Parents’ involvement in their children’s education : narratives from rural Pakistan

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Parents’ involvement in their children’s education : narratives from rural Pakistan © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published version Ahmed, Qazi; Rönkä, Anna; Perälä-Littunen, Satu; Eerola, Petteri Ahmed, Q., Rönkä, A., Perälä-Littunen, S., & Eerola, P. (2024). Parents’ involvement in their children’s education : narratives from rural Pakistan. Educational Research, Early online. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2024.2305821 2024 Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rere20 Educational Research ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rere20 Parents’ involvement in their children’s education: narratives from rural Pakistan Qazi Waqas Ahmed, Anna Rönkä, Satu Perälä-Littunen & Petteri Eerola To cite this article: Qazi Waqas Ahmed, Anna Rönkä, Satu Perälä-Littunen & Petteri Eerola (01 Feb 2024): Parents’ involvement in their children’s education: narratives from rural Pakistan, Educational Research, DOI: 10.1080/00131881.2024.2305821 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2024.2305821 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Published online: 01 Feb 2024. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Parents’ involvement in their children’s education: narratives from rural Pakistan Qazi Waqas Ahmed a , Anna Rönkä a , Satu Perälä-Littunen b and Petteri Eerola a a Department of Education, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; b Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland ABSTRACT Background: Parents’ roles in their children’s education are significant in terms of outcomes for the child. As research on parental involvement in children’s education has often been conducted in high-income countries, there is a deep need for more research on parental involvement in contexts of disadvantage. Purpose: Set in the context of socioeconomically disadvantaged communities in rural Pakistan, this study sought to explore parents’ lived experiences of their involvement in their children’s education and gain insight into the barriers they encountered in assisting their children’s learning. Methods: A qualitative research design was employed. In total, 12 parents (6 mothers and 6 fathers) of school-age children in rural Pakistan were interviewed about their views on involvement with their children’s education. Data were analysed thematically, using a narrative inquiry approach. Findings: Through in-depth analysis of the data, two distinct narratives of parental involvement were identified: (1) a narrative of hope and trust-building, indicating parents’ confidence in state schools and their striving for a better future for their children, and (2) a narrative of dissatisfaction and inequality, reflecting frustration arising from factors including parents’ socioeconomic situations, concerns about schools and the influence of local societal norms. It was evident that, despite hardship, the parents wanted their children to be educated and regarded education as a path to improving prospects. Conclusions: The findings broaden understanding of parents’ involvement in their children’s education within socioeconomically disadvantaged rural communities by revealing and highlighting the diverse, often context-related barriers the parents encountered. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 6 December 2022 Accepted 11 January 2024 KEYWORDS Parents; rural education; parental involvement; barriers; school; poverty Introduction Parents’ involvement in their children’s education is regarded as critically important in providing children with a good starting point for independent effort and success (e.g. Epstein 2018; Goodall and Montgomery 2014; Uusimäki et al. 2019). Irrespective of their social, educational or ethnic background, parents’ interest and input can aid and CONTACT Qazi Waqas Ahmed [email protected] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2024.2305821 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent. encourage children to perform better in their studies (Dahie, Mohamed, and Mohamed 2018). Involvement can take the form of a mix of diverse activities through which parents can contribute to their children’s education, including helping children with their homework, negotiating with teachers and attending school events (Hill and Tyson 2009; Park and Holloway 2013). For example, parents may support their children’s education at home by helping them in the construction of concepts, building their social competence and upholding their learning and development (e.g. Epstein 2018; Puhrová 2018). A positive parental attitude towards their children’s education helps to enrich the learning environment at home and school, and facilitates parents’ understanding of their child’s way of learning (Arapi and Hamel 2021; Bartnikowska, Ćwirynkało, and Fronek 2022). Similarly, good parent–teacher working relations and practical communication can help to dispel misunderstanding or mistrust that may arise between parents and teachers (Orell and Pihlaja 2020; Puccioni, Froiland, and Moeyaert 2020). The role of parents in their children’s education has been variously described in the literature using terms including home–school cooperation (e.g. Orell and Pihlaja 2020), parental engagement (e.g. Goodall 2021) and parental involvement (e.g. Epstein 2018; Wilder 2014). Home–school cooperation describes a collaborative working relationship between parents and teachers in which both parties take equal responsibility for children’s learning (e.g. Westergård 2013). Definitions of parental engagement usually include reference to parents’ commitment and dedication to their children’s learning at school, at home and in the community (Goodall 2021). According to Pushor (2007), parental engagement is a synergy of commitment between parents and teachers, in which they work in tandem, building understanding and mutually deciding on issues pertaining to a child’s education and development. Parental involvement may refer to efforts by schools and educational authorities to involve parents in their children’s education at school, and to educate parents about helping children in their learning endeavours at home (Đurišić and Bunijevac 2017; Epstein 2018; Fan and Chen 2001). Whilst the critical role of parents in their children’s education has been extensively researched (Arapi and Hamel 2021; Wilder 2014), insufficient attention has been paid to this topic in the context of lower-income countries (Ahmed, Rönkä, and Perälä-Littunen 2022). The study reported in this paper seeks to contribute to efforts to address this gap, by investigating parental involvement in the context of rural Pakistan. In Pakistan, parents – especially those who are poor, have low literacy levels and are rural-dwelling – are often unaware of the importance of involvement in their children’s education, as they lack the necessary resources to be involved. For such parents, the notion of involvement is more likely to mean coping with basic realities: for example, providing their children with food and shelter, freeing them from paid or unpaid labour and sending them to school (Ahmed et al. 2021; Mughal 2020). Pakistan has approximately 50 million school-age children, of whom around 22 million are out of school (UNICEF 2018). Although many factors have a bearing on poor grades, dropout or absenteeism, parents’ lack of involvement in their children’s education is often cited as one of the main reasons for children’s low academic performance, or for their dropping out of formal education (Malik, Rafique, and Qayyum 2020; Yousaf 2019). In our study, the concept of parental involvement is used, as it is widely employed in the literature to refer to the role and contribution of parents in their children’s education (e.g. Đurišić and Bunijevac 2017; Epstein 2018; Fan and Chen 2001; Hill and Tyson 2009). 2Q. W. AHMED ET AL. However, for the purposes of this study, the meaning of the concept parental involvement has been expanded to better accommodate the circumstances and experiences of parents living in socioeconomically disadvantaged rural areas and regions. For instance, what might be termed parental interference, such as the practice of parents excluding their children from school, may be due to parents’ socioeconomic situation (e.g. poverty and low literacy levels) or to irrepressible external conditions (i.e. local customs) that hamper children’s opportunities for education. Thus, in this study, the definition of parental involvement also includes the notion of parental interference in their children’s education. Before setting out our study in more detail, though, we situate our work with reference to the wider research context. Background The social-ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggests that parents have a profound influence on their children’s learning. As parents’ active participation and encouragement can enhance children’s learning abilities, much research interest has focused on investigating how the home environment can play a crucial role in supporting children’s education (Desforges and Abouchaar 2003), with engaged parenting supporting a home environment conducive to children’s learning endeavours (US Department of Education 2010). A positive attitude and active involvement by parents can be key to bridging and linking children’s learning at school with their learning at home (Puhrová 2018; Schmid and Garrels 2021). Similarly, parental activities such as participating in children’s academic work at home, and visiting their school, send children a message that learning is essential (Bartnikowska, Ćwirynkało, and Fronek 2022). Although not all socioeconomically disadvantaged contexts face the same issues relating to parental involvement in their children’s education, and situations may be diverse, they nonetheless have some predicaments in common. These typically include a lack of qualified teachers, parents’ limited educational knowledge and the precarious economic situation of families, which often obstruct coordination and communication between parents and schools (Kumar et al. 2023; Lechuga-Peña and Brisson 2018; Malik, Rafique, and Qayyum 2020). For example, according to Hasnat (2015), uneducated or lesseducated parents in Bangladesh may not feel comfortable about contacting their children’s schools and, thus, remain uninvolved or less involved in their children’s education. Likewise, in India, parents’ weak educational and economic backgrounds often cause poor connectivity with the school, and school dropout (Kumar et al. 2023). In Pakistan, parents often feeling unwelcome in the school, or receiving insufficient information about their children’s education, can widen the gap between home and school and reduce their participation in their children’s education (Ashraf 2019). Studies emphasise that parents can contribute to their children’s education, and better understand their children’s difficulties with learning, when they are able to facilitate their children’s schooling by participating in the educational process and communicating with their children’s schools (Bempechat and Shernoff 2012; Đurišić and Bunijevac 2017; Puccioni, Froiland, and Moeyaert 2020). Many people in lower-income countries reside in rural areas, which are educationally and economically more disadvantaged than urban areas (World Databank 2017). It is often the case that parents are heavily involved in maintaining their households and EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3 making a living, and hence will find it extremely difficult to invest scarce resources (e.g. time and/or money) in their children’s education (Malik, Rafique, and Qayyum 2020; Mughal 2020). Many obstacles, including poverty, lack of financial resources, lack of access to information and lack of awareness, make it difficult for parents to be involved in their children’s education (Williams and Sánchez 2013). In rural Pakistan, household circumstances are often unsuited to children’s learning and development (Mughal 2020). It is evident that the family’s financial situation, the parents’ educational background, and even the family’s size can influence children’s learning and parental participation considerably (Malik, Rafique, and Qayyum 2020). Another factor contributing to the lack of parental involvement is patriarchy. The structure of the rural Pakistani community reflects a powerful male dominance, in which women traditionally do not have opportunities to participate in many spheres of life (Abbas, Hashim, and Alzuhairi 2018). For example, girls are often shut off from attending school, especially after primary education, and mothers’ participation in their children’s education is restricted (Agha 2021; Shah and Shah 2012). Male family members (e.g. the father or another male family member) often discourage the education of girls (Agha 2018), and instead of receiving formal education girls are frequently instructed in household duties (Shah and Shah 2012). Such norms habitually force girls into premature marriage and deprive them of their fundamental right to education (Abbas, Hashim, and Alzuhairi 2018). Despite education being free in state schools in Khyber Pakhtun-khwa, the region in which the data for this study were gathered, children from disadvantaged families often cannot access all the resources they need (e.g. notebooks, school bags and transport). This is clearly a situation which imposes extra stress and strain on parents (Ghazi et al. 2013; Jadoon, Aajiz, and Khan 2021). Moreover, a significant proportion (over 40%) of the Pakistani population is not literate (World Databank 2017), and parents whose first language is not Urdu (the national language) find it difficult to interact with teachers, culminating in their feeling distanced from their children’s school activities (LaRocque, Kleiman, and Darling 2011). Research has shown that in families where poverty and low levels of literacy prevail, and food and health services are inadequate, it is not possible for children to attain age-appropriate physical and intellectual development (Abid et al. 2021; Erdener and Knoeppel 2018; Mughal 2020). In addition, according to a report by UNESCO (2007), parents’ poor socioeconomic circumstances and the resulting absence of parental support and motivation have remained underexplored. In rural Pakistan, for example, where 61% of the total population of the country reside, parental involvement is a serious issue (World Databank 2015). It is evident that factors including precarious socioeconomic conditions and limited teacher-parent cooperation have greatly discouraged parents, and may ultimately lead them to abandon their children’s education (Malik, Rafique, and Qayyum 2020; Mughal 2020). Purpose With the research landscape and socioeconomic context of disadvantage set out above in mind, this study aimed to explore the lived experiences of parents of school-age children in rural Pakistan, in terms of their involvement in their children’s education. The research question we sought to address was as follows: How do parents in rural Pakistan view their 4Q. W. AHMED ET AL. involvement in children’s learning, and what barriers hinder them from assisting their children’s learning? Methods Methodological approach This study adopted a qualitative research design based on narrative inquiry. Given the suitability of narrative inquiry to support the exploration of stories and experiences about individuals and society (Clandinin and Connelly 2000), it was considered an appropriate means by which to address the study’s purpose. Narrative methods can enable the uncovering of lived experiences and help identify nuance in people’s stories (Ntinda 2019). In narratives, people may reveal how they make sense of their lived experiences and talk about their communities (Nuran 2015; Riessman 2008). Thus, a key feature of this study’s design was to examine rural parents’ narratives of involvement in their children’s education. Ethical considerations As this research was carried out at a Finnish University, the guidelines of the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity and of the Responsible Conduct of Research and Research Ethics were followed. In advance of collecting data, the prospective study participants gave their informed consent. The interviewer (researcher and first author of this paper) explained the study objectives and consent form to the parents, most of whom were not literate, prior to starting each interview. This ensured that they understood the study aims and were aware of their rights as research participants. It was made clear to the parents that their opinions, ideas and beliefs were important. The interviewer was familiar with the pertinent socio-cultural norms and traditions. During the interviews, some participants expressed strong emotions while telling their stories. The interviewer responded to these expressions of emotion sensitively. As the interaction between men and women is not common or can be a sensitive issue, particularly in rural Pakistan, the male interviewer was accompanied by his sister during the interviews, a strategy that helped maintain a safe and motivating atmosphere. This especially supported mothers’ openness, ensured a flow of talk and enabled discussion about gender-sensitive issues. All interviews were audio-recorded with the interviewees' consent, and they were assured that their data would be treated confidentially and de-identified. Data collection Interviews were conducted with parents of low socioeconomic status (i.e. financially and academically less privileged) living in rural Pakistan. An approach based on snowball sampling was used to recruit participants for this study (Ghaljaie, Naderifar, and Goli 2017). Some parents who were initially recruited then assisted us in locating further potential participants. The primary criteria for inclusion were: living in a rural area of Pakistan, and having school-going children. A total of 12 parents were interviewed, of EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 5 whom eight were not literate, three had completed primary school and one had completed high school. The participants comprised six mothers and six fathers, whose ages ranged within 30–55 years. The parents’ views were elicited through participation in audio-recorded, semistructured interviews. In preparation for data collection, we developed an interview guide that was based on topics evident in previous research on aspects of parental involvement in their children’s education (e.g. Bower and Griffin 2011; Epstein 2018; Kim 2018; Wilder 2014). Throughout this process of development, the cultural context of rural Pakistan was taken into account. The interview guide included demographic questions and key areas for discussion with the participating parents. Various dimensions of parental involvement in their children’s education were explored in the interviews, including: parental involvement in school activities; parents’ interaction and cooperation with teachers; parents helping children’s learning at home; and factors that they felt hindered their involvement in their children’s education. The interviews were conducted in Hindko, which is a regional language widely spoken in the Abbottabad, Haripur and Mansehra regions of Pakistan. Hindko was used because many rural dwellers generally do not fluently speak or fully understand Urdu, the national language. The interviewer (first author) is fluent in Hindko. A total of 12 interviews was conducted (i.e. one interview with each of the 12 participants). One parent per household was interviewed to support collection of a diversity of views on the phenomenon being studied. The interviews with fathers were conducted in various locations, such as their garden, farm, shop or home, whilst the interviews with mothers took place in their homes, with their consent and at their convenience. Data analysis The overall aim of the analysis was to better understand a phenomenon in a specific context by focusing on what was actually said in the participants’ narratives, as they spoke about their involvement in their children’s education. An analytical procedure informed by Riessman’s 2008 thematic-narrative approach was employed. The first author conducted the analysis by hand. This process began with transcription of all the audio-recorded interviews, which resulted in 178 handwritten A4 pages. The next stage involved the first author reading the transcripts to better understand the parents’ views. Similarities and differences between viewpoints were noted. To check for accuracy and consistency, all the transcripts were confirmed back with the original audio recordings. The conceptualisation and understanding of the participants' views developed through close reading, in which common thematic elements (codes) relevant to the aim of the study were identified and highlighted (Glesne 2006; Riessman 2008). As a following step, the ideas and topics that had been pinpointed in the interviewed parents’ narratives were categorised and grouped. This process allowed for the generation of two broader narratives and several sub-narratives. Next, the first author re-read the transcripts to confirm these findings and consider their relevance to the research questions. During this step, suitable labels for the different narratives and sub-narratives were also sought. To enhance the credibility and transparency of the data analysis, all decisions were 6Q. W. AHMED ET AL. discussed, in detail, with the co-authors of the paper. The first author re-visited the transcribed data several times to locate necessary information and ensure the categories of narratives and sub-narratives accurately reflected the data. Findings Through the process of in-depth analysis described above, we were able to gain insight into the lived experiences of the parents of school-age children in rural Pakistan that we had interviewed. This enabled us to better understand how the parents perceived their involvement in children’s education, and the barriers that they felt hindered them from assisting their children’s learning. Overall, two distinct narratives were identified in the interview data: (1) a narrative of hope and trust-building and (2) a narrative of dissatisfaction and inequality. Both of these narratives were evident in most of the parents’ interviews. Table 1 presents the two narratives, associated sub-narratives, and topics that arose from the analysis of interview data. First, the narrative of hope and trust-building comprised three different sub-narratives: (i) parents noticed some improvements; (ii) parents’ aspirations for a better future for their children and (iii) the extended family as a resource for involvement. This narrative contained encouraging aspects, such as the parents’ perceptions of the gradual emergence of parent–teacher cooperation and processes of trustbuilding. Despite all their hardships, the interviewed parents expressed a desire for their Table 1. The narratives, sub-narratives and topics arising from analysis of the interviews. Narratives Sub-narratives Topics Narrative of hope and trustbuilding Parents noticed some improvements Parents’ aspirations for a better future for their children The extended family as a resource for involvement Cooperation between parents and teachers Teachers’ empathy with poor parents Feedback on children’s learning activities The giving of homework by teachers Some progress in children’s education Parental motivation and guidance to children The desire of parents for their children to receive education Parental encouragement Parents seek support from neighbours for their children’s education Parents work hard to arrange private tuition for children Support of relatives for children’s education Narrative of dissatisfaction and inequality Parents’ personal circumstances and teachers’ conduct Gender inequalities Parents’ discontent with teachers Parental poverty affects parents’ involvement Lack of literacy impedes parents from helping children Teachers’ disrespectful attitudes towards parents Parents lack of trust in teachers Parents disappointed by state schools Teachers responsible for children’s poor performance Male domination hampers mothers’ free involvement Early marriages due to parental lack of knowledge Gender segregation due to settled practices Parental interference Withdrawal from school and child labour EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 7 daughters. It may also be useful to conduct studies comparing the experiences of rural parents with the experiences of economically less disadvantaged parents in urban Pakistan and elsewhere. Quantitative research designs involving large surveys could be employed to yield more generalisable results. Conclusions In terms of providing children with a good start in life, parental involvement in their children’s education is crucial. Since most research focusing on parental involvement has been carried out in wealthy countries, there is a pressing need to better understand less advantaged contexts. This study offers a contribution to this by providing insight into parents’ lived experiences of their involvement in their children’s education within a socioeconomically disadvantaged rural context in Pakistan. Through the research, it was possible to gain understanding of the barriers these parents encountered in assisting their children’s learning. Our analysis uncovered two distinct narratives of parental involvement: a narrative of hope and trust-building, indicating parents’ confidence in state schools and striving for a better future for their children, and a narrative of dissatisfaction and inequality, reflecting frustration arising from factors including parents’ impoverished situations, concerns about schools and the influence of local societal norms. We suggest a broadening of the term parental involvement to better reflect the diverse, often context-related challenges to parents’ involvement and the importance of the extended family in supporting parents in their children’s education that characterise poor parents living in deprived rural areas. The findings we have presented will be of interest to those working in education internationally who are involved in designing education strategies to support outcomes for children and families living in disadvantaged communities. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Funding Department of Education, University of Jyväskylä. ORCID Qazi Waqas Ahmed http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7288-9919 Anna Rönkä http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2889-3264 Satu Perälä-Littunen http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4096-0578 Petteri Eerola http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9563-5871 14 Q. W. AHMED ET AL. References Abbas, S., M. Hashim, and A. A. M. Alzuhairi. 2018. “Status of Rural Women: Patriarchy and Inevitability of Subjugation; a Study of Rural Area in Multan, Pakistan.” Journal of Education & Practice 9 (6): 107–114. Abid, A., A. Jan, I. U. Khan, A. Zeb, and M. Ahmad. 2021. “Role of Parental Socioeconomic Status on Their Children’s Education at District Mardan of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.” Geografia 17 (2): 93–101. https://doi.org/10.17576/geo-2021-1702-08 . 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