Lameness detection in dairy cows: Part 1. How to distinguish between non-lame and lame cows based on differences in locomotion or behavior

Animals 2015,5, 838-860; doi:10.3390/ani5030387 OPEN ACCESS animals ISSN 2076-2615 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/animals Re iew Lameness De ec ion in Dai y Cows: Pa 1. How o Dis inguish be ween Non-Lame and Lame Cows Based on Di e ences in Locomo ion o Beha io Annelies Van Nu el 1,*, Ing id Zwe aeghe 1, Liesbe Pluym 1, S ephanie Van Weyenbe g 1, Vi i M. Tho up 2,3, Ma i Pas ell 4, Ba Sonck 5,6 and Wou e Saeys 7 1Technology and Food Science Uni –P ecision Li es ock Fa ming; The Ins i u e o Ag icul u al and Fishe ies Resea ch (ILVO), Bu gemees e an Gansbe ghelaan 115 bus 1, 9820 Me elbeke, Belgium; E-Mails: ing id.zwe aeghe @il o. laande en.be (I.Z.); liesbe .pluym@il o. laande en.be (L.P.); s ephanie. anweyenbe g@il o. laande en.be (S.V.W.) 2INRA, UMR 791 Sys emic Modelling o Ruminan Nu i ion, 16 ue Claude Be na d, 75231 Pa is cedex 05, F ance; E-Mail: i[email p o ec ed] 3Ag oPa isTech, UMR 791 Sys emic Modelling o Ruminan Nu i ion, 16 ue Claude Be na d, 75231 Pa is cedex 05, F ance 4Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), G een Technology, Koe ilan ie 5, 00790 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed] 5Animal Sciences Uni , The Ins i u e o Ag icul u al and Fishe ies Resea ch (ILVO), Scheldeweg 68, 9090 Melle, Belgium; E-Mail: ba .sonck@il o. laande en.be 6Depa men o Biosys ems Enginee ing, Facul y o Bioscience Enginee ing, Ghen Uni e si y, Coupu e links 653, 9000 Gen , Belgium 7Di ision Mecha onics, Bios a is ics and Senso s (MeBioS), Depa men o Biosys ems, Ka holieke Uni e si ei Leu en, Kas eelpa k A enbe g 30 bus 2456, 3001 He e lee, Belgium; E-Mail: wou e [email protected] en.be *Au ho o whom co espondence should be add essed; E-Mail: annelies. annu [email p o ec ed]. Academic Edi o : Jon Huxley Recei ed: 29 May 2015 / Accep ed: 18 Augus 2015 / Published: 28 Augus 2015 Simple Summa y: Sco ing ca le o lameness based on changes in locomo ion o beha io is essen ial o a me s o ind and ea hei lame animals. This e iew discusses he no mal locomo ion o cows in o de o de ine abno mal locomo ion due o lameness. I u he mo e p o ides an o e iew o a ious ele an isual locomo ion sco ing sys ems Animals 2015,5839 ha a e cu en ly being used as well as p ac ical conside a ions when assessing lameness on a comme cial a m. Abs ac : Due o i s de imen al e ec on cow wel a e, heal h and p oduc ion, lameness in dai y cows has ecei ed qui e a lo o a en ion in he las ew decades—no only in e ms o p e en ion and ea men o lameness bu also in e ms o de ec ion, as ea ly ea men migh dec ease he numbe o se e ely lame cows in he he ds as well as dec ease he di ec and indi ec cos s associa ed wi h lameness cases. Gene ally, lame cows a e de ec ed by he he dsman, hoo imme o e e ina ian based on abno mal locomo ion, abno mal beha io o he p esence o hoo lesions du ing ou ine imming. In he scien i ic li e a u e, se e al guidelines a e p oposed o de ec lame cows based on isual in e p e a ion o he locomo ion o indi idual cows (i.e., locomo ion sco ing sys ems). Resea che s and he indus y ha e ocused on au oma ing such obse a ions o suppo he a me in inding he lame cows in hei he ds, bu un il now, such au oma ed sys ems ha e a ely been used in comme cial he ds. This e iew s a s wi h he desc ip ion o no mal locomo ion o cows in o de o de ine ‘abno mal’ locomo ion caused by lameness. Cow locomo ion (gai and pos u e) and beha io al ea u es ha change when a cow becomes lame a e desc ibed and linked o he exis ing isual sco ing sys ems. In addi ion, he lack o in o ma ion o no mal cow gai and a clea desc ip ion o ‘abno mal’ gai a e discussed. Finally, he di e en se -ups used du ing locomo ion sco ing and hei in luence on he esul ing locomo ion sco es a e e alua ed. Keywo ds: lameness; dai y ca le; cow gai ; beha io ; isual locomo ion sco ing 1. In oduc ion The inc easing demand o animal p oduc s has led o a apid g ow h in li es ock p oduc ion, including dai y a ming, du ing he las 20 yea s [1]. As a esul , dai y a ming sys ems wo ldwide ha e in ensi ied, wi h mo e ca le on ewe a ms and pe ca e ake and highe p oduc i i y pe animal [2]. This end educes he a me ’s a ailable ime o obse e and moni o he cows and jeopa dizes he heal h o he cows, in pa icula he high-yielding ones. Lameness is conside ed o be he hi d mos cos ly heal h p oblem o dai y cows, a e educed e ili y and mas i is [3]. Ne e heless, lameness has no only been unde - eco ded on a ms bu i s impo ance wi h ega d o cow wel a e, cow heal h and a m p o i abili y has also been hugely unde es ima ed [4], e en hough i induces bo h di ec (d ug ea men , e e ina y cos s and dea h) and indi ec cos s ( educed milk p oduc ion, ep oduc i e pe o mance and li e expec ancy) [5]. Wi h a lameness p e alence eaching up o 72% [6], he le els in dai y he ds in Eu ope a e unaccep ably high. The e o e, minimizing he occu ence and impac o lameness is one o he g ea es challenges he dai y indus y is cu en ly acing [7]. Un o una ely, many dai y a me s a e unawa e o he numbe o lame cows in hei he d, and, i no iced, hey o en do no ha e enough ime o ea hem [8]. Because many a me s ail o no ice o lack he ime o look o lame cows, senso echnology is being used o de elop au oma ed lameness de ec ion sys ems. Gene ally, lame cows a e de ec ed by he he dsman, hoo imme o e e ina ian based on changes in Animals 2015,5840 cow gai , pos u e o beha io o he p esence o hoo lesions du ing ou ine imming. This e iew is he i s o wo ocusing on cow cha ac e is ics ha a e used o isually de ec lame cows in p ac ice. These cha ac e is ics a e g ouped in o hose o cow gai , pos u e and gene al beha io . To know which al e a ions o hese cha ac e is ics a e due o lameness, in o ma ion on he no mal locomo ion (gai and pos u e) and beha io o cows a e i s ly desc ibed. Nex , he abno mal cha ac e is ics in cow gai , pos u e o beha io closely ela ed o lameness a e summa ized. In addi ion, se e al lameness sco ing sys ems a e compa ed, and some conside a ions in applying hem in p ac ice a e discussed. The second e iew ocuses on senso echnology o au oma ically measu e ele an cow cha ac e is ics o gai , pos u e o beha io o de elop au oma ed lameness de ec ion sys ems ha suppo a me s in iden i ying he lame cows in hei he d [9]. 2. De ini ion o Lameness Lameness can be de ined as he clinical mani es a ion o pain ul diso de s, mainly ela ed o he locomo o sys em, esul ing in impai ed mo emen o de ia ion om no mal gai o pos u e. The se e i y o lameness can a y om s i ness o dec eased symme y o limb mo emen o an inabili y o bea weigh on a limb, o e en o al ecumbency [10,11]. Diso de s can be loca ed in he limbs o unk o he animal, and may include pain ul lesions as well as mechanical de ec s esul ing in physical incapabili y [12]. Gai p oblems a e hus a mani es a ion o discom o o pain. In dai y ca le, he main cause o lameness a e claw lesions. Claw lesions can be di ided in o non-in ec ious (such as whi e line disease, sole ulce , sole hemo hhage, in e digi al hype plasia) o in ec ious claw lesions (such as digi al de ma i is, in e digi al de ma i is, heel e osion, oo o ) [13]. In addi ion, lameness can also be associa ed wi h inju y in he ne ous sys em (such as ob u a o pa alysis) as well as he musculoskele al sys em (such as ac u es, a h i is and endoni is) [14]. How hese di e en diso de s speci ically in luence he gai o cows emains unknown. Howe e , o ecognize he egion o he hoo in which he cause o he lameness is loca ed, he Me ck Ve e ina y Manual [14] sugges ed he ollowing: “when he e is pain in he oe, he e ac ion phase (when hoo passes behind he phase o e ical weigh -bea ing) o he s ide is educed conside ably. In con as , i he pain is loca ed in he heel, he p o ac ion phase o he s ide is educed o he hoo is no ca ied as a o wa d as is no mal”. To de ine whe he he cause o lameness is in he hoo o he uppe limb, Jackson and Cockc o [15] s a ed ha suppo ing limb lameness (i.e., sho ened weigh bea ing and quick swing phase in o de o minimize he con ac wi h he g ound) is associa ed wi h lesions in he hoo whe eas swinging leg lameness (limb is held in ex ension du ing wing phase as lexion causes pain) wi h diso de s in he uppe limb. Ye , i should be no ed ha abno mal gai may de elop no only as a esul o diso de s in he locomo o sys em bu also diso de s in o he o gans (e.g., se e e udde dis ension in hei e s) [16]. Fu he mo e, bo h en i onmen al and cow ac o s may impai locomo ion. We loo ing, da k en i onmen s, ime ela i e o claw imming sessions, age, cow dimensions, lac a ion and ges a ion s age migh cause no mal changes in cow gai ha a e no ela ed o lameness [17]. In his e iew, lameness is conside ed abno mal locomo ion due o pain caused by he locomo o sys em. Al hough changes in he gene al beha io o cows, like lying, s anding o eeding beha io , Animals 2015,5841 ha e been associa ed wi h lameness, changes in locomo ion a e he mos commonly used and mos di ec ways o moni o lameness. 3. No mal Locomo ion o Dai y Cows To unde s and abno mal locomo ion (i.e., gai and pos u e), ho ough insigh in o no mal gai —wi h an emphasis on he way cows walk—is essen ial. Fundamen al gai analyses ha e ocused on he ela ion be ween limb/hoo e en s, which a e adi ionally desc ibed in e ms o oo all pa e ns o phase ela ionships be ween limbs [18]. Phillips [19] de ined walking as s ides whe e each limb is li ed by sho ening o he limb h ough lexion o he join s using especially hip, knee, hock and digi al lexo muscles. The limb hen en e s he swing phase (du ing which he limb has no con ac wi h he g ound) and is placed on he g ound h ough slow ex ension o he join . Once he limb is on he g ound, i checks he suppo and he sole is pushed ha d agains he loo by con ac ing he digi al lexo s. This enables he s a o he suppo phase (du ing which he limb is in con ac wi h he g ound) again ollowed by he nex swing phase. The walk is a gai o ou e enly spaced bea s wi h no suspension phase (i.e., he phase in which he animal mo es o wa d wi hou any limb ouching he g ound) bu wi h al e na e suppo by wo o h ee limbs. The usual succession o g ound-con ac ing limbs du ing walk is LH–LF–RH–RF (whe e L, R, H, F indica e le , igh , hind, and on , espec i ely) wi h a egula hy hm and e en spacing be ween oo alls. Hildeb and [20] s a ed ha i is con en ional o en e he cycle wi h he oo all o he le hind oo . To allow he hind limb o o e lap he on limb imp in , he la e is usually li ed jus be o e he hind limb is placed. Du ing a no mal walk, he du a ion o suppo exceeds ha o swing, and di e en limbs show less han 50% o e lap in he swing phase o wo successi e s eps [18]. Se e al echniques ha e been p oposed o schema ically ep esen animal gai , esul ing in di e en ways o desc ibe gai . Muyb idge [21] p oposed he oo all sequence o mula (Figu e 1A), while McGhee [22] de ined he equi alen gai ma ix (Figu e 1B). Hildeb and’s [20] ep esen a ion o he ela i e du a ion o he s ance and swing phases du ing one s ide a e illus a ed in Figu e 1C. Abou achid [23] in oduced an an e o-pos e io sequence app oach in analysing gai s o quad upeds whe e—besides ocusing on s ides— he ime lags be ween he mo emen s o bo h on limbs (F-lag) o hind limbs (H-lag) o be ween he on and hind limbs o he same side (P-lag) we e added (Figu e 1D). I he pe cen age o ime lag du ing he whole cycle is 50% o bo h F-lag and H-lag and > 50% o P-lag, he walk is called la e al. Telezhenko [24] p oposed ack-way diag ams o desc ibe he spa ial ela ion be ween di e en limbs (Figu e 1E). De ailed in o ma ion on oo all pa e ns in Hols ein dai y cows was p o ided by Flowe e al. [25] and Telezhenko [24] using a empo al gai diag am and a ack-way ep esen a ion o he spa ial dis ibu ion o all limbs, espec i ely. Flowe e al. [25] ound ha o non-lame cows only 18% o he s ide ime was in iple suppo , i.e., ime when he body weigh is suppo ed by h ee limbs ins ead o wo (Figu e 2A). Telezhenko [24] epo ed h ee ypes o possible ack-way measu emen s ha ei he desc ibe he a e o p og ession (s ide leng h and acking), he balance (s ep wid h, s ep angle) o he coo dina ion be ween di e en limbs (s ep leng h, s ep asymme y). Some o hese a iables a e isualized in Figu e 2B. Animals 2015,5842 Animals 2015, 5 842 A B C D E Figu e 1. Schema ic ep esen a ion o quad uped gai : (A) oo all sequence o mula acco ding o Muyb idge [21] wi h compac no a ion acco ding o Hildeb and [20]; (B) gai ma ix [22]; (C) gai diag am o a common la e al walk wi h addi ional empo al in o ma ion [20]; (D) ack-way diag ams e ealing he use o he F-, H- and P-lag o Abou achid [23]; (E) spa ial dis ibu ion o he suppo ing limbs [24]. Figu e 1. Schema ic ep esen a ion o quad uped gai : (A) oo all sequence o mula acco ding o Muyb idge [21] wi h compac no a ion acco ding o Hildeb and [20]; (B) gai ma ix [22]; (C) gai diag am o a common la e al walk wi h addi ional empo al in o ma ion [20]; (D) ack-way diag ams e ealing he use o he F-, H- and P-lag o Abou achid [23]; (E) spa ial dis ibu ion o he suppo ing limbs [24]. Animals 2015,5843 Animals 2015, 5 843 (A) (B) Figu e 2. Tempo al (A) and spa ial (B) ep esen a ion o cow gai : (A) he mean p opo ion o double and iple suppo ime du ing a single s ide o each limb; RF = igh on hoo , LF = le on hoo , LR = le ea hoo , RR = igh ea hoo , hoo s ike (HS), and hoo - o (HO) [25]; (B) spa ial ack way measu emen s as pe o med by Telezhenko [24]; FL = on le ; RL = ea le ; FR = on igh , and RR = ea igh . Besides spa io- empo al cha ac e is ics o gai , he o ces exe ed by he claws on he g ound ha e been measu ed. One o he i s p essu e measu emen s in ca le was pe o med by Dis l and Mai [26]. They epo ed an a e age o ce o 19 N/cm² wi h peaks o 56 and 59 N/cm² o i s and second pa i y cows, espec i ely. Rajkondawa e al. [27] measu ed peak and a e aged g ound eac ion o ces ( ela i e o he cow’s body weigh ) esul ing in dimensionless numbe s o 0.41 N/N and 0.30 N/N, espec i ely, and a s ance ime o 1.29 s o he hind limbs du ing walk. The majo i y o he o al body weigh (54 o 60%) is suppo ed by he on limbs [19,28,29]. Table 1. A e age (±s de ) alues o gai a iables o non-lame cows. Gai Va iable A e age ± s de Walking speed (m/s) 1.350 ± 0.150 1 S ide leng h (m) 1.591 ± 0.005 2 S ide ime (s) 1.523 ± 0.009 2 S ance ime (s) 1.011 ± 0.007 2 S ep o e lap (m) 0.011 ± 0.003 2 Abduc ion (m) 0.029 ± 0.001 2 Asymme y in s ep wid h (m) 0.201 ± 0.003 2 Asymme y in s ep leng h (m) 0.419 ± 0.002 2 Asymme y in s ep ime (s) 0.389 ± 0.002 2 Asymme y in s ance ime (s) 0.024 ± 0.001 2 Leg weigh a io (/) * 80.0 3 1 Tho up e al. [30], n = 348 cows; 2 Van Nu el [17] n = 34 cows; 3 Pas ell and Kujala [31], n = 73 cows; * Leg weigh a io is he a io be ween he hea ie and ligh e hind leg. Figu e 2. Tempo al (A) and spa ial (B) ep esen a ion o cow gai : (A) he mean p opo ion o double and iple suppo ime du ing a single s ide o each limb; RF = igh on hoo , LF = le on hoo , LR = le ea hoo , RR = igh ea hoo , hoo s ike (HS), and hoo -o (HO) [25]; (B) spa ial ack way measu emen s as pe o med by Telezhenko [24]; FL = on le ; RL = ea le ; FR = on igh , and RR = ea igh . Besides spa io- empo al cha ac e is ics o gai , he o ces exe ed by he claws on he g ound ha e been measu ed. One o he i s p essu e measu emen s in ca le was pe o med by Dis l and Mai [26]. They epo ed an a e age o ce o 19 N/cm2wi h peaks o 56 and 59 N/cm2 o i s and second pa i y cows, espec i ely. Rajkondawa e al. [27] measu ed peak and a e aged g ound eac ion o ces ( ela i e o he cow’s body weigh ) esul ing in dimensionless numbe s o 0.41 N/N and 0.30 N/N, espec i ely, and a s ance ime o 1.29 s o he hind limbs du ing walk. The majo i y o he o al body weigh (54% o 60%) is suppo ed by he on limbs [19,28,29]. Table 1. A e age (˘s de ) alues o gai a iables o non-lame cows. Gai Va iable A e age ˘s de Walking speed (m/s) 1.350 ˘0.150 1 S ide leng h (m) 1.591 ˘0.005 2 S ide ime (s) 1.523 ˘0.009 2 S ance ime (s) 1.011 ˘0.007 2 S ep o e lap (m) 0.011 ˘0.003 2 Abduc ion (m) 0.029 ˘0.001 2 Asymme y in s ep wid h (m) 0.201 ˘0.003 2 Asymme y in s ep leng h (m) 0.419 ˘0.002 2 Asymme y in s ep ime (s) 0.389 ˘0.002 2 Asymme y in s ance ime (s) 0.024 ˘0.001 2 Leg weigh a io (/) * 80.0 3 1Tho up e al. [30], n = 348 cows; 2Van Nu el [17] n = 34 cows; 3Pas ell and Kujala [31], n = 73 cows; * Leg weigh a io is he a io be ween he hea ie and ligh e hind leg. Animals 2015,5844 Mean alues o locomo ion cha ac e is ics o non-lame cows a e p o ided in Table 1. Di e ences in gai a iable measu emen s epo ed in he li e a u e migh be explained by di e ences in he b eed, cow dimensions and cow ac o s (pa i y, locomo ion sco es, lac a ion s age, e c.) o he animals in he s udy, he measu emen echniques used, measu emen se -up o he de ini ions o he a iable. Telezhenko [24] indeed ound signi ican co ela ions (R2o 0.51–0.66) be ween he heigh and he leng h o he cow and s ide and s ep leng h, s ep angle and wid h. In a pilo s udy by Van Nu el [17], s ep leng h and speed o example dec eased wi h age and ges a ion s age. Howe e , no in o ma ion on cow dimensions (heigh , leng h, b eas wid h, udde size, e c.) was collec ed du ing his s udy. The weigh o he cow is ca ied by he claw. The claw wall bea s mos o he load du ing walking, while du ing s anding, mos p essu e was ound a he heel a ea o he claw [32–34]. In a mo e de ailed s udy done by an de Tol e al. [35], up o 51% ( on limbs) and 37% (hind limbs) o he o al body weigh o he cows is almos comple ely bo ne by he la e al pa o he claw compa ed o he medial pa du ing walk, especially a heel s ike. When s anding, he pos e io pa and an e io o he claw a e mos o en subjec ed o he highes p essu e in he on limbs and hind limbs, [36]. Hence, depending on he lesion ype, se e i y and loca ion, a di ec associa ion can o canno be ound be ween he weigh applied o he limb and he lesions p esen [37,38]. Mo eo e , when cows a e lame on bo h hind limbs, weigh is seldom ans e ed o he on limbs in an a emp o educe p essu e on he pain ul limbs. In con as , cows ha we e lame on bo h on limbs we e ound o ans e some o he weigh o he hind limbs [28]). Howe e , he ac ha pain ul lesions o en occu symme ically makes de ec ion o lameness e en mo e di icul . Body mo emen pa e ns o he head, spine, join s and ail can also be conside ed cha ac e is ics o locomo ion [20], ye ecen s udies o locomo ion ha e mainly ocused on he iming and du a ion o oo alls on he g ound and he di e en pa e ns o suppo and swing phases (i.e., gai ) and less on pos u e. 4. Signs o Lameness 4.1. Changes in Gai Pa e ns In an a emp o de ec abno mal o lame gai , se e al gai cha ac e is ics a e used in he locomo ion sco ing o ca le. Howe e , e y ew pape s desc ibe he ela ionship be ween poo locomo ion and he gai cha ac e is ics. Flowe e al. [16,25] ound ha lame cows walked slowe , had longe s ide du a ions, sho e s ides and a mo e une en weigh dis ibu ion o e he limbs han non-lame cows. The iple suppo ime in he gai cycle e en doubled o lame cows compa ed wi h heal hy ones. Compa ably, Telezhenko e al. [39] epo ed ha se e ely lame cows walked mo e slowly wi h sho e s ide and s ep leng h and a smalle s ep angle (see Figu e 2B). Mae ens e al. [40] and Blackie e al. [41] also ound sho e s ide leng hs and nega i e acking dis ances in lame cows compa ed wi h non-lame cows. T acking dis ance (also epo ed as acking, acking up o s ep o e lap) can be de ined as o e - o unde -ex ension o he s ide o a hind limb esul ing in he hind claw no being placed on he same loca ion as he on claw a e ini ia ion o he s ide [40,42]. Simila ly, inc eased abduc ion, meaning he sideways dis ance be ween he on oo imp in and he nex placemen o he hind oo on he same side, has been sugges ed o be associa ed wi h lameness [24,40]. Acco ding o Mae ens Animals 2015,5845 e al. [40] lame cows showed mo e asymme y be ween le and igh limbs in s ep wid h, s ep leng h, s ep ime, s ance ime and ela i e o ce compa ed wi h non-lame cows. S udies measu ing s ide heigh s o s i mo emen o he join s ha e been sca ce. Ne e heless, such a iables o gene al lexion o he join s ha e also been sugges ed o be ela ed o lameness [25,43]. Van Nu el e al. [44,45] in oduced he inconsis ency o gai as a possible indica o o lameness based on he hypo hesis ha cows i s occasionally show, e.g., sho s ides in e changed wi h ‘no mal’ s ide leng hs be o e aking sho e s ides in gene al when he lameness becomes mo e se e e. 4.2. Changes in Pos u e o Body Mo emen Pa e ns Acco ding o Sp eche e al. [46] and Flowe e al. [16,25], a mo e p onounced a ched-back pos u e is associa ed wi h lameness in ca le, bo h while s anding and walking. Head mo emen s o head ‘bobs’ (i.e., nodding, e ical mo emen s o he head as he lame limb makes con ac wi h he g ound) ha e also been men ioned as a lameness cha ac e is ic in ca le [16,25,47]. 4.3. Changes in Weigh Dis ibu ion Pa e ns Lame animals end o shi hei body weigh on o non-a ec ed limbs o educe pain [48]. Indeed, when g ound eac ion o ces we e measu ed o cows du ing walking, he a e age and peak g ound o ce eac ions we e ound o dec ease wi h an inc ease in locomo ion sco e. This sugges s ha hese o ces could be used o disc imina e lame om non-lame cows [27,49,50]. In p ac ice, measu ing weigh dis ibu ions be ween he limbs o cows is mo e easible du ing s ance. No su p isingly, lame cows placed mo e weigh on he heal hy limb in compa ison o heal hy animals which dis ibu ed hei body weigh mo e e enly [31]. Acco ding o Rushen e al. [48], lame cows had mo e han he no mal amoun o weigh on he limb ha was con ala e al o he inju ed limb. The mo e se e e he deg ee o lameness, he clea e he ela ionship wi h he body weigh dis ibu ion was. Howe e , pain ul lesions o en occu symme ically, making de ec ion o lameness e en mo e di icul . When cows a e lame on bo h hind limbs, weigh is seldom ans e ed o he on limbs in an a emp o educe p essu e on he pain ul limbs [28]. In con as , cows ha we e lame on bo h on limbs we e ound o ans e some o he weigh o he hind limbs [28]. These esul s we e con i med by measu ing weigh shi ing be ween he con ala e al limbs [28,37,38,51,52]. Highe leg weigh a ios and highe a ia ions in weigh shi s be ween limbs we e success ully used o dis inguish lame om non-lame cows [31]. Inc eased s ep and kick beha io du ing milking has also been highligh ed as a good indica o o lameness [51,53,54]. Chapinal and Tucke [55] con i med hese indings. In hei s udy, lame cows s epped mo e wi h he hind limbs compa ed wi h non-lame cows, al hough his was no he case o he on limbs. The numbe o s eps was ound o be closely co ela ed o he weigh shi ing be ween limbs du ing measu emen s and wi h he limb weigh a io. Howe e , in he s udy by Rousing e al. [56] a highe kicking equency du ing milking was associa ed wi h pain and discom o ela ed o ea inju ies, whe eas no ela ion be ween lameness and kicking o s epping beha io was ound. Animals 2015,5846 4.4. Changes in Beha io Besides locomo ion, he mos impo an na u al beha io s o cow heal h, wel a e and p oduc i i y a e es ing, ea ing, umina ing, and socializing [57]. Lameness has been associa ed wi h longe lying imes, longe pe iods o s anding in alleys and dec eased eeding beha io [58–60] As lame cows end o ha e pain and be lowe in ank [61], his esul s in di e en beha io s such as longe du a ion spend a he es ing, sho e du a ion a eeding places o g azing [53,62]. De ec ion o abno mal beha io is ou o he scope o his e iew, bu a de ailed o e iew o he link be ween lameness and changes in lying/s anding beha io , ac i i y, eeding beha io , beha io a ound milking, es us and social beha io can be ound in Van Nu el [17]. 4.5. Some Conside a ions Se e al gai and beha io al cha ac e is ics change when cows de elop lameness making hem in e es ing cha ac e is ics o be used by au oma ic lameness de ec ion sys ems. To implemen hem, au oma ing he assessmen o hese cha ac e is ics is a p e equisi e. Di ec cha ac e is ics o gai (e.g., s ide leng h) migh show mo e sensi i i y in de ec ing lameness compa ed wi h mo e indi ec cha ac e is ics such as lying and eeding beha io . Indeed, he in insic p oblem wi h using indi ec measu es o lameness is ha hey a e also in luenced by o he ac o s, hus inhibi ing s aigh o wa d conclusions o causal e ec s. Lying beha io o example is also associa ed wi h s age o lac a ion, p oduc ion le el, lying su ace, bedding, cow com o , s ocking densi y, s all size, s all con igu a ion, pen lay ou , milking and eeding managemen , social ank, e c. [63]. A numbe o hese ac o s migh also in luence he ‘no mal’ gai o cows as ecen ly in es iga ed by Van Nu el [17]. Also, i is no clea wha he cause and e ec ela ionship is be ween lameness and beha io ; lameness may al e beha io , o may be he consequence o he beha io [64]? 5. Visual Locomo ion Sco ing To educe lameness, a me s need o be awa e o he numbe o lame cows and he se e i y o lameness in hei he d. The commonly accep ed me hodologies o quan i y lameness ely on spo ing changes in gai , pos u e o beha io o he cows. In p ac ice, his is done using subjec i e me hods such as isual obse a ions leading o locomo ion sco ings by he a me , an employee, a e e ina ian o an ag icul u al consul an . Subjec i e sco ing is quick o apply, inexpensi e and easy- o-use. As many as 25 di e en isual sco ing sys ems a e a ailable. Mos o hem a e based on assessing walking cows, bu hey di e wi h espec o he scale used, he gai cha ac e is ics and pos u es conside ed and he de ini ion o lameness applied [65]. The used scales ange om bina y (lame e sus non-lame) o con inuous (1 o 100). On a 5-poin scale om 1 o 5, cows wi h a sco e > 3 a e ypically de ined as being clinically lame. A ange o indica o s, de ined as speci ic cha ac e is ics o gai o pos u e ele an o lameness, a e used o help he obse e assess he quali y o a cow’s gai and pos u e and sco e hei gai in classes anging om non-lame o se e ely lame. Animals 2015,5853 assessing lameness o indi idual cows in a he d can be p ac ically challenging. Al hough p obably possible o cons uc , he e is gene ally no specially designed alley a ailable on a ms whe e cows pass daily while hei gai is obse ed. Cows o en ha e o be assessed in ba ns lacking su icien space o walk in a s aigh line o se e al me e s. The sla ed loo is u he mo e mos ly co e ed wi h slippe y manu e impai ing no mal locomo ion. Also, cows can be eluc an o walk pas he d ma es and need o be mo i a ed o walk pas hem. This again dis u bs hei no mal locomo ion and inc eases he need o an addi ional helpe o guide he cow in o de o he obse e o gi e a sco e. Being a p ey species and hence s oic in na u e, lame cows migh also mask signs o ulne abili y, because his would make hem an easie a ge o p eda o s [94]. The e o e, in he p esence o an obse e o when o ced o walk, cows end o only show lame locomo ion and beha io when he lameness is a an ad anced s age. As only a ained obse e may no ice he onse o lameness by mul iple sub le gai abe a ions, de ec ing ea ly lameness ends o be di icul . In addi ion, as discussed abo e, p ac ical guidelines on he se -up o isual locomo ion sco ing a e lacking. Mos isual sco ing sys ems a e no designed o assess lameness on a day- o-day basis, bu o compa e locomo ion sco es be ween di e en ea men s o se -ups. Spo adic sco ing o he en i e he d by an expe ienced obse e only p o ides he a me o e e ina ian wi h p e alence in o ma ion o ha speci ic momen . Because o he non-s aigh o wa d link be ween lameness and claw lesions o o he diseases o he bones and join s [95], he use ulness o locomo ion sco es is limi ed o indica ions o pain, a he han as a diagnos ic ool o he p esence o hoo lesions [68]. This makes a ho ough check o he cow necessa y. Mo e impo an ly, all cows ha e hei own speci ic way o walking [17] and eac ing on illness [96]. Hence, a de ec ion sys em should a he be based on changes in indica o s o e ime han on he de ia ion om he g oup mean. Daily moni o ing o locomo ion o beha io on a m by a ained obse e is oo ime-consuming and hus e y cos ine icien . Au oma ic measu emen o lameness- ela ed, animal-based cha ac e is ics would allow o daily measu emen s and could, he e o e, be a be e op ion. 6. Conclusions Clea and accu a e de ini ions including nume ical in o ma ion o no mal and abno mal cow gai a e lacking in he desc ip ion o isual locomo ion sco ing sys em. This adds o he di icul y o pe o ming isual locomo ion sco ing o assess lameness on a ms. Mo eo e , he a m design, expe imen al se -ups and p esence o an obse e impede p ope sco ing on p ac ical a ms e en mo e. Di e en p ac ical app oaches a e used du ing locomo ion sco ing, esul ing in incompa able esul s be ween s udies. The di e en se -ups used and hei in luence on he esul ing locomo ion sco e was e alua ed. 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