conditions influence learners’ emotional language experiences like anxiety and resilience in language education (Kasbi & Shirvan, 2017), and for identifying motivational affordances and trajectories of language students (Pham, 2016). Different studies highlight how an ecological perspective is “helpful in capturing holistically the complex processes that take place within learners and between learners and their sociocultural environment” (Ushioda, 2015, p. 48). It is important to note, however, that an educational ecosystem forms through the ongoing interaction of proximal and distal participants (Guerrettaz & Johnston, 2013) within an institutional environment (Godfrey & Brown, 2019). In this study, we examine the conditions of the Eritrean ELE ecosystem based on interviews with students and teachers from two tertiary education colleges. 2.2 Research questions In order to explore the complex conditions of ELE in Eritrea, an important starting point is to recognize the synergistic interrelatedness between the conditions of the environment and the responses of the participants, that is students and teachers of English. This study seeks to explore how the conditions of the environment inform and are formed by participants’ responses to create the ecosystem of ELE in Eritrea. The research questions are: 1) What kinds of conditions are outlined in the college student and teacher interviews? 2) How do these conditions inform the ELE ecosystem in Eritrea through the participants’ perspective? 3 Methodology 3.1 Participants The participants of the study are college students concluding their formal English language studies and teachers from two streams: Natural Science, at the Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT) and Social Sciences, from the Adi-Keih College of Social Sciences. For the purpose of this study, sixteen students and six teachers were selected. The students, aged between 20 and 27 years, were chosen based on their freshman English results with eight high-performing (HP) students (four males and four females) and eight low-performing (LP) students (four males and four females) from each stream. The selected participants represent the sociolinguistic make-up of Eritrean society. The students were selected based on their geographic (region, school location (rural and urban), school type (private 110 Apples – Journal of Applied Language Studies and public), gender, religious, ethnolinguistic identity and sociolinguistic categories (EIT students’ enrollment biodata, 2018). They are from four different Eritrean languages, Afar, Bilen, Tigre and Tigrinya that use Ge’ez and Latin orthography and from Kunama, Nara, Hidarib and Rashaida hardly join the Institutes of Higher Education (Students’ enrollment, 2013- 2019). The student participants are from four ethnic groups and each participant is multilingual (see Table 1) who were selected to provide different perspectives on ELE in Eritrea based on their extensive experience of ELE at school and college levels. The teacher participants were selected due to their extensive experience of working with students as they conclude their formal ELE journeys. Table 1. Background information on participating students Identifier Major Mother tongue Language repertoire HP1 Natural Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English & Arabic HP2 Natural Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, Arabic & English HP3 Social Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English & Arabic HP4 Social Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English & Arabic HP5 Social Science Tigre Tigre, Arabic, Tigrigna & English HP6 Social Science Bilin Amharic, English, Tigrigna, Bilin, French, Italian, Arabic & Geez HP7 Natural Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English & Amharic HP8 Natural Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English, Arabic & Amharic LP1 Natural Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English & Arabic LP2 Natural Science Tigrigna Tigrigna & English LP3 Social Science Tigre Tigre, Tigrigna, English, Arabic & Amharic LP4 Natural Science Afar Afar, Tigrigna & English LP5 Social Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, Arabic & English LP6 Social Science Tigrigna Tigrigna, English & Arabic LP7 Social Science Tigrigna Tigrigna & English LP8 Social Science Tigrigna Tigrigna & English Table 2. Participating English language teacher backgrounds Identifier Gender Teaching Exp – yrs Number of languages T1 M 15 3 T2 M 25 4 T3 M 15 3 T4 M 10 3 T5 F 20 3 T6 M 20 3 The first author conducted pre-interview discussions with the participants and provided detailed information on the purpose of the study and the utility of data for research purposes. Each participant provided signed consent and indicated their understanding of the confidentiality and privacy that refers their participation, voluntarism and information regarding the study (Cohen et al., 2002). Each participant was assigned with an identifier as indicated in Table 1 and Table 2. M. Tewelde, J. Moate &. H. Posti-Ahokas 111 3.2 Instruments Interview data was collected to provide insights into the conditions of ELE in Eritrea based on the “active interactions between two or more people leading to negotiated, contextually based results” (Fontana & Frey, 2000, p. 646). Relatedly, Cohen et al. (2007, p. 29) described that conducting interviews is “a valuable method for exploring the construction and negotiation of meanings in a natural setting”. Additionally, employing interviews allows the participants to “speak in their own voice and express their own thoughts and feelings” (Berg, 2007, p. 96) As little research has been conducted on the conditions of ELE in Eritrea the interview questions were designed to elicit information on the linguistic basis for learning English, the social context of ELE and individual factors that affect ELE. Each interview lasted approximately one hour. The language of the interviews was primarily English, unless participants preferred to use Tigrigna. The recorded data was transcribed and translated resulting in 352 pages, font size 12 and 1.5 line spacing. To manage this extensive dataset, a theory-driven analysis (Tracy, 2019) drawing on the ecological perspective was used to guide the initial coding focusing on the presence of different types of conditions mentioned by the participants. The secondary-level coding continued by organizing the codes into manageable sets by collating together codes from overarching themes: the system, the teachers, the students and the role of language. To further consolidate the predominant themes with the managed dataset, an abductive research approach was an effective tool to ensure findings are grounded within the themes of different entry points (Thompson, 2022). Whilst each theme represents a distinct perspective or role within the ELE ecosystem; it is the interaction between these themes that forms the overall ELE ecosystem (van Lier, 2010). An example of thematizing the data is given in Table 3. Table 3. Thematizing the data Extract First level: Types of conditions Data-driven Second level entry points: Conditions of ELE ecosystem Theory driven Key features of the language education environment Teachers only focused on grammatical rules and skipped writing, speaking and listening practices in the textbook (LP7) Teachers spend time to teaching grammar because school and national examinations mainly focus on the structure of the language …Schools and teachers’ excellence is evaluated on the basis of the students who pass the exams. (T1) Conditions formed in relation to teachers Conditions related to the system Linguistic conditions Imbalanced handling of key skills with emphasis on grammatical accuracy 118 Apples – Journal of Applied Language Studies Another challenging feature of the ELE ecosystem is the perceived low English proficiency of students. This feature is reinforced by the negative perception students have of themselves as students of English, of their teachers and of studying English, as well as the teachers’ negative perception of the students, their limited pedagogical repertoire and limited language capacity. These negative perceptions reinforce one another and create a negative cycle of low expectation and minimal investment. The knock-on and self-reinforcing dynamics are also present in the mismatch between policy and practice. According to the curriculum, teachers should prepare students to develop their English language proficiency, yet minimal teacher preparation leading to limited pedagogical competence in overcrowded classrooms and a high stakes exam-based system unsurprisingly leads to the failure of teachers to provide adequate input, opportunity for practice or balance in the development of language skills, resulting in disillusioned students (Glew, 1998). As with the seed example in the introduction, without a nourishing environment, the initial flourishing of students quickly wilts and seems difficult to revive. Van Lier (2004) highlights emergence as a characteristic feature of an ecosystem. Unfortunately, within the Eritrean ELE ecosystem, emergence appears to be negative, rather than positive or creative, manifestation of the individualenvironment relationship. The worst-case scenario is when a disjuncture is created within the ecosystem, that is, when students feel, and in effect are, lost. The findings suggest a number of reasons why students are lost within ELE. In addition to the negative perceptions outlined earlier, the view that use of the MT is compensation for inadequacy rather than as a bridge to attachment, the use of English as the MoI across the curriculum and the inability of teachers to form pedagogical safety nets all contribute to the gradual diminishment of students as participants in ELE, as illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 4. Losing sight of students in ELE In this example, the imbalance between the four points is even clearer. The didactic and linguistic conditions are dominated by the system, and the student cannot benefit from the presence of either, as illustrated with the shortened arrows. In this scenario, the students are almost irrelevant to the day-to-day activities of ELE, yet the weight of the system still bears down on students. Establishing MTE as the policy in elementary education was intended to promote students’ socio-linguistic identity and to contribute to their educational trajectory (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2009). The findings from this study, however, highlight the importance of ensuring this purposeful, ideological space is open to the students and a stable educational community is able to harness the linguistic potential of multilingual students. While recent research indicates that it is possible to use M. Tewelde, J. Moate &. H. Posti-Ahokas 119 multiple languages as the medium of instruction in a single school revealing appreciation for the complexities of diversity (Asfaha, 2020); this study suggests that the language learning pathways of Eritrean students meander and fail to enrich the language learning experiences of Eritrean students. 6 Conclusion Despite the purposive sampling and extensive dataset underpinning this study, it is nevertheless limited in its scope as the sample size cannot fully represent student and teacher populations. It is also important to note that interview data is not a factual report, but rather a subjective account, of participants’ experiences (Friedman, 2021). These experiences can only offer what the participants are willing to reveal about their perceptions of events and opinions that can be subjective and change over time due to circumstances (Alshenqeeti, 2014). Although the participants were aware of the interviewer’s interest in ELE and motivation for the study, the candid and varied accounts that the participants shared suggests that the English language has played, and continues to play, a significant role in their educational experiences highlighting the value of interviews to explore ‘the lived world from the perspective of the participants involved’ (Richards, 2009, p. 187) and to ascertain different perspectives (Curtis & Anderson, 2021). It is hoped that these findings will shed light on the current conditions of ELE in Eritrea and the need to recognize the disjointedness between language policies and language practices. The findings highlight the need to be aware of the ideological, sociocultural, pedagogical and linguistic identities of local languages to bear successful learning outcomes in EME. In this study the target language was too often considered an obligation rather than a negotiation or input, as commonly described in language education research (e.g., Fisher, 1995). Rather than a positive form of language socialization into their immediate or an international community (Friedman, 2021), ELE in Eritrea too often seems to socialize students out of their immediate environment with little affirmation from a sense of belonging to an international community. By mapping the conditions of Eritrean ELE, it is easier to discern how the conditions of ELE inform language development (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2013; Spolsky & Sung, 2015; Oxford, 2016) and to define what learning is within this ecosystem (van Lier, 2004) and to identify areas for development. Students, and teachers, have no choice but to teach/learn English nor do they have much choice in how to teach/study. Within this environment, learning is conforming to the expectations placed upon students, whereas teaching is controlling – as well as being controlled. Arguably, the limited physical and pedagogical space given to teachers and students could still be used creatively. Teachers could establish peer group mentoring groups, for example, and create different types of student roles even in large classrooms. Students could also use the language in their free time, rather than depend on the classroom conditions, but the control and pressure of the system exerted in the immediate ELE environment seems to inhibit the potential agency of participants. More could be done to create spaces for use of English language in the college campus where students are boarding and living in tight communities. Enhancing access to English language (social) media and literature could provide opportunities to develop proficiency through authentic activities. 120 Apples – Journal of Applied Language Studies This inhibition is also evident in the negative perception of the multilingual repertoires of English language teachers and students. Within this environment, the different MTs are only unofficially present, often considered an interference rather than an affordance, despite the forward-looking MT policy in elementary school (Asfaha & Sjaak, 2011). This negative perception carries over into the metalinguistic considerations of this environment. Even though multilingual learners often have greater metalinguistic awareness that can serve them well when learning another language (Cummins, 2017), the test-driven focus on grammatical accuracy leaves little room for more expansive explorations of language as a concept or languages as resources for further development. More research is needed on the affordances of translanguaging (Garciá et al., 2017) and the creative solutions of low-cost technologies (Walsh et al., 2011), as highlighted by T6. This study indicates that a significant amount of work is required to re-balance and reform, even transform, Eritrean ELE in order to create a positive ELE that maximises rather than inhibits the potential of Eritrean students and teachers. 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