Protein recovery as a resource from waste specifically via membrane technology : from waste to wonder

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Protein recovery as a resource from waste specifically via membrane technology : from waste to wonder © The Author(s) 2021 Published version Shahid, Kanwal; Srivastava, Varsha; Sillanpää, Mika Shahid, K., Srivastava, V., & Sillanpää, M. (2021). Protein recovery as a resource from waste specifically via membrane technology : from waste to wonder. Environmental science and pollution research, 28(8), 10262-10282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12290-x 2021 SHORT RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION ARTICLE Protein recovery as a resource from waste specifically via membrane technology—from waste to wonder Kanwal Shahid 1 &Varsha Srivastava 2 &Mika Sillanpää 3,4,5,6 Received: 12 February 2020 /Accepted: 29 December 2020 #The Author(s) 2021 Abstract Economic growth and the rapid increase in the world population has led to a greater need for natural resources, which in turn, has put pressure on said resources along with the environment. Water, food, and energy, among other resources, pose a huge challenge. Numerous essential resources, including organic substances and valuable nutrients, can be found in wastewater, and these could be recovered with efficient technologies. Protein recovery from waste streams can provide an alternative resource that could be utilized as animal feed. Membrane separation, adsorption, and microbe-assisted protein recovery have been proposed as technologies that could be used for the aforementioned protein recovery. This present study focuses on the applicability of different technologies for protein recovery from different wastewaters. Membrane technology has been proven to be efficient for the effective concentration of proteins from waste sources. The main emphasis of the present short communication is to explore the possible strategies that could be utilized to recover or restore proteins from different wastewater sources. The presented study emphasizes the applicability of the recovery of proteins from various waste sources using membranes and the combination of the membrane process. Future research should focus on novel technologies that can help in the efficient extraction of these high-value compounds from wastes. Lastly, this short communication will evaluate the possibility of integrating membrane technology. This study will discuss the important proteins present in different industrial waste streams, such as those of potatoes, poultry, dairy, seafood and alfalfa, and the possible state of the art technologies for the recovery of these valuable proteins from the wastewater. Keywords Purplephototrophicbacteria .Wastewaters .Microalgae .Mesoporoussilicananoparticles .Potatoprocessingwaste . Alfalfa processing waste .Dairy waste protein .Membrane fouling Abbreviations BCA Bicinchoninic acid assay CCRSM Central combined response surface methodology COD Chemical oxygen demand CES Carboxyethylsilanetriol sodium CF Concentration factor DOC Dissolve organic carbon EAAI Amino acid index EBA Expanded bed adsorption HOBs Hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria kDa Kilodalton MWCO Molecular weight cut-off mg/L Milligramme per litre MF Microfiltration NH 4 -N Ammonium NF Nanofiltration nm Nanometre PES Polyethersulfone Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu *Kanwal Shahid [email protected] 1 Department of Separation Science, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, Sammonkatu 12, FI-50130 Mikkeli, Finland 2 Department of Chemistry, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland 3 Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam 4 Faculty of Environment and Chemical Engineering, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam 5 School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, West Street,Toowoomba,QLD4350,Australia 6 Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mining, Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12290-x / Published online: 13 January 2021 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2021) 28:10262–10282 PPB Purple phototrophic bacteria PSB Photosynthetic bacteria PO 4 -P Phosphate PFJ Potato fresh juice protein PPW Potato processing wastewater RO Reverse osmosis RDM Rotating disk membrane SBA Santa Barbara Amorphous SCOD Soluble chemical oxygen demand SCP Single-cell protein SWH Subcritical water hydrolysis TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen TN Total nitrogen TP Total phosphorus TMP Transmembrane pressure TS Total solids UF Ultrafiltration VMD Vacuum membrane distillation μmMicrometre Introduction The most important driving force for recovering nutrients from wastewater during the treatment is the increasingly limited accessibility of resources. Population growth, fertilizer use, agricultural restrictions, soil erosion, and extreme weather events have had drastic effects, including malnutrition resulting from protein shortage. Globally, protein for animal feed is not sufficiently available; in order to meet this demand, many countries rely on the import of feed protein. At present, soybean protein (imported from other countries) serves as the main share of protein nourishment in animal feeding in Europe (Yin et al. 2011). A shortage of protein can be overcome through the optimisation of local protein resources based on the elevation of biomass concentration, especially from green plants. Inherent nutrient loss usually occurs in the upscaling of plant proteins to animal proteins, leading to the revival of the traditional idea of upgrading the manufacturing of microbial protein. The extraction of proteins from wastewater along with other resources could be an attractive low-cost alternative (Van Der Hoek et al. 2016). The wastewaters of several industries, including leather processing, contain significant concentrations of important proteins such as albumins and globulins. Furthermore, the meat processing industry together with sheep, cattle and poultry processing factories are also known to release high amounts of proteins into wastewater (Jayathilakan et al. 2012). The recovery and removal of proteins from wastewater has advantages, as these proteins are in demand for the manufacture of medicines and food additives. Such a procedure would also purify the wastewater for later use. The main issue is not the availability of resources and technology, but rather the deficiency in properly devising a structural plan and methodology to recognize the most balanced solution in a certain geographical framework (Guest et al. 2009). Various concepts have been implemented for the recovery of proteins from a waste stream, such as single-cell protein (SCP), purple phototrophic bacteria (PPB) (Meng et al. 2018) and microalgae culture (Hülsen et al. 2018). Recent research has been focused on finding the potential sources for protein recovery from sludge, grass and the wastewater of various industries. Membrane technology and adsorption have been studied for protein recovery from wastewater (Chen et al. 2007; Dabestani et al. 2017), but there is still a need to develop an efficient way to recover proteins from the waste stream. An overview of potential sources of proteins and their recovery approaches are discussed in the present study, which also gives a summary of the advances in upgrading protein waste to produce valuable materials that are prominent on technological platforms. Protein recovery by different approaches Protein recovery concept as single-cell protein (SCP) The concept of the production of SCP is well-known, and it is a feasible way of rapidly reducing the environmental footprint. As large amounts of protein and a wide range of substrates can be converted into it (Matassa et al. 2015), SCP is therefore considered the most efficient way of recovering nitrogen from waste sources using heterotrophic bacteria and algae. SCP also has the potential to enable the bio-based circular economy. With this method, the invested nitrogen can be restored from the environment and accumulated in the form of microbial protein from a waste medium (Shi et al. 2007; Hülsen et al. 2014). SCP is hindered by its production cost, which needs to decrease in order to enable practical implementation and compete with agricultural alternatives. The main cost input in SCP production is the carbon source, but this can be minimized by using industrial waste streams such as flue gas. Due to the production of SCP, the organic contents present in the wastewater are recycled through assimilative segregation despite being lost or consumed as carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas into the air (Batstone et al. 2015). Many researchers have tried to recover proteins using different waste media (water from several sources). The potential of purple phototrophic bacteria (PPB) and microalgae to treat diverse waste streams from agricultural and industrial sources was investigated by (Hülsen et al. 2018). PPB and microalgae are two important intermediates in the production of SCP. Microalgae are responsible for manufacturing protein-rich feed substitutes for both humans and animals (Sangameshwar Barnes et al. 2013). In the case of PPB, the utilization of infrared light has been more efficient in the production of high yields (Hülsen et al. 2014). Several 10263Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 researchers have focused on the removal of COD with PPB from synthetic, sterilized, and diluted wastewaters, but little is known about real wastewaters (Nagadomi et al. 2000). It can be concluded that until now there has been little focus on the removal of COD, nitrogen and phosphorus from industrial waste streams along with SCP recovery. In a recent study, diverse varieties of both PPB and algae were used to treat actual industrial and agricultural wastewaters. The important comparisons were taken into considerations that include the composite concurrent non-destructive simultaneous assimilation of COD along with nitrogen and phosphorus. The achieved yield of SCP was then estimated. The obtained discoveries can be applied to understand the possible manufacturing of single-cell proteins in our prime trades, with a focus on the newly evolving association between nutrients, energy, water and the environment (Hülsen et al. 2018). The treatment efficiency of different industrial wastewaters with PPB and microalgae was determined by measuring parameters such as soluble COD, the concentration of ammonium and phosphate, elimination of nitrogen and total chemical oxygen demand to evaluate the removal abilities. For example, in the case of poultry wastewater treatment, PPB actively removed COD (in soluble form) along with ammonium and phosphate in a ratio of 100: 11: 1.6, respectively. The performance of PPB for the treatment of pork flesh and dairy wastewaters was reasonable but overcoming losses of organic matter is a question that still needs to be taken into consideration. However, the wastewater from the sugar industry had a higher CODvalue.TreatingthisbymicroalgaeandPPBprovedtobe noxious as negligible removal of soluble amounts of COD, NH 4 -N or PO 4 -P was observed. Nevertheless, the author concluded that the microalgae tests achieved better removal efficiency of SCOD, NH 4 -N and PO 4 -P overall than PPB. The most satisfactory results were obtained with poultry wastewater treatment with 91 ± 18% COD removal, along with 91 ± 29% and 73 ± 27% of nitrogen and phosphorus removal, respectively (Khosravi-Darani et al. 2013). The researcher also tried to characterize the biomass formed in the treatment of different waste streams. It was estimated that PPB biomass had an elevated protein content (based on solid Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN)) (Eding et al. 2006). The concentration of protein was estimated with the bicinchoninic acid assay (Ras et al. 2008). The crude protein content obtained in the present study corresponds well with other reported inquiries (Ponsano et al. 2004). The large harvest protein shows the integration of organics and nitrogen without any dissimilation (Kim et al. 2005). It was concluded that PPB and microalgae can serve as a responsible mediator for upgrading and recycling the nutrients from wastewater (Hülsen et al. 2018). A study related to the recovery of resources from wastewater was published in order to understand the production capabilities of hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (HOBs) (Matassa et al. 2015). It covers the recovery of nutrients from wastewaters and the use of the recovered products as a starting material for the synthesis of valued biomaterials. It also elaborates on the competence of hydrogenoxidizing bacteria to elevate the raw nitrogen and minerals into a significant microbial product. Mutually isolated and mixed diverse microbial cultures can be utilized for the tailored synthesis of restored biological compounds into complex biomolecules. It is already known that HOBs are believed to be the utmost influential contributors to the overview of biorefineries. Hydrogen-oxidizing or Knallgas bacteria (so called as they utilize gaseous hydrogen and oxygen) are autotrophic bacteria. This prominent feature gives these microorganisms numerous dietary competencies over others, including the ability to survive in a solely inorganic environment along with reducing nitrogen into new cells and more conversion of carbon dioxide (Repaske and Mayer 1976). Innovative tactics using these bacteria may have the potential to improve the nutrients restored from anaerobic digestion and waters rejected in water treatment plants during the carbon dioxide fixation process and enhance conversion activity towards biomethane. Although a sustainable and effective alternative to photosyntheticbiomass construction, HOBs are viewed as a possible supplier of the microbial product in the form of SCP. The feasibility of HOBs as SCP manufacturers was later explored in a report on the properties of the proteins created by the microbes (Volova and Barashkov 2010). The biological value of proteins made by three strains of HOBs was evaluated. These strains are as follows: Alcaligenes eutrophus Z1, Ralstonia eutropha B5786, and the carbon monoxide resistant strain carboxydobacterium Seliberia carboxydohydrogena Z1062. The work indicated a massive amount of protein synthesized by the above-mentioned species, along with the sequences of essential amino acids. Certainly, the amino acids are more likely those of yeast, but, at about 70%, the ultimate concentration of protein, also known as dry weight in the case of hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria, is much higher than that of other species (50% in the case of yeast) (Anupama 2000). Protein recovery by the advance one-step photosynthetic bacteria (PSB) method Researchers established a method known as the one-step photosynthetic bacteria (PSB) process to efficiently remove pollutants and recover nutrients from high-COD, non-toxic wastewaters (Meng et al. 2018). PSB is well-known as a collection of bacteria that can harvest light energy to pursue both the autotrophic and heterotrophic processes (Cao et al. 2020). Being state-of-the-art, PSB can efficiently treat wastewater such as that from the fish industry (Azad et al. 2004), wastewater containing starch (Getha et al. 1998; Prachanurak et al. 2014), dairy industry wastewater (Kaewsuk et al. 2010), rubber manufacturing industry wastewater, livestock waste streams (Ponsano et al. 2008), and domestic waste streams 10264 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 (Nagadomi et al. 2000;Hülsenetal.2018). The possible elimination of COD (up to 85–93%) and ammonia nitrogen removal (99%) is likely to be obtained (Saejung and Thammaratana 2016; Yang et al. 2017). PSB biomass is a sound source of single-cell protein that can act as a feed for sealife. This high-grade feed effectively promotes body growth, along with an improvement in disease tolerance, with its advanced water value. PSB cells also contain carotenoids and coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) (Hao et al. 2017). Unlike algae technology, PSB can handle wastewater with low nitrogen and phosphorous, but they cannot cope with wastewater with a high COD value. PSB technology is better in treating wastewater with a high COD content, such as the wastewater obtained from starch processing companies (potato, corn and wheat), which has a COD value of approx. 10,000 mg/L. However, PSB technology has the potential to treat this water along with a biomass harvest of up to 0.51 mg of biomass per milligramme of biological oxygen demand removal (Prachanurak et al. 2014). Different strains of PSB, additives, and different valuable substances were used to examine biomass growth. There was an attempt to use synthetic wastewater that could mimic characteristics such as COD, total nitrogen, and phosphorus concentration in brewery wastewater. The estimated measured qualities of wastewater are as follows: COD (2200-2600), total nitrogen (20–22), and total phosphorus (5–6 mg/L) (Meng et al. 2018). The characteristics of wastewater, such as the removal efficiency of the COD, total nitrogen and phosphorus (TP) and production of biomass as the value of observance with time duration using the PSB strain, are shown in Table 1(Chen et al. 2020). As the preliminary COD concentration of the brewery wastewater was approx. 2200 mg/L, it can be observed from Table 1that PSB could successfully reduce the chemical oxygen demand of a given waste stream by up to 800 mg/L after 72 h along with a significant reduction in the concentration of nitrogen, but it is less effective for the removal of phosphorus. The biomass increased over time and has its applications, such as active use as a fertilizer. This method is understood to be effective for concurrent nutrient recovery and waste treatment. However, as the final COD was still very high at 800 mg/L, it was outside the stated disposal range of 80 mg/L. There is, therefore, a need for more intense research to expand COD removal with treatment by the PSB strain. The researcher tried yeast extract as a distinctive active organic nutrient substitute, along with other additives such as magnesium and iron (Zhang et al. 2015a; Zhi et al. 2020). The result in Table 2shows that all three additives effectively improve the removal efficiency of COD, but the performance of yeast extract is more pronounced. As far as the composition of the yeast extract is concerned, it contains nitrogen (amino acids) and some minerals (copper and iron). The presence of these compounds may influence COD reduction. The enhanced COD removal of up to 96.7% was obtained when the concentration of yeast extract was increased to 400 mg/L (Table 3). As stated earlier, the main benefit of using PSB for wastewater handling is that it can produce an interesting amount of PSB biomass, which is a rich source of protein along with other biopolymers. With these abilities, researchers studied the composition of produced biomass growth and its valuable components. The main breakthrough in this field is that PSB worked in the treatment of the brewery waste stream. It was also able to produce highly valued PSB cells with the dischargeable COD value of the final stream, which is a value that conforms to the national release value so that there is no need for any posttreatment. The Rhodopseudomonas strain is the most efficient one. The obtained PSB cells were a rich source of the desired protein along with other biopolymers such as polysaccharides, carotenoids and coenzyme Q10. The concentration of the PSB cell protein increased to approx. 420.9 mg/g after the reaction (Qi et al. 2017). Protein recovery from plant biomass Dotsenko and Lange investigated the recovery of protein from two different sources: white clover and ryegrass screw pulps. They applied the extraction technique in the presence of aqueous media, also with enzymes such as carbohydrases and proteases to promote extraction behaviour (Dotsenko and Lange 2017). To date, protein extraction from biomass pulp has been unexplored, and more focus has been centred on protein recovery from leaves, primarily by mechanical disintegration. There is a need to upgrade the process of protein recovery from leaves and the pulp. The pioneer of the extraction of proteins from leaves is Pirie, who recommended the fragmentation of fresh green biomass mechanically, leading to Table 1 Characteristics of wastewater (chemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen, total phosphorus) and production of biomass as the value of observance with time duration using the PSB strain (Meng et al. 2018;Chenetal.2020) Time (h) Chemical oxygen demand (mg/L) Total nitrogen (mg/L) Total phosphorus (mg/L) Total Biomass (OD 660 ) 0 ~2200 ~17 ~5 ~0.3 24 ~1400 ~3.8 ~4.7 ~0.5 48 ~1000 ~3 ~4.3 ~0.62 72 800 ~2.5 ~4.1 ~0.78 10265Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 separation of the protein from the obtained juice of biomass (Fiorentini and Galoppini 1983). Several physical and chemical techniques for the separation and purification of protein from the leaves of plants were proposed, but the most relevant methods used for the separation of protein from cellulose-containing biomass are via alkali (Zhang et al. 2014a), aqueous ammonia extraction, and mechanical disintegration of biomass. The main hypothesis of the work done by (Dotsenko and Lange 2017) is that, after screw-pressing the green leaves, a significant proportion of the protein content is left over in the pulp portion, and that protein can be used to feed animals in different ways. The pulp part of green leaves can be used to feed cows, and with the hydrolysis process it can be used as additives in the preparation of food for other animals such as pigs, chickens and fish. The results obtained from their work showed that, by applying the extraction at pH 8.0 on the pulp portion of the leaves, roughly 40% of the total pulp protein was improved and 80% of the protein was restored by proteases (Savinase 16.0 L, Novozymes), depending on the dose of this enzyme. The action of enzyme carbohydrases (Cellic CTec2 and Cellic HTec2, Novozymes) on pulp hydrolysis did not yield any significant production of protein (Kinsella 1988). Protein recovery by adsorption To date, researchers have been focusing on the development of efficient adsorbents for the immobilization of protein, as there is a crucial need for the fruitful implementation of its applications in different areas. The selection of an appropriate adsorbent for the adsorption of protein depends on several factors, including surface area and large pore sizes with a volume ratio that can be placed on proteins and enzymes with ease (Han et al. 2007;HeandShi2011; Hartmann and Kostrov 2013; Mohammad 2013; Gascón et al. 2014; Masuda et al. 2014;Dekaetal.2015;Tuetal.2016). Numerous categories of mesoporous silica substances including MCM-41 (Salis et al. 2009), SBA-15 (Washmon-Kriel et al. 2000), MCF and FMS (Kim et al. 2005) have been effectively used for the immobilization of different substances, e.g. proteins and enzymes (enzymes are mostly protein in nature) as supports or base material. The biggest drawback in the proper implementation of these porous materials is the restriction in the distribution and movements of adsorbed substances due to the small pore sizes and the inner two-dimensional structural design of these pores. Because of the two-dimensional architecture of the pore size, the researcher proposed new mesoporous silica materials as an adsorbent for proteins. These materials are responsible for exclusive pore availability for adsorbates (proteins and enzymes) due to their interrelated pore assemblies, so they efficiently improve adsorption ability. Still, the practical application of these materials in the immobilization of biomolecules brings complications, as there is a hindrance linked to the mesoporous silica due to its electronically neutral silica skeleton. However, the efficiency of silica-based adsorbents can be enhanced by the surface modification of this mesoporous silica by setting organic functional groups such as the carboxylic (-COOH), phenyl, vinyl, and amine groups for the formation of active sites for the adsorbates (protein/enzymes) (Ramasamy et al. 2019). The introduction of these organic groups on the plane of mesoporous material can efficiently minimize the leaching effect of the adsorbed enzymes (Chong et al. 2004; Maria Chong and Zhao 2004;Wangetal. 2006; Sae-ung and Boonamnuayvitaya 2008; Johari et al. 2014). A recent study led to the manufacture of silica-based mesoporous Santa Barbara Amorphous (SBA-1) type 1 nanoparticles, which possess a distinctive pattern and surface characteristics. Their practice as grounds for the immobilization of papain is described. In this study, different pore sizes of these mesoporous silica particles were synthesized using the carboxylic functional group by means of co-condensation (Lin et al. 2017). Carboxyethylsilanetriol sodium salt (CES) was added for the integration of carboxyl functional groups as a functional moiety. Table 2 COD removal efficiency with three different additives (yeast extract, magnesium and iron) with PSB cells with time duration in wastewater treatment (Sasaki et al. 2012; Wen et al. 2016) Time Yeast extract COD (mg/L) Magnesium COD (mg/L) Iron COD (mg/L) 0 ~2300 ~2200 ~2200 24 ~1750 ~1550 ~1650 48 ~950 ~1070 ~1000 72 ~500 ~800 ~700 Table 3 The outcome of different yeast concentrations on removal effectiveness of chemical oxygen demand with time duration (Dikshit and Moholkar 2016; Meng et al. 2018) Time (h) Yeast concentration 50 mg/L Yeast concentration 100 mg/L Yeast concentration 250 mg/L Yeast concentration 400 mg/L 0 ~2250 ~2270 ~2300 ~2450 24 ~1750 ~1750 ~1470 ~1510 48 1100 ~930 ~580 ~600 72 ~700 ~500 ~150 ~80 10266 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 The existence of carboxylic functional groups in the mesoporous silica SBA-1 template was validated by an FTIR analysis and C 13 solid-state NMR spectroscopy (Saikia et al. 2019a). The prepared mesoporous silica nanoparticles were employed as support for the immobilization experiments of papain protein. The obtained results clearly show that largepore nanoparticles with carboxylic functionality are optimal for the immobilization of the desired protein at the higher end. The major factor behind this immobilization is probably the development of electrostatic interaction between the desired protein and function groups introduced at the surface of the mesoporous nanoparticles. It was reported that modified adsorbent can remove selected proteins from the mixture of protein according to their isoelectric points (Saikia et al. 2019a). There is great attention towards the extraction, separation, and purification of proteins from composite biological mixtures. In this regard, several methodologies, such as affinity chromatography, precipitation, extraction, and solid-phase extraction, have been developed to segregate the chosen proteins from biological systems (McDonald et al. 2009). As mentioned in the above example, silica-based support (Iftekhar et al. 2017) with the carboxylic functional group provides proof of the separation of protein from the mixture. It was found that amino acid can also act as an appropriate and efficient ligand in building the networking among proteins or peptides because of the existence of additional functional groups including amine, carboxyl, and tryptophan (Qiao et al. 2018). The researcher tried to incorporate the tryptophan into the silica nanoparticles used as support using crosslinking (Beena et al. 1994). Tryptophan is a hydrophobic amino acid because it consists of an aromatic ring in its side chain, which provides supplementary motive power, primarily pipi interactions that help in protein adsorption. They are used to concentrate on Ova proteins that are present in albumin in chickens. The adsorption behaviour of this protein onto the complex silica nanoparticles with tryptophan as a functional group was observed at different pHs ranging from 3 to 8. The results obtained showed that the adsorption of the desired protein increases by up to 1240.3 mg/g compared to its adsorption on unmodified silica nanoparticles, which is 727.6 mg/g. The adsorption operation of the complex material is accredited to the interaction of both pi-pi and hydrogen bonding between the desired protein moiety and adsorbent (Qiao et al. 2018). Table 4is about the studies presented in the state of the art about the types of adsorbents used for the recovery of specific proteins at given parameters. Other methods for recovery of protein from different waste sources Different studies have been done in the past for the extraction of valuable protein products from different wastes (Table 5). For example, the recycling of meat waste has a significant impact on our environment. The study proposed by (Ghosh et al. 2019)includes the use of electric pulses of different voltages and time duration for the chemical extraction of protein present in the wasted chicken breast muscles. The extracted protein from the waste breast muscle exhibits the antioxidant properties as suggested by the Silico analysis (Ghosh et al. 2019). Other studies indicate the recovery of several types of peptides and proteins from the food waste using the subcritical water hydrolysis (SWH) method (Marcet et al. 2016). For example, the application of the sub-critical hydrolysis process using specific parameters, such as type of reactors, optimum temperature, and reaction time waste obtained from fish entrails, recovered 137 mg/g of dry fish (Kang et al. 2001). In other studies, the application of SWH on scallop viscera waste leads to the production of important high molecular compounds as well as amino acids (Tavakoli and Yoshida 2006). In the aqueous phase, the best yield of the simplest amino acid comes from glycine (Kaspar and Reichert 2013). The recovery of 91% protein named Astaxanthin found in shrimp shell waste by enzymatic conversion was performed by (Deng et al. 2020) along with the recovery of other by-products such as chitin. The recovery of collagen protein powder separated from chromium leather scrap waste was studied, revealed to be containing different amino acids and displaying a low concentration of mineral salt that can be used as fertilizer (Dang et al. 2019). A huge amount of waste is produced by the dairy industry, such as whey, the main by-product that is produced during the production of cheese from milk, which is also an abundant source of valuable proteins (Gopinatha Kurup et al. 2019;Tham et al. 2019). The combination process of ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes has been used to obtain up to 90% of proteins from whey waste along with lactose under defined parameters (Das et al. 2016). Protein recovery by membrane technology Membrane technology has been utilized and commercialized to regain valuable substances including proteins from different wastewaters such as potato processing wastewater (PPW) (Dabestani et al. 2017), poultry processing wastewater (Lo et al. 1997), alfalfa wastewater. and dairy waste streams. Different membrane processes including microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), and reverse osmosis (RO) have been extensively applied in dairy-producing companies to isolate different components such as casein and proteins from their waste streams (Harmen J.Zwijnenberg et al. 2002). 10267Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 Protein recovery from wastewater of the potato processing industry by membrane technology Patatin is the main protein of potato wastewater and well known for its good functionality. The protein possesses many important features, including a molecular weight of around 40–45 kDa along with an amino acid index (EAAI) of about 89%, which is comparatively high compared to that of many other proteins present in plants and animals (Pouvreau et al. 2001; Strætkvern and Schwarz 2012). Traditionally, there has been a diverse list of techniques for obtaining this valuable protein from potato fruit juice. The most applied techniques were concentration, coagulation with heat, precipitation, ion-exchange chromatography, and ion exchange using Expanded Bed Adsorption (EBA), and many more techniques were used to restore protein from potato fruit juice (PFJ). These approaches have been proven to obtain a high yield percentage of protein, but some processes, such as the application of heat and a harsh environment like acid or alkali, have been unsuccessful in recovering completely intact (non-denatured) high-quality protein (Løkra et al. 2008). Figure 1shows the PPW production and collection point, while Fig. 2illustrates the composition of the process water collected from the source (Dabestani et al. 2017). Several Table 4 Protein recovery employing immobilization or adsorption on different supports No. Adsorbent Protein pH Temperature (°C) Time (mins) Adsorption capacity (mg/g) Reference 1 Tryptophan modified aminated mesoporous silica nanoparticles Ova Protein 5.0 ambient temperature 25 1240.3 (96%) (Qiao et al. 2018) 2 Silica (mesoporous) nanoparticles (MSNs) with the SBA-1 moiety, functional group (-COOH) Papain 8.2 ambient temperature 1600 1138 (Saikia et al. 2019b) 3 Cage-type cubic mesoporous silica functionalized with (-COOH) Lysozyme 9.6 37 4800 895 (Deka et al. 2015) 4 Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) Haemoglobin 7.4 ambient temperature 20 747.5 (Tu et al. 2016) 5 Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) functionalized by 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane Catalase –ambient temperature 20 ~840 (Tu et al. 2016) 6 SBA-15 Bovine serum albumin 4.8 30 –482 (Maria Chong and Zhao 2004) 7 SBA-15 Lysozyme 10.6 ambient 240 636 (Ma et al. 2017) 8 Mesoporous silica materials (pore size 17.6 nm) Cellulose 5.0 50 600 410 (Kim et al. 2005) Table 5 Different waste sources for recovery of protein using different methods No. Waste source Types of protein Method of recovery % Recovery Advantages Disadvantages Reference 1 Expired dairy products Milk protein Liquid biphasic flotation (LBF) method ~94 Waste reduction, environmental benefits Recycling is needed as the use of alcohol and high salt conc. 1 (Tham et al. 2019) 2 Slaughterhouse blood Haemoglobin peptides Enzymes and high hydrostatic pressures (HHPs) ~84 peptides yield Antioxidant and functional properties, cheaper and simpler method –(Álvarez et al. 2012; Marcet et al. 2016) 3 Waste from the poultry process Amino acid Subcritical water technology ~11.4 High production yield along with energy Chemical usage (Zhu et al. 2010) 4 Waste activated sludge Proteins from sludge flocs Thermal alkali hydrolysis (TAH) ~67.5 High yield of solubilized protein is obtained Some protein loss in the form of ammonium and nitrates (Song et al. 2019) 5 Rohu fish waste Protein from fish waste source pH Shift Method 31.8 via acid method/ 31.1 via the alkaline method Isolates via alkaline methods were more rigid Protein with good yield and functionality after recovery (Surasani et al. 2017) 1 conc. concentration 10268 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 combinations of pre-treatments, such as centrifugation (with specifications; time 20 min at 8000 g and 20 °C), sedimentation for 4 h followed by filtration using filter paper with specifications of 2.0, 2.5, and 0.22 μm and PVDF/MF, have been used before applying the ultrafiltration process. The strategic process with an explanation of the purposes for applying each pre-treatment and treatment step on wastewater is shown in Table 6. It was demonstrated that transmembrane pressure increases suddenly due to the phenomenon known as concentration polarization, and after that the feed was only pre-treated by centrifugation. After some time, there was no significant increase, but this may be due to the deposition of biopolymers, especially proteins, on the surface of the membrane. The increasing concentration of protein in the retentate of membrane filtration over time leads to the cake layer formation and pore blocking process. However, the pretreatment of feed by centrifugation leading to microfiltration improved membrane performance concerning the fouling. The recovery of protein using ultrafiltration along with the obtained concentration of the desired product was determined by applying an assay known as the BCA test. The initial calculated concentration of protein in the feed solution after applying centrifugation was 1.55 ± 0.03 g/L. After applying a different pre-treatment process on the feed or wastewater, the amount of protein was determined in the obtained permeate of each process. The recovery percentage of protein was 72% by applying centrifugation to the feed solution, and this value fell to 62% after several pre-treatment applications (Table 7). However, it is also clear from Table 5that the concentration of protein is increased in the retentate of the experiment including centrifugation, followed by MF with filter paper with a specification of 2.5 μm for 20 h. Fig. 1 presents potato chips production and point of wastewater collection (Dabestani et al. 2017; Fritsch et al. 2017) 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 % composion Fig. 2 The composition of potato process wastewater (Mishra and Arora 2004; Guo et al. 2018) 10269Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 The filtration of high organic content wastewater through membranes is prone to fouling, and that leads to a significant increase to the cost with regard to the industrial-scale process. Consequently, there is a vital need for the potential cleaning procedure to minimize the membrane fouling for the efficient process and durability of membranes (Humpert et al. 2016). One of the most effective and useful solutions includes the backflushing and rinsing of the membrane after and during the procedure, and the other is chemical cleaning of the membrane after each process (Wallberg et al. 2003;Bogatietal. 2015). In order to reduce the membrane fouling during the process the membranes were rinsed with the permeate of the filtration process, as the permeate possesses the same pH as the original solution. Also, it is more likely that most of the pollutants that stick on the surface of the membrane were soluble to the permeate (Beyer et al. 2017). The other method used for the sustainable operation of the membrane process is chemical cleaning of both UF and NF membranes, using different chemical agents such as sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) (Li et al. 2019a), which is effective for membrane fouling via organic wastewater treatment and microbial fouling (Malczewska and Żak 2019). Table 11 presents the cost analysis of protein recovery using membrane technology from different waste streams. Most of the membrane process plants designed for the purification of wastewater from several sources utilize repeated cleaning of the membranes and their modules, using a range of chemicals to reestablish the membrane performance to the same level as before fouling. As mentioned in Table 11,the chemical cleaning of the membranes has some characteristic drawbacks, and one of the biggest is reducing the costeffectiveness of the overall process and putting an extra burden on the atmosphere. Hence, it is now time to thoroughly research the innovation of new strategies to overcome traditional remedies. For future studies, the researcher should focus, practice, and prioritize the more mechanical cleaning procedures, such as, e.g. the backflushing of the membrane during and after the procedure, rather than the traditional chemical cleaning method (Bogler et al. 2017; Matin et al. 2019; Nunes et al. 2020). The recovery of protein from wastewater using several techniques, including membrane technology, will always remain an interesting topic for researchers and scientists all over the world. New advances day by day concerning new membrane materials and the integration of membranes with other processes is a matter of interest when the protein recovery is involved. However, we should explore the proper functional and environmental benchmarks for membranetechnology-assisted protein recovery from a variety of waste streams to overcome the hindrance that lies within the transfer of this process from laboratory-scale studies to the profitable market (Shahid et al. 2020; Xiao and Zhou 2020). Conclusion As discussed, there are several pathways towards the promising recovery of proteins from different waste sources. A variety of wastewaters have been investigated for the efficient recovery of protein using different techniques in the state of the art. It was demonstrated that purple photosynthetic bacteria along with microalgae are the most efficient and dominant mediators for the removal of organic substances and nutrients from red meat, pork- and poultry-processing wastewaters. Microbial protein is proven to be a worthwhile and available protein supply to satisfy the need for human as well as animal diet stability. A simple one-step treatment using bacteria provides both benefits, including the supply of protein sources and treatment of high-COD non-toxic organic wastewater. The process of protein recovery by bacteria can fulfil the requirement to release wastewater streams without any treatment. The obtained bacteria cells contain high concentrations of valuable molecules including proteins, polysaccharides, carotenoids, bacteriochlorophyll and coenzyme Q10. However, there are some drawbacks to this process, including the existence of many nucleic acids in some entities, which makes its utilization by human beings unsuitable, and these molecules should be handled properly and within the limit range. Moreover, post-treatment of the obtained single-cell protein is also significant because of its susceptibility to any impurities. In the coming years, it has been predicted that microorganisms will be an important source of food additives due to their efficiency in manufacturing high-quality protein from waste substances. Table 11 Cost analysis of different wastewater treated using membranes No. Wastewater Operational cost Treatment method Reference 1 Dairy waste stream (milk protein) 64–3374 US$/cubic metre of treated effluent Oxygen injection into the physicochemical treatment system (Martín-Rilo et al. 2015) 2 Microalgae biomass (extraction of protein) 0.12 US$/kg of microalgae sample Polyethersulfone membrane (Lorente et al. 2018) 3 Whey protein US$436,000 UF/RO process (Wen-qiong et al. 2019) 4 Milk protein US$322,882.40 (annual cost) RO operating system (Brião et al. 2019) 10276 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:10262–10282 However, to cover the future need for protein and achieve self-sufficiency, there is still a gap to developing new technologies for large-scale manufacturing that needs to be overcome. The implementation of membrane technology for protein recovery has also been proven to work effectively. Also, the integration of MF, UF, and VMD can allow a reduction in the volume of waste generated that is almost nine times greater and can establish an option to make a protein concentrate suitable for human and animal needs. The recovery of different types of proteins from wastewaters using membranes has been discussed in detail in this paper. The advantages associated with using membranes in the recovery of proteins along with other valuable products from the potato processing, dairy and seafood processing industries has been taken into special consideration in this study. Membrane fouling is always associated with the process of protein recovery. The backflushing of the membrane with available cleaning reagents was found to be proficient in improving the restoration ability of the membrane. The development of efficient technologies and improvement in traditionally available techniques of protein recovery from waste streams can provide high-quality protein and reduce the gap between the demand for and supply of proteins, making them available for humans and animals. However, there is still a need for more research to find new and more potential wastes as a protein source via the implementation of membranes for the sake of the long-term stability of our system. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge Assoc. prof. Arto Pihlajamäki for his time to read this mini review. Authors’contributions KS, VS, and MS provide a substantial contribution to the conception and design of this mini-review. KS is the major contributor of literature search and data analysis for this mini review. KS analyzed and interpreted the data for this mini-review article. KS analyzed and interpreted the data for this mini-review article. KS is the major contributor in drafting this mini review. KS, VS, and MS contributed to critically revising the article for important intellectual content. All the authors read and approved the final version of this mini-review and agree to approve for sending for publication in this esteemed journal. Funding Open Access funding provided by LUT University (previously Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT)). The authors acknowledge the funding from Maa- ja vesitekniikan tuki ry (MVTT foundation). Data availability Not applicable. Compliance with ethical standards Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 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