Marriage Guidance, Women and the Problem(s) of Returning Soldiers in Finland, 1944-1946

This is an electronic reprint of the original article. This reprint may differ from the original in pagination and typographic detail. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Please cite the original version: All material supplied via JYX is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, and duplication or sale of all or part of any of the repository collections is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for your research use or educational purposes in electronic or print form. You must obtain permission for any other use. Electronic or print copies may not be offered, whether for sale or otherwise to anyone who is not an authorised user. Marriage Guidance, Women and the Problem(s) of Returning Soldiers in Finland, 1944-1946 Malinen, Antti Malinen, A. (2018). Marriage Guidance, Women and the Problem(s) of Returning Soldiers in Finland, 1944-1946. Scandinavian Journal of History, 43(1), 112-140. https://doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2017.1379173 2018 Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=shis20 Scandinavian Journal of History ISSN: 0346-8755 (Print) 1502-7716 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/shis20 Marriage Guidance, Women and the Problem(S) of Returning Soldiers in Finland, 1944–1946 Antti Malinen To cite this article: Antti Malinen (2018) Marriage Guidance, Women and the Problem(S) of Returning Soldiers in Finland, 1944–1946, Scandinavian Journal of History, 43:1, 112-140, DOI: 10.1080/03468755.2017.1379173 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2017.1379173 © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Published online: 26 Sep 2017. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 152 View related articles View Crossmark data Antti Malinen MARRIAGE GUIDANCE, WOMEN AND THE PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND, 1944–1946 When former military chaplains began to give marital guidance to troubled couples after the end of hostilities with the Soviet Union (1941–1944) in Finland, new information about the causes and experiences of marital problems and divorces emerged during guidance sessions. Even lengthy marriages were seen to be burdened due to the stress of reunion and men’s wartime infidelity, increased inclination to drinking and aggressive behaviour. The article discusses the meaning and construction of marital expectations with respect to the development of post-war marital dissolution, and argues that wives in particular tried to adjust their marital expectations in accordance with the general developments in personal life and society. Especially in the case of older marriages, for the majority of women, divorce was seen more as means of personal survival than of seeking happiness, even in the urban areas. Although contemporaries feared that the marital institution was disintegrating, the majority of wives were willing to work to save, or endure, even troubled marriages. Keywords Second World War, Finland, divorces, demobilization, family life, marriage counselling, pastoral care, military chaplains 1. Introduction A modern clergyman wishing to provide spiritual guidance to a modern person should acquire all the knowledge and training which experimental psychology can provide to understand the human being. Such knowledge in no way usurps his true mission, to offer people the revelation of Christ (Pastor Olavi Castrén in a church periodical Vartija in 1947. 1 Scandinavian Journal of History, 2018 Vol. 43, No. 1, 112–140, https://doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2017.1379173 © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. Soaring divorce rates after the end of hostilities with the Soviet Union (1941–1944) generated an interest in safeguarding the institution of marriage. As in many other countries, in Finland, too, the reconstruction of the war-ravaged society was seen to be linked to the reconstruction of the family. 2 A strong and stable family was key in the search for ‘normality’and national consolidation. 3 A growing number of psychiatrists and psychologists were called upon to treat both individual and social problems of readjustment. 4 In Finland, it was former military chaplains who first constituted marital relationships as objects of professional guidance and began to apply psychological knowledge in the treatment of marital problems. This article focuses on the ways in which post-war couples were trying to ‘pick up the pieces’, and found ways of continuing their troubled marriages with the help of counselling pastors. I argue that counselling sessions provided new space in which ordinary Finnish wives and husbands tried to make sense of their marital discord and find new solutions. Previous research has studied how socially and culturally constructed notions of family and wifehood affected the ways in which women and their obligations as wives were positioned and discussed in post-war society. 5 However, quite rarely have researchers investigated whether or not contemporaries and invididuals actually behaved as expected. This article sheds new light on how married couples negotiated their understandings of marital troubles and solutions together with counselling pastors. 6 To contextualize the need for and organization of new counselling services, I describe how family reunifications, inadequate housing, homelessness, and scarcity of everyday necessities confronted tens of thousands of families with severe adjustment challenges. 7 In addition to wartime infidelity, further stress was caused when thousands of men returned changed from the war. I suggest that counselling pastors were, likewise, both professionally and personally profoundly influenced by their wartime experiences. In the immediate post-war years, Finnish marriage guidance became a mixture of psychological advice and pastoral care, which was heavily influenced by the military chaplaincy experiences of counselling pastors. During the war, chaplains learned new methods to provide informal counselling and consolation to troops and these skills were transferred to their work as counselling pastors. The end of the war was a shock that had adverse effects on marital life, especially in urban areas. In Nordic comparison, it seems that in Finland and Denmark the post-war marriage and divorce peaks bear some similarities. Figure 1 shows how the divorce rates peaked in both Finland and Denmark one year after the end of the war. In the Finnish case, the peak came in 1945, when there were almost 44,400 marriages and over 5,600 divorces. In Denmark in 1946, one year after the end of the German Occupation, there were almost 40,000 marriages and 7,500 divorces. 8 Like the war years 1941–1944, in Finland and Denmark the years of the Occupation provoked major social changes which outlasted the war. In Sweden, the wartime upheavals were more moderate than in Finland and Denmark. Norway, on the other hand, was less urbanized than the other two countries, which may explain the low divorce rates in that country. 9 In Iceland, the situation was exceptional, as the British and US troops constituted almost half of the population. 10 Despite the fears of the clergy and other social commentators, loosening of morals, manifest, for example, in an increase of marital infidelity, was mainly a temporary phenomenon. Both in Finland and Denmark, but particularly in Finland, the divorce rate began to decrease quite rapidly after the first few post-war years. In Finland, by the end of the 1940s the frequency of marital dissolutions was stabilized and remained relatively steady during the PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 113 1950s. In the post-war expert discussion, the main focus was on the dissolution of ‘hasty wartime marriages’and declining morality. 12 Later studies have also emphasized the hastiness of wartime marriages and attitudinal factors in explaining the high post-war divorce rate. 13 Yet we still know relatively little about the post-war experience of marital dissolution, and how effectively older families were actually capable of resisting the variety of post-war stressors, such as overcrowding (see Figure 2), placing a great strain on both the emotional and physical wellbeing of family members. To shed new light on the experience of marital dissolution among Finnish couples living in the urban areas, I use counselling records of the Helsinki marriage guidance centre (Kristillisen Palveluskeskuksen avioliittoneuvonta in Finnish). When marriage guidance services operated by Lutheran former military chaplains began after the end of war, they started to produce new client-based information about marital problems in urban settings. Because couples sought help from marriage guidance counsellors voluntarily, they may not be representative of the couples experiencing marital problems as a whole. The counsellors themselves emphasized, however, that clients came from all social classes and even non-believers sought pastoral help. 14 Clients from social groups II (owners of small enterprises, foremen, technicians, nurses, etc.) and III (skilled workers, lower-grade clerical workers, shop assistants, etc.) formed the majority in 1945 (58%) and 1946 (63%). 15 In Helsinki, the typical age of the counselling clients in 1945 was 37 years, and in 53% of the cases the marriage had lasted for more than seven years. 16 In the majority of the cases, clients visited marriage guidance centres alone. 17 Although the voluntary nature of counselling sets some limitations on the representativeness of the couples studied, at least we can learn more about spouses who sought 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 Persons divorcing per 10,000 married persons Denmark Finland Norwa y Sweden FIGURE 1 Persons divorcing per 10,000 married persons in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, 1938–1955. Source: Flora et al., State, Economy, and Society. 11. 114 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY help during difficult times and tried to solve their marital problems. The cases studied can give us some idea of how marriage for some was indeed perceived as an undissolvable union and for others more a question of enduring. Examination of counselling encounters also offers an opportunity to analyse how ideas concerning marriage and gender relations were also constructed and negotiated during counselling sessions. 18 I confine my study to Helsinki, where divorces were most common. During the years 1945–1946, divorce rates peaked, with over 3,000 divorces granted in Helsinki (population at the time 350,000) and almost 10,800 in Finland (population at the time 3.8 million) as a whole. In the years 1945–1946, the marriage guidance centre in Helsinki handled nearly 500 separate client cases and received over 300 written requests for help from the rural areas. Overwhelmed by serious marital problems, hundreds of spouses sought help. To render comprehensible the experiences and stresses of troubled couples, I contextualize in a fairly detailed fashion the physical, social, and emotional environments of post-war families of Helsinki. Although my focus is mainly on the problems of divorce, it must be noted that the number of marriages contracted followed a pattern similar to that of divorces. In Finland, there were 32,000 marriages in 1943, rising to 44,000 in 1945 and finally to almost 50,000 in 1946 before a decline to 43,500 marriages in 1947. For many the idea of marriage and children promised some stability in turbulent times. 19 As Olivier Wieviorka et al. have pointed out, the stresses of daily life thus both threatened family structures by exposing them to adjustment problems and strengthened them by encouraging new couples to marry and have children. 20 I acknowledge that, statistically, wartime marriages have been shown to fail faster than older marriages. 21 In Helsinki in 1945, 35% of the marriages dissolved had lasted less than five years. 22 There were some factors, such as entitlement to dependents’ allowances (sotakuukausipalkka in Finnish), which may have induced people to get married. Most of the wartime marriages have also been claimed to have been contracted after a relatively short period of courtship. 23 Apart from statistical analysis, FIGURE 2 Overcrowded family living in Helsinki. Picture taken 28 October 1950. Source: People’s archive (Kansan arkisto in Finnish). PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 115 there are, however, relatively few empirical and systematic studies on the problems of wartime marriages. 24 Yet later studies dealing with post-war divorce phenomena in Finland have also stressed the vulnerability of wartime marriages. The current historiography dealing with post-war family life has pointed out that marriages were probably also strained due to the adjustment problems and traumatic experiences of demobilized soldiers. 25 During the years 1939–1945, in total some 700,000 Finnish men out of a population of 3.7 million served in the armed forces. Within the growing body of literature on the experiences of the return to peace, most of the research to date has focused on the experiences of specific groups, such as female workers or children in wartime. 26 The social history of veterans’readjustment to family remains mostly unwritten. 27 Yet this earlier research provides an important background on the basis of which to take a more dynamic and family-centred perspective on the experience of returning to peace. Irmeli Hännikäinen’s study on war invalids’and wounded servicemen’s wives and how they coped is of special importance for the present study. By conducting 32 thematic interviews, she constructed four different types of ‘survivors’who were able to take care of their seriously injured husbands. 28 Hännikäinen’s study provides interesting findings on the women’s coping mechanisms; however, because memories of post-war family life were collected decades later, her analysis loses the immediate experience of family reunifications. 29 Finnish post-war psychiatry did not recognize that wartime psychological damage could have any long-term effects, and this affected the ways in which soldiers were treated and viewed. 30 Unlike war invalids, soldiers suffering from psychological and social problems were not offered any specific rehabilitation services, and they had to seek help within the existing social and healthcare services, marriage guidance included. When dealing with problems of reintegration and adjustment to society, veterans, their wives, and also the authorities had to use concepts understandable and familiar to contemporaries. Symptoms were interpreted according to the prevailing state of medical and social scientific knowledge. By looking at original sources such as counselling notes and diaries, I aim to capture the immediate experience of reunion in the aftermath of war and its socially constructed nature. 31 1.1. Sources and methodological considerations To gain new insight into marital troubles and how these were interpreted by both clients and counsellors during their sessions, I scrutinize the so far unexplored counselling records of the Helsinki marriage guidance centre. 32 In Helsinki, marital guidance operated under the ‘Christian Services Centre’(CSC, Kristillinen Palveluskeskus in Finnish), which itself was part of the national ecclesiastical organization Suomen Kirkon Seurakuntatyön Keskusliitto. Researchers have examined how the post-war years witnessed a new social awakening within the Church. The CSC was one example of Lutheran pastors’calling to render services (diakonia) to families in distress. 33 The counselling notes were generally written up after counselling sessions; the main reason for this was that counsellors avoided disturbing sessions. In my article I use records archived during the period 22 January 1945–10 August 1946, during which the pastors made notes on 398 client sessions. 34 In its first year, the CSC received 325 clients in total, which is a relatively large number compared to the total number of divorces granted in Helsinki (N = 1544). However, in the following 116 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY year, 1946, the number of pastors available on call dropped by half, to around 20, which forced the CSC to regulate the number of clients by decreasing the number of advertisements. The total number of clients during the years 1945–1946 was 495. 35 Usually the notes on one session amounted to approximately half of or one full handwritten page. Sometimes, if a client was seeking help for reasons other than marital, the notes were much briefer. To ensure clients’anonymity, no names were mentioned in the notes. The main ethical code of the counsellors was confidentiality. In their joint meetings, counselling pastors were urged not to refer to any client matters in their public speeches or sermons. Although notes usually mentioned the age and occupation of the clients, more detailed background information about the clients was gathered in other files. The main purpose of keeping records of counselling sessions was to create opportunities for discussion and debriefing with colleagues. Although sometimes counsellors recorded direct quotes from their clients, the content of the notes was a product of selection and memory. The level of detail and reflection also varies from counsellor to counsellor. Usually, counsellors described the reason for the client’s visit, how partners viewed the problem, and what kind of solutions they had proposed to solve the problem. Discussions were based on confidentiality and therefore may reveal more about the vulnerability and emotional lives of people than public divorce proceedings. When the decision to divorce was taken, and the spouse was applying for a divorce on the basis of guilt, the plaintiff had to prove to the court that his or her partner was guilty of acts constituting grounds for divorce. Divorce case files therefore stress more judicial evidence. 36 The counselling notes, however, give us, albeit in a decidedly mediated way, an opportunity to analyse more emotional experiences and processes of marital failure. The notes also shed light on the darker sides of family life, including spousal violence. 37 The return of the men to family life can be viewed through different sets of relationships. Younger men returned to their parental homes, men married during wartime started their marital life with new brides, and some returned to their families formed before the war as husbands and fathers. As explained, in Finland the main focus of research has been on the reconciliations and troubles of wartime marriages. There is some research on how children have remembered and experienced the return of their fathers. Erkki Kujala, in his research, pointed out how the alcohol consumption and tenseness of returning men adversely affected the emotional lives of their sons. 38 This article supplements Kujala’s research from the viewpoint of the contemporary experiences of parents. Analysis of the counselling records affords new insights, particularly into how wives and mothers in the families experienced and handled the stresses of post-war reunifications. 39 How the return of young soldiers to their parental homes succeeded remains unexplored. 40 Although post-war marriage guidance as a separate field of church work was something new, the pastoral care of marriage had existed for centuries in all Nordic countries and in Europe. 41 In Finland, the 1869 Church Law formed the basis for the pastoral work of marriage. Edifying talk and directions were important tools of the pastors, but a variety of admonishments might also be given to quarrelling spouses. 42 Research on the history and development of pastoral care and marriage guidance has focused on the proclamatory (kerygmatic) nature of counselling in the early days. 43 Close reading of counselling materials enables me to show how counsellors started to PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 117 conceptualize marital troubles both in spiritual and psychological terms. 44 The counselling pastors’views on the treatment of marital problems was constructed both during their theological education and wartime service, and these experiences are discussed and contextualized. 45 As we shall see, the style of pastoral work adopted during wartime continued after the war within the context of marital guidance. 46 Both clients and counselling pastors adopted the ‘language of nerves’. Without any formal training, both clients and counsellings pastors used diagnostic and medical terms such as psychopathic or depressed to make sense of troublesome situations. 47 2. Troubled and painful reunions The end of the war opened up new opportunities for family reunification in Finland. Long-term war-enforced separations affected particularly those families in which husbands or fathers were serving at the front. The evacuation of the population of Finnish Karelia during the summer of 1944 also led to a further breaking up of families. It was estimated that between August and September 1944, as many as 700,000–800,000 Finns, one-fifth of the whole population, were relocated and on the move. 48 After the Armistice of 19 September 1944, over 500,000 Finnish soldiers had to be demobilized within two months. Between September and November, 23,000 men from Helsinki returned from the war. In total, 34,000 soldiers from Helsinki took part in the hostilities of 1941–1944, of whom approximately 5,000 sustained permanent injuries. 49 Between the end of 1944 and the beginning of 1945, the urban population from the ceded territories moved to Helsinki. By the beginning of 1945, some 30,000 displaced people, mainly from Finnish Karelia, were already living in Helsinki. However, in Helsinki, spousal and family separation also increased due to evacuations. After the February 1944 bombings of Helsinki, most of the mothers and children were sent to rural areas, where they were accommodated, usually by relatives. In total, over 100,000 residents of Helsinki were evacuated. In the period 1941–1944, nearly 10,000 Helsinki children were also transferred to safety in Sweden and other Nordic countries. Both men and women experienced some form of stress on their return home. Most of the veterans had to find employment or continue their studies. The transition from life at the front to civilian life was difficult in itself. Due to the severe housing shortage, thousands of couples also had to make temporary housing arrangements while waiting for a more permanent dwelling. In Helsinki between November 1944 and February 1945, there were almost 80,000 removals inside the city and most of the movers were subtenants desperately seeking adequate and permanent dwellings. The apartments of Helsinki were also severely overcrowded after the war (see Figure 2). As a result, cramped living conditions had a negative effect on family relations. Living in close proximity to others and a lack of privacy were sources of irritation and easily exacerbated minor disputes into more severe conflicts. 50 It seems that contemporaries were quite aware of the potential troubles of family reunification. From the end of 1944, a substantial body of literature and newspaper articles was published, informing readers about the problems of demobilization, soldier-to-civilian adjustment, and resumption of family life. Governmental actors and politicians took part in the social construction of family ideals, in which women played an important role as caregivers. Many historians have highlighted this gendered 118 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY pointed out that invalids suffering from severe brain injuries usually had difficulties readjusting to work and family life. When external demands overtaxed their coping capabilities, this led to a variety of physical and mental symptons, including anxiety, depression, hostile reactions, and substance abuse. 126 Irmeli Hännikäinen has claimed that when war invalids’wives were able to find meaning in their troubles, they found it much easier to cope. Although living with a severely injured husband was hard, many women felt it was their duty to cope with difficulties and to take care of these men, who had risked their lives and sacrificed their health during the war. 127 Examination of the counselling records shows that many of the wives were struggling to find meaning in living with a husband whose behaviour had changed for the worse during the war and who had, for example, become verbally and physically abusive. Yet, for months they even endured abusive behaviour. In attempting to cope with such situations, some women themselves became upset, feeling tired and anxious. In many cases, women with ‘worn-out nerves’were also seeking help for themselves. 128 The marriage counsellors acknowledged the difficulty of women’slifesituations. 129 One of the most typical activities in counselling was to help clients find meaning for their suffering and imbue them with hope. Usually counsellors, by referring to the Bible, attempted to say something that would bring solace. The providence of God was emphasized and clients were asked to trust in God and His intentions. However, Pastor Matti Joensuu stated that religious comfort should not be turned into preaching if a client was not asking for it. 130 Typically, clients were asked to ‘bear their crosses’ and they were asked to believe that God would make good come out of their terrible situation. 131 In many ways pastoral care reflected their work as military chaplains, in which they had to help soldiers cope with suffering. 132 Counselling sessions usually ended with a prayer, in which this matter was also given into the hands of God. In cases of infidelity, counsellors typically identified spouse's unwillingness to put an end to the affairs as the main obstacle to reconciliation in the marriage. If counsellors were able to make a connection with the ‘guilty partner’, usually the husband, his story was also heard. Sometimes attempts were made to contact the third party and ask her to withdraw from the affair. Usually the counsellors tried to open men’s eyes and make them realize the irresponsibility of their behaviour and encourage them to listen the voice of their conscience and God. In their public writing and commentaries, the clergy also appealed to men and their sense of manhood. In his book, On Divorce, Bishop Gulin stated, in the context of marital troubles, that ‘to became a deserter before an attempt to fight seriously, is cowardly’. 133 Pastors relied on wartime rhetoric, and in this specific case true manliness was identified with military masculinity, which was based on bravery and unselfishess. When husbands’infidelity was discovered, wives usually experienced feelings of betrayal, hurt, and mistrust. Men seeking to salvage their marriages usually felt guilt and shame. For most of the women, it was hard to forgive their man’s behaviour although they wanted to. 134 Before the war, many of the clients’marriages were reportedly happy or satisfactory, and although the men were involved in extramarital affairs, emotional bonds between the couples did not disappear immediately. In some cases the realization of a husband’s infidelity was so hurtful that it led to feelings of depression and anxiety. 135 Wives were quite often encouraged to forgive their husbands, as ‘we were all sinners’. 136 This thinking is reflected the Lutheran doctrine of two kingdoms and the idea of original sin, in which all human beings were seen as weak sinners. 137 PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 125 In their public speeches in particular, marriage counsellors insisted that, although ‘exceptional conditions’and ‘dispersal of families’destabilized married life, the real problem was the fragmentation of the human, the widening gap between humanity and eternity. 138 Some of the counsellors were not afraid to challenge clients’views; they were seen to be too self-centred. This fitted well with the prevailing Finnish national narratives of post-war reconstruction. Antero Holmila has argued that the culturally constructed and symbolically ordered narratives of ‘survival’,‘sacrifice’, and ‘selfcontrol’made up a normative framework in which the meaning of Finland’s post-war transition from war to peace was given. This framework offered the Finns moral guidelines and lessons from the past as to what to do in order to successfully return to peace. Jouni Tilli has also concluded that after the armistice the Lutheran clergy used the rhetoric of responsibility and obedience in order to help people adapt to the new political situation. 139 However, in private counselling, clients were treated with more understanding and compassion. Although counsellors sometimes challenged clients’ views, the wellbeing of clients was valued. It is difficult to estimate how clients perceived the pastoral care. Clients sought reconciliation of the marriage usually not only because of existing emotional bonds but also for the sake of their children. Quite surprisingly, in the cases studied there were few mentions of economic reasons for staying together. Sometimes forgiveness yielded positive results, and couples were able to reconcile. 140 What made marital troubles especially difficult was that families were seldom dealing with only one or two problems. Infidelity and drinking were strains on the marriages, but so also were poor housing conditions, homelessness, and the scarcity of everyday necessities. Coping with inadequate housing was a constant struggle and required of the families a considerable amount of work and resources. In the counselling sessions, wives were positioned as carers better able to manage their emotions than were their husbands. Marriage required work and effort, and wives were expected to take major responsibility for the emotional work. Pastoral counsellors employed quite tradional conceptions about appropriate gender roles in their counselling, although husbands also were expected to take responsibility for keeping the marriage alive and satisfying. 141 Ideas of essential, natural differences between the sexes were deep-seated in the Finnish gender system, and were also apparent in the marriage guidance practices. 142 4. Marriage guidance and the problem of the returning soldier This article has discussed the question of how married couples tried cope with often enormous challenges of adjustment brought about by the end of war. In Finland, family reunifications and problems related to the physical and social surroundings of families posed severe challenges of adjustment to tens of thousands of families. However, both new and old marriages were strained by spousal infidelity and changed behaviour. The infidelity and problematic behaviour of the returning men posed new, difficult challenges of adjustment and forgiveness, especially for their wives. The main finding of the article is that, even in Helsinki, where divorces were most common, there was quite a large population of married people who were willing to endure even severe hardships and continued living in problematic 126 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY marriages. In the majority of marriage guidance cases, divorce was not looked upon as an easy option. In a considerable number of marriages, the wives in particular tried to adjust their marital expectations to the general developments in personal life and society. 143 For many of the older marriages, it seems as if wives primarily saw divorce as means of personal survival rather than as a way to achieve personal happiness, and that this was the case even in an urban setting such as Helsinki. Many of the wives studied seem to have internalized the prevailing cultural narratives of ‘survival’,‘sacrifice’,and‘self-control’.Thewivesofreturning soldiers were trying to adjust their marital expectations to the new situation and ‘normality’. However, as already mentioned, because the couples studied sought help from marriage guidance counsellors voluntarily, they may not be representative of the couples experiencing marital problems as a whole. Furthermore, although one-third of the clients were young couples representing ‘hasty wartime marriages’, the typical age of the CSC’s counselling clients during years 1945–1946 was 37 years. It may be that younger couples in general were more prone to seek quick, fault-based divorce, as earlier research also suggests. When spouses sought help from the marriage guidance centres, the advice offered and the pastoral care were focused on strengthening their spiritual wellbeing and skills of adaptation and emotional regulation. Pastors could not change the conditions of their clients’lives, but they tried to advise women on how to handle conflict situations and how to address problems in life. Sometimes more tangible help was offered and clients were referred, for example, to the social welfare services. In the case of older marriages, children, emotional bonds, and economic necessity kept families together; at least for some time. Eventually the accumulation of stressors produced elevated levels of psychological distress and taxed couples’coping skills and resources. For most of the women studied, the path to abandoning a marriage was usually emotional, long, and painful. Because marital guidance counsellors were mostly former military chaplains who served together with medical officers and medics, their wartime experiences and bonding with fighting troops affected how they perceived the nature of marital problems in the aftermath of war. Pastors were capable of recognizing the adjustment problems of returning soldiers. However, because of the prevalence of infidelity cases, women became the main recipients of pastoral care and consolation. Former military and hospital pastors were experienced in working with suffering soldiers, but, in peacetime, women became the main recipients of their care and guidance. The violent nature of post-war family life shocked many of the counsellors. Pastor Voitto Viro, the leader of the CSC marital guidance service, claimed that the general public did not seem to understand how difficult the living conditions of many families were. 144 In 1946, during the yearly celebration of the ‘Week of Home’, the CSC put into circulation an article in which spousal violence was addressed and condemned. It was stated to be very unfortunate that a Finnish man seems to beat his his wife often. 145 The pastors also discussed whether the 1929 divorce law was too strict when the grounds for divorce were based on spousal violence. Regarding narcotics problems, too, the grounds for divorce seemed to be too harsh: divorce was legitimate only when the drug problem was stated by professionals to be pathological and untreatable. 146 PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 127 It was not entirely irrelevant what kind of advice people received when seeking help from the marital counsellors. During the period 1945–1946, the main focus in counselling was on the wives. The CSC marriage counselling model was intended to promote the stability of the family. They stated that even the most difficult marital troubles could be overcome if only couples relied on the providence of God and were ready to transform themselves into unselfish and serving Christians. Wives were asked to show forgiveness and endure the hardships of strained marriages. However, although the Lutheran pastors were determined to safeguard the sanctity of marriage, when the wellbeing of a client was threatened, divorce was sometimes even suggested. 147 If marriage and home life had turned ‘into hell’, divorce was presented as an acceptable option. Moreover, the needs of children had to be recognized. More research is still needed into how different professional groups tried to help people suffering from a variety of adjustment problems in the aftermath of war, and how these activities affected people’s wellbeing. Acknowledgments The author would like to sincerely thank the anonymous reviewers, as well as Academy Research Fellow Jari Eilola, Professor Petri Karonen, Professor Pirjo Markkola, Senior Researcher Olli Matikainen, Post-doctoral Researcher Pasi Saarimäki, and Post-Doctoral Research Fellow Jouni Tilli, for their comments and helpfulness. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. Funding This work was funded by The Finnish Centre of Excellence in Historical Research, Rethinking Finland [1400–2000]. Notes 1 Pastor Olavi Castrén in a church periodical Vartija, 1947, 34. See Castrén, ‘Teologin mietteitä’. 2 Sihvo, Avioliitto ja avioero; Haapanen, Kirkko ottaa kantaa,10–11; Markkola, ‘Marriage Counselling’. 3 On the meaning of family as a stabilizing force, see Chettiar, ‘Treating Marriage’, 270; Langhamer, The English in Love, 10; Betts and Crawley, ‘Introduction’; Mazower, Dark Continent, 227; Lewis, ‘Public Institutions and Private Relationships’, 262. 4 Shapira, War Inside, 1; Rose, Governing the Soul, 163–76; Herzog, Sexuality in Europe, 100–6. 5 Markkola, ‘Marriage Counselling’; Jarvis, ‘If He Comes Home Nervous’;Jo Plant, ‘The Veteran, His Wife’. 6 Cf. Goltermann, Die Gesellschaft. 128 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 7 Cf. Markkola, ‘Focusing on the Family’,4. 8 Wieviorka et al., ‘Conclusion’; Chester, ‘Conclusion’, 300. 9 Kristiansen, ‘Norway’, 59. 10 Soikkanen, ‘Sosiaaliset olosuhteet’, 154. 11 In the case of Norway, data is available only for the years 1946–1955. 12 Tunkelo, ‘Lisääntyneet avioerot ja niiden seuraukset’,3–4; Nieminen, ‘Avioerojen yleistymisen syistä’, 527–30. 13 Allardt, Miljöbetingade differenser i skilsmässofrekvensen; Anntila, ‘Finland’; Koskelo, Avioerot; Näre, ‘Kuin viimeistä päivää’. See Tarjamo and Karonen, ‘Kun sota on ohi –Loppusanat’, 394–5, on the review on earlier research considering post-war marital and family problems. 14 See Viro, ‘Särkyviä koteja eheytynyt’. 15 Statistical information is drawn from Sipilä, Kirkon perheneuvontatyö Suomessa, Appendix. Sipilä divides clients into four separate social groups (I–IV), according to the criteria developed by the Statistical Office of Helsinki (Helsingin tilastokeskus in Finnish). 16 Sipilä, ‘Kirkon perheneuvontatyö Suomessa’, Appendix, Table 10. Sipilä, in his study on the development of Finnish marriage guidance, warns that the keeping of statistics was incomplete. In over half of the cases studied, there was no mentions of the length of the marriage. 17 Sipilä, ‘Kirkon perheneuvontatyö Suomessa’, Appendix, Table 6. 18 Clark, ‘Guidance, Counselling, Therapy’, provides interesting analysis on the social construction of ‘marital problems’within the context of National Marriage Guidance Council (UK). See also Kollind, ‘History of Family Counselling’. 19 Kirves, ‘Elämä omiin käsiin’; Betts and Crowley, ‘Introduction’, 215–16. 20 Wieviorka et al., ‘Conclusion’, 214. 21 See Tunkelo, ‘Sota-avioliitot avioerotilaston valossa’. Researchers have found similar patterns in other European countries and in North America. See Chester, ‘Conclusion’, 298–9; Goode, World Changes in Divorce Patterns, 84, 139; Phillips, Putting Asunder, 585; Sandström, ‘Time-Space Trends’,69–73. 22 HTV, Helsingin tilastollinen vuosikirja, Table 36, 35. 23 Tunkelo, ‘Sota-avioliitot avioerotilaston valossa’; Sihvo, Avioliitto ja avioero, 20; Anntila, ‘Finland’; Näre, ‘Kuin viimeistä päivää’, 336. 24 Dissolution of war marriages is dealth with some details in Soikkanen, ‘Sosiaaliset olosuhteet’, 156–7. 25 Markkola, ‘Focusing on the Family’; Kivimäki, ‘Battled Nerves’. See also Tarjamo and Karonen, ‘Kun sota on ohi’. On the difficulty of using the trauma concept in historical study see Goltermann, ‘On Silence’,93–4. 26 E.g. Hytönen, Ei elämääni lomia mahtunut; Kujala, ‘Sodan pojat’. 27 See, however, Uino, Sotiemme veteraanit. There are also several studies on wounded servicemen’sadjustment to society, e.g. Ranta-Knuuttila, Sodan aivovammaiset; Ranta-Knuuttila, Amputoitu sotavammainen. Irja Wendisch has dealt with some details of how relationships between returning soldiers and their children evolved in the aftermath of the war. See Wendisch, Me sotilaiden lapset; Wendisch, Pitkä taistelu. 28 Hännikäinen, Vaimot sotainvalidien rinnalla. Earlier, too, more social political research has studied the adjustment of war invalids, but the role of wives receives only limited attention. See, e.g., Ranta-Knuuttila, Amputoitu sotavammainen. PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 129 29 See Hornung, ‘An Austrian Married Couple’, who has investigated how post-war reunions have been remembered in later life. 30 Kivimäki, Battled Nerves. In his work, Kivimäki also investigated how encounters between patients and psychiatrists can be seen as one instance of institutionalized power in the service of the nation-state. See also Hännikäinen, Sota ihmisessä; Shephard, A War of Nerves. 31 On a similar approach, cf. Cohen, Family Secrets; Vaizey, Surviving Hitler’s War; Goltermann, Die Gesellschaft der Überlebenden. 32 To the best of my knowledge only Sipilä, ‘Kirkon perheneuvontatyö Suomessa’, has used the material, but only to gather statistical information about counselling cases. 33 On the notion of rendering service (diakonia) and the rise of the Neo-Folk Church Movement, see Lauha, ‘Martti Simojoki’; Huhta and Malkavaara, Suomen kirkon sisälähetysseuran historia. See also Markkola, ‘Marriage Counselling’. 34 Pastors on call did not make notes on all client sessions. 35 See Annual Report of 1946, Hf:1. Cf. Joensuu, Perheiden kanssa naimisissa, 112. Statistical information on the nature of counselling has been retrieved from the annual reports of the marriage guidance centre and from Sipilä, ‘Kirkon perheneuvontatyö Suomessa’, on the marriage guidance work of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland. 36 Anntila has pointed out that divorce legislation was based partly on the principle of guilt and partly on the principle of marital discord. The grounds for divorce in the 1929 Marriage Act were ‘adultery, venereal disease contracted during the marriage, assault or attempted homicide by husband or wife, imprisonment for at least three years, conviction for an offence making the spouse the object of special contempt, misuse of intoxicating substances and wilful abandonment for at least one year’. See Anntila, ‘Finland’, 12. 37 Most of the research on spousal violence in Finnish context concentrates on the 19th century or early 20th century. See, e.g., Rajala, Kurittajia ja puukkosankareita. Paul Betts has studied the post-war marital life of East Berlin in detail and concludes that domestic violence became one the main reasons for filing for divorce in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War. See Betts, Within Walls,94–5. 38 Kujala, ‘Sodan pojat’. On the history of the wartime childhood and youth in general, see the four-volume work Weilin and Göös, Sodassa koettua. 39 Cf. Vaizey, Surviving Hitler’s War, 4, 13. 40 Cf. Fahrni, Household Politics, 189. 41 Donzelot, Policing of Families, ch. 5. 42 See Antikainen, ‘Demokratian synnystä’,98, 133–4. Cf. Kollind, ‘History of Family Counselling’. 43 On earlier research, see Kruus, Potilaan ja teologin keskustelu; Viika, Kirkon perheneuvonnan viisi vuosikymmentä; Kettunen, ‘Kehittyvä sielunhoito’; Hakala, ‘Learning by Caring’, 11. Cf. Kivivuori, Psykokirkko; Kulhia, Uutta, vanhaa ja lainattua. See also Helén and Yesilova, ‘Shepherding Desire’. 44 Arja-Liisa Räisänen, in her dissertation, studied marriage and sexual advice manuals published between 1865 and 1920. See Räisänen, Onnellisen avioliiton ehdot. 130 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 45 On theological education, see Kruus, Potilaan ja teologin keskustelu; Joensuu, Perheiden kanssa naimisissa. On the experience of working as a military chaplain, see Tilli, Continuation War; Bergen, ‘German Military Chaplains’. 46 Jouni Tilli has studied how pastoral power was enacted within encounters between military chaplains and frontline troops. Tilli, Continuation War. See also Tuomi, Sanoja kärsimykseen. 47 Cf. Pietikäinen, Neurosis and Modernity, 352. 48 Virolainen, ‘Suomen siirtoväen ongelma’, 13. 49 Over 10% invalid rating. 50 See Malinen, Perheet ahtaalla. 51 In the Finnish context, see Haikari, ‘Kun sota loppuu’; Holmila, ‘Jälleenrakentamisen narratiivit’. In international comparison, see Hartmann, ‘Prescriptions for Penelope’, 224; Plant, ‘The Veteran, His Wife’. 52 Sipilä, ‘Kirkon perheneuvontatyö Suomessa’, appendices. 53 Cf. Sandström, ‘Time-Space Trends’, 73. 54 Annual report of 1945, Hf:1. 55 E.g. Case 255, 25.10.1945. 56 Eg. Case 96, 28.3.1945; Case 98, 3.4.1945; Case 104, 7.3.1945; Case 110, 5.4.1945; Case 356, 3.5.1946; Case 371, 17.6.1946. 57 Case 314; 4.2.1946; Case 44, 14.2.1945. 58 See, e.g., Case 5 8, 20.2.1945; Case 155, 24.5.1945; Case 157, 25.5.1945. 59 See, e.g., Case 65, 22.1945. 60 See HTV, Helsingin tilastollinen vuosikirja, Table 36, 34. 61 See, e.g., Simmons, Making Marriage Modern, 221. On the development in East Germany, see Betts, Within Walls, 96; cf. Sandström, ‘Time-Space Trends’, 81. 62 HTV 1948, Table 40, 40; Ollila, Maaseutu-kaupunki-erotus, 70. 63 See pastor Voitto Viro’s diary, 1.10.1945, Hf:1. 64 Viro, ‘Avioliiton hätä’,9. 65 Hagelstam, ’Röster från kriget’. Cf. Vaizey, Surviving Hitler’s War. 66 See, e.g., Case 18, 29.1.1945; Case 23., 31.1.1945. 67 Case 4, 25.1.1945. 68 Case 36, 7.2.1945. 69 Stenius, ‘Problematic Intoxications’, 544. Control of drinking in public also became stricter in the post-war period, and this has to be noted when statistics are interpreted. 70 HTV, Helsingin tilastollinen vuosikirja, Table 140, 141. 71 Ylikangas, Unileipää, kuolonvettä, spiidiä; Stenius, ‘Problematic Intoxications’, 544. Cf. Jokivartio, ‘Om missbruket av heroin’. According to Jokivartio, the police estimated that around 200 people were taking heroin on a daily basis. 72 Toivola, ‘Juoppous numeroiden valossa’, 61. 73 HTV 1946/1947, Table 155, 157. 74 Kivimäki, ‘Hämärä horisontti, avautuvat tulevaisuudet’. 75 Cf. Puosi, Avioerot Turussa; Nieminen, Särkyneiden sydänten sota. 76 See HTV, Helsingin tilastollinen vuosikirja, Table 36, 34. 77 Westerlund, Saksalaisten sotilaiden lapset, 29. Westerlund calls attention to the view of Judge J. F. Selin of the Helsinki jurisdiction about the violence and drinking underlying divorces. 78 Annual Report of 1945, Hf:1. Cf. Joensuu, ‘Alkoholi ja avioerot’, 163. 79 See Case 276, 16.11.1945; Case 312, 4.2.1946. PROBLEM(S) OF RETURNING SOLDIERS IN FINLAND 1944–1946 131 80 Acceptable reasons for divorce were discussed in counselling pastors’internal meetings; see, e.g., Meeting 11.3.1945, Hf:1, Christian Center of Services; See also Gulin, Avioero, 43; Gulin and Niemi, Avioliitto, 176. 81 Simojoki, ‘Henkisten tekijäin merkitys elämäntaistelussa’, 117–18; Tenkku, Alaston ihminen murrosajan kuvastimessa. 82 Bourke, ‘Going Home’, 154; Dale, Re-Adjusting to Life after War, 19. 83 Aatami 1945:1, 3. 84 Ahlbäck and Kivimäki, ‘Masculinities at War’. 85 See Case 208, 24.7.1945. 86 Cf. Muir, The Hidden Cost of War, 309. 87 Goltermann, On silence, 101. 88 e.g. Case 195, 3.7.1945; Case 252, 17.10.1945. 89 e.g. Case 249, 10.10.1945; Case 303, 18.1.1946. 90 Case 30, 6.2.1945. 91 Case 91, 26.3.1945; see also Case 349, 24.4.1946. 92 See Kivimäki, ‘Battled Nerves’, 191. 93 Kivimäki, ‘Battled Nerves’, 194. 94 The number of Finnish military chaplains is quite high. In Germany, around 1,000 military chaplains served during the Second World War. See Bergen. ‘German Military Chaplains’, 166. 95 Tilli, Continuation War, 12. Former military chaplains emphasized the new connection between themselves and the men. See, e.g., Korhonen and Nokkala, ‘Lukijalle’,5. 96 In his memoirs, Matti Joensuu remembers that, when he was working at military hospital 13. at Viipuri in 1941, the whole hospital was working under a heavy workload. He felt that, after six months of heavy work, his own health deteriorated and he fell ill. Joensuu, Perheiden kanssa naimisissa,72–3. Cf. Kivimäki and Tepora, ‘Meaningless Death’, 270. 97 Honkasalo, Suomalainen sotainvalidi, appendices. 98 Viro, Korsupappina Syvärille, 87. 99 E.g. Viro, Korsupappina syvärille, 56, 85. 100 Ponteva, Psykiatriset sairaudet Suomen puolustusvoimissa, 45. 101 Viro, Korsupappina syvärille, 20; Palosuo, ‘Tulevaisuuden kirkko –miesten kirkko?’, 161; Tuunainen, ‘The Finnish Army at War’,178. 102 See Tuomisto, Hengellinen työ sotainvalidien parissa, 22, 27; Joensuu, Perheiden kanssa naimisissa,63–9. 103 Tuomisto, Hengellinen työ sotainvalidien parissa. 104 E.g. Case 87, 20.3.1945; Case 175, 8.6.1945; Case 176, 8.6.1945. 105 Case 183, 19.6.1945. 106 Case 24, 31.1.1945. 107 See Kuoppala, Sotapapit kovan ajan koulussa, on how former military chaplains remember their years with frontline troops. Cf. Kivimäki and Tepora, ‘War of Hearts’. 108 Tuomi, Sanoja kärsimykseen, 14. Cf. Donner, ‘Experience of War Psychiatry’, 500. The leaders of the first marriage guidance services in Tampere and Helsinki, former military chaplains Matti Joensuu (1915–2003), Aarne Siirala (1919–1991), and Voitto Viro (1914–1999), were in their twenties and thirties. 109 Jokivartio and Helve, ‘Chronic Alcoholism’, 179. 132 SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 110 Meeting 11.3.1945, Hf:1, Christian Center of Services. 111 See, e.g., Case 134, 28.5.1945. 112 Thoits, ‘Stress and Health’, 42. 113 Cf. Sandström, ‘Time-Space Trends’,67 114 See Viro’s article on Helsingin Kirkkosanomat 26.10.1945, No 7, 1–2. 115 Joensuu, Perheiden kanssa naimisissa, 94. Cf. Chettiar, ‘Treating Marriage’, 272. 116 Joensuu. Perheiden kanssa naimisissa, 94. Cf. Cohen, Family Secrets, 216–17. 117 Pastor Viro’s diary 1.3.1945, Hf:1. 118 Pastor Viro’s diary 1.10.1945, Hf:1. 119 See Markkola, ‘Marriage Counselling’. 120 See Case 294, 21.12.1945. 121 Case 261, 24.10.1945. 122 See, e.g., Case 30, 6.2.1945; Case 147, 11.5.1945; Case 210, 25.7.1945; Case 213, 3.8.1945; Case 264, 26.10.1945; Case 271, 5.11.1945; Case 290, 12.12.1945; Case 313, 4.2.1946; Case 359, 30.4.1946. 123 E.g. Monson et al., ‘Military-Related PTSD’, 708. Cf. Goltermann, On Silence. 124 Close to 16,000 frontline soldiers received psychiatric treatment during the period 1941–1944 and approximately 13% of them were from the Helsinki and Uusimaa region. Overall, 34,000 men from Helsinki served in the army during the period 1941–1944. Kivimäki has estimated that as many as 1,000 men from Helsinki received psychiatric treatment in the period 1941–1944 (email exchange with Ville Kivimäki, 14 November 2013). 125 Ponteva, Psykiatriset sairaudet Suomen puolustusvoimissa, 136. 126 Ranta-Knuuttila, Sodan aivovammaiset, 18. 127 Hännikäinen, Vaimot sotainvalidien rinnalla. 128 See, e.g., Case 40, 12.2.1945. 129 See, e.g., Raitis ylioppilas 1945:2, interview with pastor Voitto Viro. 130 See Matti Joensuu’s letter exchange with colleague 9.5.1949, Fa:1. 131 Cf. Holmila, ‘Jälleenrakentamisen narratiivit’. 132 Cf. Tilli, Continuation War; Tuomi, Sanoja kärsimykseen. 133 Gulin, Avioero,5. 134 See, e.g., Case 78, 9.3.1945; Case 79, 14.3.1945; Case 145, 8.5.1945; Case 274, 12.11.1945. 135 See, e.g., Case 105, 12.4.1945. 136 See Alaja, Uutta yhteyttä etsimässä, 17, on the typical argumentation. 137 See Markkola, ‘Focusing on the Family’, 69. 138 See, e.g., Voitto Viro’s interview in the periodicals Suomen Kuvalehti 1945:10, 303; Kotimaa, 1 May 1945. 139 Tilli, Continuation War, 170. 140 See, e.g., Case 295, 7.1.1946. 141 Cf. Lewis, Public Institutions and Private Relationships, 262. 142 Cf. Räisänen, Onnellisen avioliiton ehdot. 143 Cf. Phillips, Untying the Knot,97–8, who has investigated the linkages between marital expectation and marital dissolution. 144 Viro, Aikamme avioliitto-ongelmia, 20. 145 See Viro’s diary, September 1946. Hf:1. 146 See Kotimaa 1 May 1945; Raitis Ylioppilas 1945:2. 147 See, e.g., Case 91, 26.3.1945. 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