Ecosystem services classification: A systems ecology perspective of the cascade framework
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Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
Con en s
lis s
a ailable
a
ScienceDi ec
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Indica o s
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ecolind
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A icles
Ecosys em
se ices
classifica ion:
A
sys ems
ecology
pe spec i e
o
he
cascade
amewo k
Alessand a
La
No ea,∗,
Dalia
D’Ama ob,∗,
Hanna
Mäkinenc,
Ma ia
Luisa
Pa acchinia,
Camino
Lique ea,
Benis
Egohd,e,
Da ide
Genele i ,
Ne ille
D.
C ossmang
aEu opean
Commission
-
Join
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Di ec o a e
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Sus ainable
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En ico
Fe mi
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Isp a,
VA,
I aly
bUni e si y
o
Helsinki,
Depa men
o
Fo es
Sciences,
La oka anonkaa i
7,
Helsinki,
00014,
Finland
cLappeen an a
Uni e si y
o
Technology,
School
o
Ene gy
Sys ems,
Sus ainabili y
Science,
Saimaanka u
11,
15140
Lah i,
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Na u al
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Aus alia,
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Aus alia
a
i
c
l
e
i
n
o
A icle
his o y:
Recei ed
18
Ap il
2016
Recei ed
in
e ised
o m
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No embe
2016
Accep ed
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No embe
2016
A ailable
online
9
Decembe
2016
Keywo ds:
Sys ems
ecology
Ecosys em
unc ioning
Cascade
amewo k
Ecological
heo y
Ecosys em
se ice
classifica ion
a
b
s
a
c
Ecosys em
se ices
esea ch
aces
se e al
challenges
s emming
om
he
plu ali y
o
in e p e a ions
o
classifica ions
and
e minologies.
In
his
pape
we
iden i y
wo
main
challenges
wi h
cu en
ecosys em
se ices
classifica ion
sys ems:
i)
he
inconsis ency
ac oss
concep s,
e minology
and
defini ions,
and;
ii)
he
mix
up
o
p ocesses
and
end-s a e
benefi s,
o
flows
and
asse s.
Al hough
di e en
ecosys em
se ice
defini ions
and
in e p e a ions
can
be
aluable
o
en iching
he
esea ch
landscape,
i
is
necessa y
o
add ess
he
exis ing
ambigui y
o
imp o e
compa abili y
among
ecosys em-se ice-based
app oaches.
Using
he
cascade
amewo k
as
a
e e ence,
and
Sys ems
Ecology
as
a
heo e ical
unde pinning,
we
aim
o
add ess
he
ambigui y
ac oss
ypologies.
The
cascade
amewo k
links
ecological
p ocesses
wi h
elemen s
o
human
well-being
ollowing
a
pa e n
simila
o
a
p oduc ion
chain.
Sys ems
Ecology
is
a
long-es ablished
discipline
which
p o ides
insigh
in o
complex
ela ionships
be ween
people
and
he
en i onmen .
We
p esen
a
e eshed
concep ualiza ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
which
can
suppo
ecosys-
em
se ice
assessmen
echniques
and
measu emen .
We
combine
he
no ions
o
biomass,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ion
om
sys em
ecology,
wi h
he
ecosys em
se ices
concep ualiza ion
o
imp o e
defini-
ions
and
cla i y
e minology.
We
a gue
ha
ecosys em
se ices
should
be
defined
as
he
in e ac ions
(i.e.
p ocesses)
o
he
ecosys em
ha
p oduce
a
change
in
human
well-being,
while
ecosys em
componen s
o
goods,
i.e.
coun able
as
biomass
uni s,
a e
only
p oxies
in
he
assessmen
o
such
changes.
Fu he mo e,
Sys ems
Ecology
can
suppo
a
e-in e p e a ion
o
he
ecosys em
se ices
concep ualiza ion
and
ela ed
applied
esea ch,
whe e
mo e
emphasis
is
needed
on
he
unde pinning
complexi y
o
he
ecological
sys em.
©
2016
The
Au ho s.
Published
by
Else ie
L d.
This
is
an
open
access
a icle
unde
he
CC
BY
license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
1.
In oduc ion
Ecosys em
se ices
is
now
widely
used
among
scien is s
and
policy
make s
o
highligh
he
impo ance
o
he
en i on-
men
(including
biodi e si y)
in
sus aining
human
li elihoods
(Con en ion
on
Biological
Di e si y,
2010,
1998;
Cos anza
and
Kubiszewski,
2012;
Maes
e
al.,
2016).
An
impo an
miles one
o
ecosys em
se ice
esea ch
was
he
Millennium
Ecosys em
Assess-
∗Co esponding
au ho s.
E-mail
add esses:
[email p o ec ed]
(A.
La
No e),
dalia.dama o@helsinki.fi
(D.
D’Ama o).
men
(MA,
2005)
which
made
p ominen
he
idea
ha
human
well-being
depends
on
ecosys ems,
and
ha
such
linkages
can
be
acked
and
amed
h ough
he
no ion
o
ecosys em
se ices.
The
MA
ound
ha
mo e
han
60%
o
ecosys em
se ices
is
being
deg aded
o
ans o med
endange ing
u u e
human
well-being.
Ecosys em
se ices
esea ch
has
since
p og essed
a
di e en
le els— om
heo e ical
concep ualiza ion
o
p ac ical
applica ions
(see
B aa
and
de
G oo ,
2012;
Egoh
e
al.,
2012;
Seppel
e
al.,
2011;
Po schin
e
al.,
2016
o
a
e iew).
This
wo k
has
been
suppo ed
by
se e al
in e na ional
ini ia i es
such
as
The
Economics
o
Ecosys-
em
and
Biodi e si y
(TEEB,
2010),
he
UK
Na ional
Ecosys em
Assessmen
(UK
NEA,
2011)
and
se e al
Eu opean
Union
esea ch
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.11.030
1470-160X/©
2016
The
Au ho s.
Published
by
Else ie
L d.
This
is
an
open
access
a icle
unde
he
CC
BY
license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
393
p ojec s.1In
addi ion,
some
o ganiza ions
ha e
suppo ed
his
p o-
cess
wi h
modeling
ools
such
as
he
US
Na u al
Capi al
P ojec
wi h
he
In eg a ed
Valua ion
o
Ecosys em
Se ices
and
T ade-
o s
(InVEST)
ool.
The
p i a e
sec o
ha e
also
adop ed
he
concep
h ough
ini ia i es
such
as
he
Na u al
Capi al
Coali ion
(NCC),
he
Wo ld
Bank’s
Weal h
Accoun ing
and
he
Valua ion
o
Ecosys em
Se ices
(WAVES),
he
accoun ing
sys em
de eloped
by
he
London
G oup,
which
is
also
being
adop ed
by
he
Uni ed
Na ions
En i on-
men al
P og am
(UNEP).
Howe e ,
he e
has
been
inconsis ency
in
de eloping
a
ame-
wo k
wi hin
which
such
esea ch
and
policy
assessmen s
a e
ca ied
ou .
The
he
MA
(2005)
and
subsequen
ecosys em
se ices
li e a u e
(Boyd
and
Banzha ,
2007;
Fishe
e
al.,
2009;
Haines-
Young
and
Po schin,
2012;
Lande s
and
Nahlik,
2013;
S aub
e
al.,
2011;
Wallace,
2007)
ha e
de eloped
many
di e en
concep ual
and
empi ical
amewo ks
and
assessmen
o
changes
in
ecosys-
ems,
hei
consequences
o
humans,
and
ac ions
o
sus ainable
use
o
hese
ecosys ems
(Albe
e
al.,
2015).
The
exis ence
o
nume ous
ecosys em
se ice
concep ualiza ions
and
classifica ion
sys ems
has
led
o
a
plu ali y
in
he
in e p e a ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
and
ela ed
e minology
and
defini ions
when
i
comes
o
applica ions
(Boe ema
e
al.,
2016).
La ge
di e ences
in
in e p e a-
ion
a e
ound
in
he
meaning
o
biophysical
s uc u e,
ecological
unc ions,
in e media e
se ices
and
final
se ices
(e.g.
Lande s
and
Nahlik,
2013;
Mononen
e
al.,
2016;
Spangenbe g
e
al.,
2014;
UK
NEA,
2011;
TEEB,
2010).
The
consequence
o
such
di e ences
is
he
ecosys em
se ice
classifica ion
sys ems
ha e
poo
co espondence
o
se ices
wi h
benefi s
and
blu ed
dis inc ions
be ween
in e me-
dia e
and
final
se ices.
Among
hese,
he
Common
In e na ional
Classifica ion
o
Ecosys em
Se ices
(CICES),
p oposed
by
he
Eu o-
pean
En i onmen
Agency,
has
become
an
impo an
ame
o
e e ence
o
ecosys em
se ices
esea ch
(Maes
e
al.,
2014).
CICES
and
mos
ecosys em
se ices
li e a u e
a e
based
on
and
influenced
by
he
cascade
amewo k
p oposed
by
Haines-Young
&
Po schin
in
2010
(Haines-Young
and
Po schin,
2010;
Po schin
and
Haines-
Young,
2016).
The
pu pose
o
he
cascade
amewo k
is
in
ac
o
show
he
pa hway
o
ecosys em
se ices
om
ecological
s uc u es
and
p ocesses
o
human
well-being.
In
his
con ex ,
he
need
o
de elop
a
amewo k
o
assess
ecosys em
se ices
is
a
p io i y
in
ecosys em
se ices
esea ch.
Al hough
indi idual
in e p e a ions
en ich
he
esea ch
landscape,
he
ambigui y
mus
be
add essed
so
ha
a
mo e
igo ous
ame-
wo k
o
ecosys em
se ices
can
be
de eloped
and
adop ed.
Such
a
amewo k
would
imp o e
compa abili y
among
ecosys em-
se ice-based
app oaches
and
would
p o ide
a
s anda dized
app oach
o
ecosys em
assessmen s
a
global
and
na ional
scales.
The
u he
e olu ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
concep s
and
ame-
wo ks
could
d aw
om
he
field
o
sys ems
ecology
which
can
p o ide
insigh s
in o
ou
unde s anding
o
he
di e en
aspec s
o
ecosys em
unc ioning
ha
con ibu es
o
ecosys em
se ices.
This
in e disciplina y
field
o
sys ems
ecology
adop s
a
holis ic
app oach
o
he
s udy
o
ecological
and
human
sys ems.
Concep s
om
eco-
logical
heo y
ha e
been
al eady
discussed
in
p e ious
li e a u e
in
ela ion
o
ecosys em
se ices,
e.g.
ecological
in eg i y
and
com-
plexi y,
esilience
(K emen,
2005;
B and,
2008).
Ou
pape
aims
o
sys ema ically
adop
key
concep s
om
sys ems
ecology
o
e-
define
ecosys em
se ices
and
he
ela ed
cascade
amewo k.
The
con ibu ion
o
ou
pape
is
o
p esen
a
e eshed
concep ualiza-
ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
h ough
he
lens
o
sys ems
ecology.
1e.g.
RUBICODE
(Ra ionalizing
Biodi e si y
Conse a ion
in
Dynamic
Ecosys-
ems),
SCALES
(Secu ing
he
Conse a ion
o
biodi e si y
ac oss
Adminis a i e
Le els
and
spa ial,
empo al,
and
Ecological
Scales),
OpenNESS
(Ope a ionaliza ion
o
Na u al
Capi al
and
Ecosys em
Se ices)
and
ESMERALDA
(Enhancing
ecoSys eM
sER ices
mApping
o
poLicy
and
Decision
mAking)
We
fi s ly
iden i y
he
main
challenges
associa ed
wi h
he
a -
ious
in e p e a ions
o
he
cascade
amewo k
(Sec ion
2.1)
and
o
he
exis ing
classifica ion
sys ems
whose
s uc u e
and
meaning
does
depend
on
he
chosen
heo e ical
amewo k
(Sec ion
2.2).
Secondly,
we
in oduce
key
concep s
om
he
discipline
o
sys ems
ecology
(Sec ion
3)
o
add ess
he
iden ified
challenges
(Sec ion
4).
We
finally
conclude
by
discussing
he
con ibu ion
o
ou
e eshed
concep ualiza ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
(Sec ion
5).
2.
Cu en
challenges
in
ecosys em
se ices
esea ch
2.1.
Challenges
wi h
he
use
o
he
ecosys em
se ices
cascade
The
cascade
amewo k
p oposed
by
Haines-Young
and
Po schin
(2010)
links
na u al
sys ems
o
elemen s
o
human
well-
being,
ollowing
a
pa e n
simila
o
a
p oduc ion
chain:
om
ecological
s uc u es
and
p ocesses
gene a ed
by
ecosys ems,
o
he
se ices
and
benefi s
e en ually
de i ed
by
humans.
The
ad an age
o
his
amewo k
is
o
e ec i ely
communica e
socie al
depen-
dence
on
ecosys ems.
Challenges
a ise
when
applying
his
cascade
amewo k
in
p ac ice,
due
o
he
simul aneous
p esence
in
he
amewo k
o
bio-
cen e ed
and
human-cen e ed
sphe es.
This
means
ha
ecosys em
se ices
assessmen s
include:
•obse a ions
om
a
bio-cen ed
o
holis ic
app oach-
i.e.
bio-
physical
s uc u es
and
p ocesses/ unc ions
belonging
o
he
ecological
sphe e
and
which
a e
conside ed
as
a
whole,
•obse a ions
om
a
educ ionis
o
human-cen ed
app oach-
i.e.
ecosys em
se ices
which
a e
p ojec ed
owa ds
he
human
end-use
side
indi idually.
This
challenge
is
e iden
when
we
y
o
measu e
ecosys em
se ices,
which
a e
ca ego ized
and
accoun ed
o
indi idually.2
In
addi ion,
di e en
defini ions
o
ecosys em
se ices
and
in
pa icula
o
he
elemen s
in
he
cascade
amewo k
a e
ound
in
he
li e a u e:
biophysical
s uc u e,
p ocess,
unc ion,
se ice,
benefi .3As
an
example,
Table
1
summa izes
he
defini ions
p o-
ided
in
ecen
ecosys em
se ices
s udies.
Fo
ins ance,
ecosys em
s uc u e
is
o en
poo ly
dis inguished
om
p ocesses.
Wallace
(2007,
p.
237)
p oposes
ha
‘an
impo an
dis inc ion
[be ween
he
wo]
is
ha
he
o me
a e
gene ally
angible
en i ies
desc ibed
in
e ms
o
amoun ,
while
he
la e
a e
[.
.
.]
gene ally
desc ibed
in
e ms
o
a es’.
Fu he mo e,
he
wo d
unc ion
is
gene ally
used
in e change-
ably
wi h
ecological
p ocess
and/o
ecosys em
se ice.
Acco ding
o
Jax
(2005),
he
e m
‘ unc ion’
is
o en
used
oo
ambiguously.
Ecosys em
se ices
a e
gene ally
defined
as
he
ecosys em
p o-
cesses
conside ed
use ul
o
humans
(MA,
2005;
TEEB,
2010).
In
he
same
ligh ,
some
s udies
( e .
Table
1)
ha
ha e
assessed,
mapped
o
alued
ecosys em
se ices,
use
se ices
and
benefi s
as
synonyms.
Benefi s
a e
in
some
cases
conside ed
as
angible
na u al
esou ces
de i ed
om
p o isioning
se ices
(e.g.
c ops,
wood,
wa e ),
o
some
egula ing
se ices
(e.g.
clean
wa e
o
mul-
iple
uses
p o ided
by
wa e
pu ifica ion).
Benefi s,
howe e ,
can
also
be
in angible
(e.g.
ec ea ion
oppo uni ies
o e ed
by
na u e).
2No e
ha
some
au ho s,
e.g.
Mononen
e
al.
(2016)
ha e
sugges ed
o
highligh
he
p ocess-like
na u e
o
ecosys em
se ices
deli e y
as
socio-ecological
sys ems,
hus
main aining
he
holis ic
app oach
on
he
ocus.
3The
cascade
model
does
indeed
include,
a e
‘benefi ’,
also
he
‘ alue’
s ep
ha
assigns
o
benefi s
a
quan ifica ion
in
mone a y
e ms.
The
economic
alua ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
is
a
field
o
esea ch
and
applica ions
ha
does
no
a ec
he
specific
concep ual
analysis
p oposed
in
his
pape .
In
o de
o
keep
ocused
on
he
main
objec i es
o
he
pape ,
we
hus
choose
no
o
include
he
‘ alue’
box
a
his
s age.
394
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
Table
1
Defini ions
and
examples
o
ecosys em
se ices
e minology
acco ding
o
selec ed
pee - e iewed
li e a u e.
Au ho
&
p oposed
applica ion
Biophysical
s uc u e P ocess
Func ion
Ecosys em
se ices
Good
Benefi
Ba eman
e
al.
(2011)
e.g.
animals,
bi ds,
plan s
and
hei
connec ions,
e c.
e.g.
nu ien
cycling
P ima y
ecological
p ocesses
Flow
o
se ices
(ou come
o
s uc u e
and
p ocesses)
p o ided
by
ecological
asse s
in
some
assessmen
pe iod.
Any
objec
o
cons uc
which
gene a es
human
wellbeing
(physical
and
non).
The
change
in
human
well-being
gene a ed
by
a
good
(use- alue
and
non).
The
same
good
can
gene a e
di e en
alues,
depending
on
he
con ex .
Boyd
and
Banzha
(2007)
See
defini ion
o
‘p ocess’
Biological,
chemical,
and
physical
in e ac ions
be ween
ecosys em
componen s.
Func ions
and
p ocesses
a e
no
end-p oduc s;
hey
a e
in e media e
o
he
p oduc ion
o
final
ecosys em
se ices.
See
defini ion
o
‘p ocess’
The
use
o
ecological
asse
o e
some
ime
pe iod.
Things
di ec ly
enjoyed
o
consumed
by
households.
A
benefi
e.g.
ec ea ion,
a ises
om
he
join
use
o
final
ecosys em
se ices
and
con en ional
goods
and
se ices.
Fishe
e
al.
(2009)
See
defini ion
o
‘ecosys em
se ices’
See
defini ion
o
‘ecosys em
se ices’
See
defini ion
o
‘ecosys em
se ices’
They
a e
ecological
in
na u e,
in
ha
aes he ic
alues,
cul u al
con en men
and
ec ea ion
a e
no
ecosys em
se ices.
Ecosys em
se ices
a e
ecological
componen s,
unc ions
and/o
p ocesses,
as
long
as
he e
a e
human
beneficia ies.
na
A
benefi
has
an
explici
impac
on
changes
in
human
well a e,
like
mo e
ood,
be e
hiking,
less
flooding.
Fo
example,
aes he hic
alues,
cul u al
con en men
and
ec ea ion
a e
benefi
and
no
jus
a
unc ion
o
he
ecosys em,
bu
include
o he
inpu s
like
human
capi al,
buil
capi al,
e c.
Maes
e
al.
(2016)
The
a chi ec u e
o
an
ecosys em
as
a
esul
o
he
in e ac ion
be ween
he
abio ic,
physical
en i onmen
and
he
bio ic
communi ies,
in
pa icula
ege a ion
Any
change
o
eac ion
which
occu s
wi hin
ecosys ems,
physical,
chemical
o
biological.
Ecosys em
p ocesses
include
decomposi ion,
p oduc ion,
nu ien
cycling,
and
fluxes
o
nu ien s
and
ene gy
Subse
o
he
in e ac ions
be ween
biophysical
s uc u es,
biodi e si y
and
ecosys em
p ocesses
ha
unde pin
he
capaci y
o
an
ecosys em
o
p o ide
ecosys em
se ices
The
di ec
and
indi ec
con ibu ions
o
ecosys ems
o
human
wellbeing
(TEEB,
2010).
The
ac ually
used
se ice.
The
concep
’ecosys em
goods
and
se ices’
is
synonymous
wi h
ecosys em
se ices.
Posi i e
change
in
wellbeing
om
he
ulfilmen
o
needs
and
wan s
(TEEB,
2010)
Mülle
and
Bu kha d
(2012)
Biophysical
s uc u es
and
p ocesses
(ecosys em
p ope ies)
a e
linked
in
he
cascade
componen
o
ecosys em
unc ions.
They
a e
unde s ood
as
he
basic
p oduce s
o
ecosys em
se ices.
See
defini ion
o
‘biophysical
s ucu u e’
Ecological
in eg i y
Di ec
and
indi ec
con ibu ions
o
ecosys em
s uc u es
and
unc ions
na
in ended
as
social,
economic
and
pe sonal
well-being
Mononen
e
al.
(2016)
Biophysical
s uc u es
ha
c ea e
he
basis
o
unc ioning
o
he
ecosys em.
Spa ial
pe spec i e.
na
Func ioning
o
ecosys em
ha
is
needed
o
p oduce
ecosys em
se ices.
Tempo al
pe spec i e.
na
The
used
sha e
o
he
po en ial
o
ecosys em
se ices.
Bene s
can
be
also
non-ma e ial.
Economic,
social,
heal h
(physical
o
spi i ual)
and
in insic
alue
o
he
benefi .
Spanenbe g
e
al.
(2014)
Biophysical
s uc u e
o
p ocess
includes
habi a
ype
See
defini ion
o
‘biophysical
s ucu u e’
e.g.
wood
p oduc ion
Collec ing
o
ha es ing
wood
( ha
is
he
human
ac i i y
o
wi hd awing
he
na u al
asse )
Con ibu ion
o
aspec s
o
well-being
such
as
heal h
and
sa e y
Willingness
o
pay
o
mo e
woodland
o
ha es able
p oduc s.
TEEB
(2010)
Biophysical
s uc u e
o
p ocess
=
ege a ion
co e
o
Ne
P ima y
P oduc i i y
see
Biophysical
s uc u e
The
po en ial
ha
ecosys ems
ha e
o
deli e
a
se ice
which
in
u n
depends
on
ecological
s uc u e
and
p ocesses.
Concep ualiza ions
o
he
“use ul
hings”
ecosys ems
“do”
o
people,
di ec ly
and
indi ec ly
na
Wel a e
gains
gene a ed
by
ecosys em
se ices
Wallace
(2007)
na
The
complex
in e ac ions
(e en s,
ec ea ions
o
ope a ions)
among
bio ic
and
abio ic
elemen s
o
ecosys ems
ha
lead
o
a
defini e
esul .
See
defini ion
o
‘p ocess’
Benefi s
ha
people
ob ain
om
ecosys ems;
he
ou comes
sough
h ough
ecosys em
managemen .
na
P e e ed
end-s a es
o
exis ence,
including
hose
equi ed
o
human
su i al
and
ep oduc i e
success,
which
aken
oge he
ci cumsc ibe
human
well-being.
These
exclude
in insic
alue.
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
395
Haines-Young
and
Po schin
(2009,
p.
17)
p opose
a
‘p agma ic
way
o wa d’,
s a ing
ha
‘ he
main
issue
is
o
ensu e
he
igo
o
he
ou pu s
om
ou
analysis
and
no
become
p eoccupied
wi h
de -
ini ions,
hence
e o s
should
be
di ec ed
o:
achie ing
consis en
alua ion
and
no
double
coun ing’.
Mo e
unified
and
sha ed
defini ions,
howe e ,
can
be
help ul
in
ensu ing
he
igo
o
p ac ical
assessmen s,
and
allow
a
deg ee
o
compa abili y
among
s udies.
In
pa icula ,
i
is
impo an
o
dis-
inguish
be ween
se ice,
p ocess,
and
benefi .
B aa
and
de
G oo
(2012)
a gued
ha
ecosys em
se ices
con ain
‘ he
p oduc
com-
ponen
( adi ionally
called
“goods”)’,
bu
hey
sugges
ha
‘in
he
nex
s age
o
de elopmen
o
he
concep ,
he
dis inc ion
be ween
goods
and
se ices
should
be
e-es ablished’.
When
e e ing
o
he
cascade
amewo k,
he
e minology
includes
benefi s
a he
han
goods.
The
challenge
o
sepa a ing
se ices
om
goods
and/o
benefi s
is
u he
explo ed
in
he
nex
sec ion.
2.2.
Challenges
in
he
cu en
ecosys em
se ices
classifica ions
Any
applica ion
o
an
ecosys em
se ice-based
app oach
s a s
wi h
choosing
he
se ices
o
be
assessed
(and
alued)
om
a
lis
o
se ices,
i.e
a
classifica ion
sys em.
Classifica ion
sys ems
a e
usually
based
on
a
heo e ical
amewo k
whose
p inciples
and
concep s
a e
eflec ed
in
he
meaning
and
s uc u e
o
he
i ems
p esen ed.
I
is
hus
impo an
o
explo e
he
main
clas-
sifica ion
sys ems,
in
o de
o
highligh
he
embedded
no ions
hey
s a e.
Fo
example,
he
Millennium
Ecosys em
Assessmen
(2005)
was
he
fi s
o
a emp
o
g oup
ecosys em
se ices
in o
ou
ca ego ies:
p o isioning
se ices
(e.g.
ood,
fibe s,
uel,
gene ic
esou ces);
egula ing
se ices
(e.g.,
wa e
pu ifica ion
and
egula-
ion,
clima e
egula ion,
ex eme
e en s
and
disease
mi iga ion);
suppo ing
se ices
(e.g.,
p ima y
p oduc ion
and
nu ien
cycling);
and
cul u al
se ices
(e.g.,
eco- ou ism
and
ec ea ion,
aes he ic
and
spi i ual
alues).
This
ca ego iza ion
p o ided
a
sound
basis
o
launch
ecosys em
se ices
esea ch
and
applica ions,
bu
i
does
no
cons i u e
a
p ope
axonomy.
In
he
cascade
amewo k
(Haines-
Young
and
Po schin,
2012),
suppo ing
se ices
a e
conside ed
a
‘ unc ion’
a he
han
a
‘se ice’.
Following
he
MA,
he
TEEB
clas-
sifica ion
(2010)
also
explici ly
e e ed
o
he
cascade
amewo k
bu
efined
he
dis inc ion
be ween
se ices
and
benefi s.
The
idea
o
suppo ing
se ices
in
TEEB
was
no
u he
de eloped.
Ins ead
a
new
‘habi a
se ices’
g oup
was
in oduced,
including
‘main e-
nance
o
li e
cycles’
and
‘main enance
o
gene ic
di e si y’
Since
some
ecosys em
se ice
ca ego ies
o e lap,
he e
is
a
isk
o
double
coun ing
in
alua ion,
which
he e o e
equi es
clea
sepa a ion
be ween
in e media e
and
final
se ice.
The
US
En i on-
men al
P o ec ion
Agency
has
p oposed
addi ional
classifica ions
o
a oid
double
coun ing.
These
include
Final
Ecosys em
Goods
and
Se ices
Classifica ion
Sys em
(FEGS-CS)
(Lande s
and
Nahlik,
2013)
and
he
Na ional
Ecosys em
Se ices
Classifica ion
Sys em
(NESCS)
(Rhodes,
2015).
In
bo h
classifica ion
sys ems
he
main
ocus
is
on
benefi s
and
beneficia ies.
This
is
in
line
wi h
he
s udy
by
Boyd
and
Banzha
(2007)
ha
sugges
o
accoun
o
‘compo-
nen s
o
na u e
di ec ly
enjoyed,
consumed
o
used
o
yield
human
well-being’.
FEGS-CS
classifica ion
p oposes
wo
c i e ia
o
define
goods
and
se ices:
i)
he
po en ial
good
o
se ice
is
alued
by
a
beneficia y,
and;
ii)
he
po en ial
good
o
se ice
is
connec ed
o
a
leas
he
hyd osphe e
and
li hosphe e.
In
FEGS-CS
p ocesses
such
as
pho osyn hesis
o
ca bon
seques a ion
a e
labeled
all
oge he
as
‘ecosys em
s uc u al
componen s’
and
conside ed
as
in e media e
goods
and
se ices.
These
a e
excluded
because
hey
a e
no
di ec ly
used
by
humans.
Simila ly,
NESCS
classifica ion
ep esen s
dis inc
pa hways
h ough
which
final
ecosys em
se ices
en e
human
sys-
ems.
This
classifica ion
app oach
ocuses
on
end
ca ego ies
o
uses
and
use s,
and
is
aligned
wi h
he
No h
Ame ica
na ional
accoun s
classifica ion
sys em.
NESCS
emphasizes
he
connec ion
be ween
he
‘end-p oduc
o
na u e’
and
he
human
‘di ec
uses’
as
angible
and
in angible
benefi s.
CICES
is
one
o
he
mos
popula
classifica ions
cu en ly
and
is
being
used
by
scien is s
and
policy
make s
a ound
he
globe
bu
pa icula ly
om
Eu ope.
Simila
o
he
TEEB
classifica ion,
CICES
does
no
include
he
MA
(2005)
‘suppo ing
se ices’,
bu
me ges
he
TEEB
(2010)
‘habi a
se ices’
wi h
egula ing
se ices,
in
a
ca ego y
called
‘ egula ing
and
main enance
se ices’.
Com-
pa ed
o
FEGS-CS
and
NESCS,
CICES
does
p omo e
a
clea
dis inc ion
be ween
ecosys em
se ices
and
ecosys em
benefi s.
In
he
la es
e sion
o
he
cascade
amewo k
ha
unde pins
CICES
(Po schin
and
Haines-Young,
2016),
ecosys em
se ices
a e
explici ly
indi-
ca ed
as
final
se ices,
while
biophysical
s uc u e
and
unc ion
a e
indica ed
as
suppo ing
o
in e media e
se ices.
Final
ecosys-
em
se ices
a e
he
con ibu ions
ha
ecosys ems
make
o
human
well-being
as
flows.
Ecosys em
goods
and
benefi s
a e
c ea ed
o
de i ed
by
people
om
final
ecosys em
se ices.
The
di e ences
be ween
FEGS-CS
and
CICES
a e
sub le
and
a e
explained
wi h
he
assis ance
o
Fig.
1:
a)
he
cascade
amewo k
ha
cons i u es
he
heo e ical
backg ound
o
CICES,
and;
b)
he
concep ual
amewo k
o
he
FEGS-CS.
FEGS-CS
places
emphasis
on
he
benefi s,
beneficia ies
and
he
socio-economic
sys em,
while
CICES
places
g ea e
emphasis
on
he
ecological
sys em.
In
ac
we
need
o
add
an
addi ional
box
(i.e.
asse s/commodi ies)
in
he
cas-
cade
amewo k
o
ha e
a
mo e
consis en
iew
o
he
wo
models.
In
his
addi ional
box
he
benefi s
en e
in o
a
p oduc ion
p ocess
ha
makes
i
a
ma ke able
good,
an
economic
asse ,
a
commod-
i y.
Al hough
ecosys em
se ices
a e
iden ified
conside ing
human
needs
and
demand,
we
choose
in
Fig.
1a
o
ha e
he
socio-economic
sys ems
s a ing
a
he
‘benefi ’
box
because
a
his
s age
he
eal
use
can
ake
place
and
because
his
is
he
only
way
o
consis en ly
compa e
he
wo
heo e ical
amewo ks.
By
compa ing
hese
wo
classifica ions
o
each
o he
and
o
he
cascade
amewo k,
we
obse e
ha
FEGS-CS
classifica ion
ega ds
di e en
benefi s
a he
han
ecosys em
se ices.
The
mos
app op ia e
classifica ion
sys em
should
be
chosen
based
on
i s
fi - o -pu pose
(Heink
e
al.,
2015;
Spangenbe g
and
Se ele,
2010),
i.e.
whe he
he
ecosys em
se ice
analysis
in ends
o
ocus
mo e
on
ecological
sys ems
(e.g.
conside ing
impac s
on
and
p essu es
om
he
socio-economic
side)
o
on
socio-economic
sys ems
(e.g.
he
benefi s
de i ed
by
socie y).
I
is
howe e
impo -
an
o
be
awa e
o
he
exis ing
limi a ions
o
each
classifica ion
sys em.
3.
The
na u e
o
ecosys em
se ices:
a
sys ems
ecology
pe spec i e
In
he
heo y
o
sys ems
ecology,
Jø gensen
(2012)
p oposed
h ee
undamen al
no ions
as
he
basis
o
ecological
sys ems:
1)
biomass,
2)
in e ac ion
and
3)
in o ma ion
in
ecological
ne wo ks.
In
his
sec ion
we
a gue
ha
ecosys em
se ices
ha e
in
ac
been
concep ualized
as
ei he
(bio)mass,
in o ma ion
o
in e ac ion
(Fig.
2).
We
adop
he
ollowing
defini ions
o
hese
key
concep s.
Biomass
is
biological
ma e ial
de i ed
om
li ing
o
dead
o ganisms.
The
quali y
aspec
o
biomass
is
also
ele an ,
e.g.
based
on
p o ein
syn hesis
and
e olu ion.
In e ac ion
occu s
in
a
ne wo k
as
componen s
ha e
an
e ec
upon
one
ano he .
In e ac ions
a e
he e o e
he
ela ionships
be ween
and
among
bio ic
and
abio ic
componen s,
some imes
cha ac e ized
by
a
empo al
pa e n;
such
ela ionships
can
be
bi-
o
mul i-di ec ional,
as
opposed
o
he
unidi ec ional
causal
e ec
o
in o ma ion.
In
ecological
ne wo ks,
in e ac ions
migh
esul
in
eme gen
p ope ies
o
he
sys em.
Eme ging
p ope -
ies
in
a
sys em
canno
be
p edic ed
o
explained
by
he
sum
396
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
Fig.
1.
A
compa ison
o
CICES
and
FEGS
classifica ions.
Fig.
2.
A
schema ic
ep esen a ion
o
biomass,
in o ma ion,
in e ac ion.
o
he
componen s
alone,
because
he
la e
do
no
exhibi
such
p ope ies
hemsel es
(Edson
e
al.,
1981;
Odum,
1977).
Social
beha iou
in
animals
is
an
example,
such
as
‘ he
abil-
i y
o
la ge
popula ions
o
simple,
iden ical
uni s
( o
example,
spin
magne s)
o
sel -o ganize,
o m
pa e ns,
s o e
in o ma ion,
and
each
“collec i e
decisions”
(Pa ish
and
Edels ein-Keshe ,
1999).
In e ac ions
in
an
ecological
ne wo k
can
also
be
defined
as
ecological
p ocesses.
In o ma ion
can
be
conside ed
a
sub-ca ego y
o
in e ac ion;
in o ma ion
is
“con eyed
o
ep esen ed
by
a
pa icula
a ange-
men
o
sequence
o
hings,
including
o
example,
gene ically
ansmi ed
in o ma ion”
(Ox o d
Dic iona y
Online,
2014).
In o ma ion
can
influence
(in en ionally
o
no )
he
o ma-
ion
o
ans o ma ion
o
o he
pa e ns.
O ganisms
in e ac
wi h
hei
en i onmen
no
jus
by
exchanging
ma e ial
and
ene gy
as
adi ionally
iewed
in
Ecology,
bu
also
by
exchang-
ing
in o ma ion
(Dusenbe y,
1992).
The
p ocess
o
acqui ing
in o ma ion
in ol es
a
mechanis ic
phase
o
in o ma ion
cap-
u e
by
a
ecep o ,
such
as
a
senso y
o gan,
and
a
unc ional
phase
o
in o ma ion
de-codifica ion.
This
is
he
abili y
o
ecog-
nize
and
p ocess
ha
in o ma ion
as
‘knowledge’
(Guil o d
and
Dawkins,
1991).
Consequen ly,
exchange
o
in o ma ion
occu s
be ween
wo
(o
mo e)
o ganisms
when
he
‘ ecei e ’
o gan-
ism(s)
is
able
o
cap u e
and
p ocess
he
in o ma ion
o
he
‘sende ’.
While
in o ma ion
plays
a
ole
in
he
gene a ion
o
all
ecosys em
se ices
(e.g.
gene ic
in o ma ion),
in
his
a icle
we
specifically
define
in o ma ion
as
he
one
humans
ecei e
and
p ocess.
An
o ganism
exp esses
and
con eys
biomass,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ions
ia
i s
geno ype
and/o
pheno ype
(Fig.
2).
We
e e
he e
o
he
ex ended
pheno ype
(Dawkins,
1982),
which
includes
he
appea ance
o
an
o ganism
(mo phology,
de elopmen ,
bio-
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
397
Fig.
3.
The
na u e
o
biomass,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ion
in
Sys ems
Ecology,
and
he
human
unde s anding
and
mas e ship
o
hese
concep s.
chemical
and
physiological
p ocesses,
e c.)
as
well
as
p ope ies
ex e nal
o
he
body
(phenology,
beha iou ,
p oduc s
o
beha iou ).
Fo
example,
he
silk
p oduced
by
he
silkwo m
(Bombyx
mo i)
is
essen ially
biomass,
de i ed
om
i s
ch ysalis
du ing
he
me a-
mo phosis.
The e o e,
he
ecosys em
se ice
(in
his
case
he
silk
p oduced
by
he
silkwo m)
is
no
a
di ec
p oduc
o
i s
body
mass,
bu
a he
an
exp ession
o
i s
pheno ype.
Based
on
he
gi en
defini ions
o
biomass,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ion,
we
can
examine
he
cu en
classifica ion
o
ecosys-
em
se ices.
Mos
p o isioning
se ices
a e
concep ualized
as
(bio)mass
e.g.
ood,
fibe ,
wa e
(de
G oo
e
al.,
2002;
MA,
2005;
TEEB,
2010).
Gene ic
esou ces
ep esen
an
excep ion
among
p o isioning
se ices,
since
we
conside
hem
as
in o ma ion.
In
ac ,
he
geno ype
o
pheno ype
o
an
o ganism
can
con ibu e
o
de elop
d ugs
o
o
bioenginee ing.
Regula ing
se ices
a e
based
on
in e ac ions
among
bio ic
and
abio ic
elemen s
o
he
ecosys ems:
o
example
wa e
pu ifica ion
de i es
om
he
o e -
all
mechanical
and
chemical
capaci y
o
abio ic
soil,
soil
bio a
and
ege a ion
o
ap
and
‘con e ’
sedimen s,
nu ien s,
pollu an s
o
pa hogens.
Cul u al
se ices
de i e
om
in o ma ion.
Fo
example,
we
a e
able
o
ecei e
he
in o ma ion
om
an
ameni y
land-
scape
gi en
he
human
abili y
o
pe cei e
( ecep o )
and
app ecia e
beau y
(decodifica ion
and
in e p e a ion).
This
in o ma ion
migh
influence
humans,
o
example
igge ing
inspi a ion,
a
physiolog-
ical
elaxa ion,
a
sense
o
ulfilmen ,
o
a
spi i ual
expe ience.
D awing
om
he mo-dynamics,
Jø gensen
(2012,
chap e
13)
p oposes
he
ollowing
ideas:
g ow h
o
ma e
is
limi ed
by
ene gy
inpu
and
a ailabili y
o
ino ganic
elemen s.
The
g ow h
o
in o -
ma ion
and
in e ac ions
in
ne wo ks
is
d i en
by
e olu ion
( hus
linked
o
di e si y)
and
has
po en ial
o
expand
(Fai h
e
al.,
2010)
(Fig.
3):
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ions
ha e
o e all
inc eased
in
he
his o y
o
li ing
o ganisms.
Unlike
ma e
and
ene gy,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ions
can
disappea
wi hou
ace
when
he
ma e ial
suppo
(biomass)
is
des oyed.4Thus,
biomass,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ions
a e
cha ac e ized
by
inc easing
complexi y
and
ope -
a e
a
di e en
hie a chical
le els.
Biodi e si y
is
a
he
basis
o
his
complexi y:
he
mo e
di e si y,
he
mo e
in o ma ion
and
in e ac-
ions.
The
e y
defini ion
o
Biodi e si y
(Con en ion
on
Biological
Di e si y,
1992)
e e s
o
he
hie a chical
o ganiza ion
o
all
o gan-
isms
as
well
as
he
unc ional
cha ac e is ics
o
each
le el.
The
p ocesses
a
one
le el
o
o ganiza ion
de e mine
he
condi ions
in
he
nex
le el,
while
highe
le els
egula e
and
con ol
lowe
le els
by
eedback.
Fo
example,
species
di e si y
influences
ecosys em
p ope ies
and
unc ioning,
and
ice
e sa.
I
has
o
be
no ed
ha
4No e
ha
gene ic
in o ma ion
is
s o ed
in
DNA
and
ansmi ed
ac oss
gene a-
ions.
his
is
an
a ificial
ca ego iza ion,
since
in
na u e
he
hie a chy
is
no
clea ly
defined,
bu
mo e
fluid.
4.
Re eshing
he
concep ual
app oach
o
ecosys em
se ices
4.1.
Re-defining
he
cascade
amewo k
based
on
sys em
ecology
Based
on
he
defini ions
abo e,
we
add ess
he
challenges
in
ecosys em
se ices
esea ch
iden ified
in
sec ion
2.
We
combine
he
no ions
o
biomass,
in o ma ion
and
in e ac ion
wi h
ecosys-
em
se ices
concep ualiza ion
o
imp o e
defini ions
and
cla i y
e minology.
We
ecall
Palme
and
Feb ia
(2012)
o
show
he
link-
ages
h ough
he
cascade
chain:
he
componen s
o
an
ecosys em
( ha
ep esen
he
s uc u e)
in e ac
wi h
dynamic
biophysical
p ocesses
( ha
a e
unc ions)
o
p oduce
goods
and
se ices
ha
people
ely
on.
We
a gue
ha
ecosys em
se ices
should
exclu-
si ely
be
conside ed
as
he
in e ac ions
o
he
ecosys ems
ha
p oduce
a
change
in
human
well-being
(Table
2).
We
he e o e
p opose
ha
ecosys em
se ices
a e
no
indi idual
ecosys em
com-
ponen s
o
goods.
In
addi ion,
while
all
ecosys em
se ices
a e
de i ed
om
ecological
p ocesses
(o
socio-ecological
p ocesses
Mononen
e
al.,
2016)
no
all
p ocesses
p oduce
ecosys em
se -
ices.
Some
p ocesses
may
no
be
o
use
o
humans,
bu
his
does
no
nega e
hei
impo ance.
Ecosys em
unc ion
and
ecological
p ocesses
a e
conside ed
he e
as
synonyms.
Due
o
he
u ili a ian
na u e
o
ecosys em
se ices,
esea ch
and
policy
end
o
emphasize
end-use
benefi s
a he
han
he
unde pinning
ecosys em
s uc u es
and
p ocesses
(see
‘T adi ional
unde s anding
o
he
cascade
amewo k’
in
Fig.
4).
We
p o-
pose
a
modified
cascade
amewo k
o
shi
pe spec i e
owa d
ecosys ems
(see
‘sys ems
ecology
e-in e p e a ion
o
he
cascade
amewo k’
in
Fig.
4).
In
Fig.
4
we
ep esen
he
flow
om
an
eco-
logical
pe spec i e.
The
elemen s
o
he
cascade
a e
no
‘equal’.
I
is
hus
no
enough
o
es ablish
a
causal
sequence
among
he
elemen s
o
he
cascade
because
he
inhe en
complexi y
o
each
s age
mus
be
highligh ed.
To
acknowledge
his
complexi y,
he
hie a chical
o ganiza ion
is
a
c ucial
concep
in
sys ems
ecology.
Hie a chical
le els
include
a oms,
cells,
o gans,
species,
popula ions,
ecosys ems,
landscape,
egions
and
he
ecosphe e
(Jø gensen,
2012).
Each
le el
in eg a es
he
unc ions
o
he
lowe
le el.5When
we
conside
he
hie a chy
om
a
e ical
pe spec i e,
each
le el
is
cons ained
om
he
uppe
le el
and
om
he
lowe
le el.
Howe e ,
he e
is
also
a
ho izon al
pe spec i e.
The e
is
coope a ion
among
he
componen s,
which
c ea es
ne wo ks,
whe e
in e ac ions
ake
place.
In
many
ep esen a ions
o
he
cascade
amewo k
na u al
cap-
i al
is
conside ed
as
examples
o
benefi s
( epo ed
as
asse s
o
commodi ies
depending
on
he
deg ee
o
human
in e en ion
in
he
p oduc ion
p ocess).
Na u al
capi al,
such
as
fibe
and
ood,
a e
biomass.
F om
a
e ical
(hie a chical)
pe spec i e
hese
compo-
nen s
ep esen
a
lowe
le el,
while
popula ions
o
o ganisms
a e
a
highe
le el.
Popula ions
in
u n
ep esen s
a
lowe
le el
compa ed
o
he
ecosys em.
Di e en
le els
in e ac
be ween
each
o he
e i-
cally.
In
addi ion,
in e ac ions
among
bio ic
and
abio ic
componen s
exis
also
a
ho izon al
le el.
Ve ical
and
ho izon al
in e ac ions
cons i u e
he
se ice.
Based
on
he
hie a chical
o ganiza ion
d awn
om
sys ems
ecology,
i
is
possible
o
highligh
he
di e ence
be ween
se -
5Fo
example:
a
cell
le el
on
he
one
hand
he
in eg a ed
cell
p ocesses
de e -
mine
he
unc ionali y
o
he
o gans,
on
he
o he
hand
o gans
con ol
he
final
biochemical
esul s
o
cells;
a
he
le el
o
popula ions
on
he
one
hand
he
indi id-
uals
and
hei
in e ac ions
de e mine
he
p ope ies
o
he
popula ions,
and
on
he
o he
hand
popula ion
de e mines
he
li ing
amewo k
o
he
indi iduals.
398
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
Table
2
P oposed
defini ions
o
he
cascade
amewo k
e minology.
Te m
Defini ion
Examplesa
Biophysical
s uc u ebThe
se ing
o
ecosys em
componen s
(bio ic
and
abio ic).
This
also
ela es
o
he
ecological
pa e n
Fo es
ee
co e
Inland
wa e
bodies
P ocess
o
unc ion
An
ecological
in e ac ion
among
componen s
in
an
ecosys em
o e
ime.
P ocesses
may
gene a e
se e al
ecosys em
se ices.
Ne
p ima y
p oduc ion
Ca bon
cycling
Nu ien
cycling
Ecosys em
se ice
A
flow
gene a ed
by
he
ecosys em
including
ecological
in e ac ions
and
in o ma ion
which
a e
use ul
o
human
beings.
We
he e o e
p opose
ha
ecosys em
se ices
do
no
include
ecosys em
componen s
o
goods,
i.e.
coun able
as
(bio)mass
uni .
In
addi ion,
ecosys em
se ices
some imes
equi e
human
inpu ,
which
does
no
necessa ily
mean
human-made
cons uc s
like
labou ,
indus ial
p ocessing,
benches
o
fishing
oads.a
Gene a ion
o
ma e ial
om
plan s
Ca bon
seques a ion
Wa e
pu ifica ion
Aes he ic
beau y
o
landscape
Good
Coun able
as
a
(bio)mass
uni ,
i
is
a
ehicle
o
ecosys em
se ice
enjoymen .
Wood
biomass
Amoun
o
CO2 e ained
om
he
a mosphe e
Amoun
o
pollu an s
e ained
om
wa e
bodies
People
enjoying
ou doo
ec ea ion
ac i i ies
Benefi
Wha
is
gene a ed
by
he
se ice
and
leads
o
a
change
in
human
well-being.
A ailabili y
o
wood
o
mul iple
uses
Heal hie
ai
o
b ea h/clima e
change
mi iga ion
A ailabili y
o
cleane
wa e
(ins ead
o
wa e
pollu ed
by
economic
ac i i ies)
aExample
o
human
inpu
includes
exis ence
o
a
human
being
wi h
his/he
senso y
and
pe cep ional
expe iences.
bExis ing
li e a u e
o en
uses
he
e m
ecological
s uc u e
as
a
synonym
o
biophysical
s uc u e.
We
howe e
p e e
he
la e
e m,
because
i
also
includes
non- ege a ed
s uc u es,
such
as
dunes,
aqui e s
o
Rocky
Moun ains.
ice
and
benefi s.
A
se ice
is
a
p ocess
and
is
de e mined
by
he
ho izon al
and
e ical
ne wo king
ac i i y.
Benefi s
a e
indi id-
ual
componen s,
coun able
as
a
biomass
uni ,
and
a
ehicle
o
ecosys em
se ice
enjoymen
(Ma hies
e
al.,
2016).
In
he
cu en
cascade
amewo k,
g ea
emphasis
is
con e ging
on
he
benefi ,
because
his
is
mos
ele an
o
humans.
I
is
no
ou
in en ion
o
downplay
he
impo ance
o
benefi s
(and
hus
he
‘humans’
ole
in
co-p oducing
ecosys em
se ices).
We,
howe e ,
a gue
o
a
shi
o
pe spec i e
om
a
‘ wo
dimensional’
o
a
‘ elescopic’
cas-
cade
amewo k
which
emphasizes
he
ecological
dimensions
and
complex
eali y.
The
implica ions
o
a
hie a chical
o ganiza ion
a e
in
line
wi h
he
unde s anding
o
ecosys ems
a
he
basis
o
he
cascade
amewo k:
uppe
le els
change
mo e
slowly
han
lowe
le els.
Va ia ions
and
dis u bances
o
uppe
le els
may
a ec
he
lowe
le els;
he
o he
way
ound,
howe e ,
is
less
equen ,
because
lowe
le el
dis u bances
a e
mi iga ed
a
uppe
le el
(Jø gensen,
2012).6Fo
example,
assuming
an
ini ial
heal hy
s a e
o
he
ecosys-
em,
when
a
single
componen
o
he
popula ion
is
emo ed
(e.g.
a
ee
om
a
o es
o
one
animal
om
a
popula ion),
he
egen-
e a ion
capaci y
is
no
a ec ed,
he
unc ioning
o
he
ecosys em
is
main ained
a
a
heal hy
s a e.
When
a
clea -cu
akes
place
o
he
species
become
a e
o
ex inc ,
hen
he
en i e
habi a
will
be
a ec ed
(e.g.
he
o es
will
no
be
he e
anymo e
and
he
ood
chain
will
change).
Any
assessmen
and
alua ion
in ended
o
p o ide
a
sus ainable
policy
o
he
medium
and
long
e m
canno
igno e
he
ecologi-
cal
sys em
side
o
he
cascade.
The
exis ence
o
he
social
sys em
is
gua an eed
by
he
p ope
unc ioning
o
he
ecological
sys em.
The
alue
o
he
ecological
sys em
is
in insic,
and
he
app oach
is
holis ic,
bio-cen ic
and
posi i is .
The
ecosys em
se ices
na a-
i e
is
pa
o
he
human
sys em
whose
alue
is
u ili a ian,
and
i s
app oach
educ ionis
and
human-cen e ed.
6A
mal unc ion
o
one
le el
can
be
elimina ed
by
eplacing
a
ew
componen s
on
he
lowe
le el.
e.g
cells,
o gans
and
species
can
be
eplaced
o
be e
fi
he
new
eme gen
condi ions.
Thus,
he
highe
he
le el
is,
he
less
ulne able
i
becomes.
4.2.
Compa ing
he
enewed
defini ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
o
CICES
classifica ion
We
p oceed
by
compa ing
he
concep s
in oduced
om
sys em
ecology
o
he
CICES
classifica ion
and
he
cascade
amewo k.
In
Table
3
we
lis
he
co espondence
be ween
CICES
classes
and
ou
e minology.
This
analysis
does
no
in end
o
add
a
new
le el
o
complica ion
o
he
ecosys em
se ices
concep ualiza ion.
Ra he
i
aims
a
cla i ying
he
di e ence
be ween
ecosys em
se ices
and
benefi s
and
o
imp o e
consis ency
in
he
classifica ion
o
ecosys-
em
se ices.
Among
he
lis
o
ecosys em
se ices
p oposed
by
CICES,
some
o
hem
do
no
mee
he
equi emen s
o
ou
defini ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
(i.e.
p ocesses)
(Table
3).
Fo
example,
all
CICES
p o i-
sioning
se ices
a e
benefi s
(i.e.
biomass).
P o isioning
se ices
include
o
example
cul i a ed
c ops.
Howe e ,
he
ecosys em
se -
ice
is
in
ac
he
p ocess
o
gene a e
c ops
and
plan s,
a he
han
he
c ops
and
plan s
hemsel es.
The
use
o
he
benefi
as
a
p oxy
o
he
se ice
is
a
common
p ac ice,
bu
i
migh
esul
in
double
coun ing.
Thus,
he
esul ing
benefi
om
e.g.
egula ing
se ices
should
be
a icula ed
clea ly,
so
ha
o e laps
wi h
p o isioning
se ices
a e
known.
Fo
example,
benefi s
om
pollina ion
may
o e lap
wi h
cul i a ed
c ops;
wa e
flow
main enance
may
o e -
lap
wi h
wa e
supplied;
o
main aining
nu se y
popula ions
and
habi a s
may
o e lap
wi h
ood
(fish)
p o isioning
(Lique e
e
al.,
2016a).
When
pe o ming
he
ade-o
assessmen ,
we
do
no
sug-
ges
igno ing
egula ing
se ices,
bu
a he
o
ca e ully
conside
be ween
p o isioning
and
egula ing
se ices.
In
CICES
he
lis
o
se ices
(in
pa icula
egula ing
se -
ices)
some imes
includes
unc ions
and
biophysical
s uc u es.
Fo
ins ance,
‘chemical
condi ion’
is
a
p ope y
o
componen
o
he
sys-
em
and
no
a
p ocess.
I
is
hus
pa
o
he
biophysical
s uc u e.
The
ecological
in e ac ions
among
componen s,
such
as
‘hyd ologi-
cal
cycle’
and
‘ en ila ion
and
anspi a ion’
a e
p ocesses
ha
ake
place
wi hin
he
ecosys em,
and
no
he
flow
o
an
indi idual
se -
ice
ha
p oduces
a
di ec
change
in
human
well-being.
Di e en ly
om
benefi s,
he
biophysical
s uc u e
canno
be
a
p oxy
o
he
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
399
Table
3
Classifica ion
o
ecosys em
se ices
(CICES)
including
he
na u e
o
ecosys em
se ices,
he
cascade
amewo k
s ep,
he
Sys ems
Ecology
ca ego y,
he
mos
logic/common
assessmen
echnique
and
hei
deg ee
o
complexi y.
Lis
o
ecosys em
se ices
acco ding
o
CICES
Cascade
amewo k
s ep
Sys ems
Ecology
ca ego y
Assessmen
echnique
P o isioning
Cul i a ed
c ops
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Wild
plan s,
algae
and
hei
ou pu s
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Wild
animals
and
hei
ou pu s
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Plan s
and
algae
om
in-si u
aquacul u e
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Animals
om
in-si u
aquacul u e Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Ma e ials
om
plan s,
algae
and
animals
o
ag icul u al
use
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Gene ic
ma e ials
om
all
bio a
Benefi
Biomass/in o ma ion
S a is ical
da ase s
Rea ed
animals
and
hei
ou pu s
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Su ace
wa e
o
d inking
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
G ound
wa e
o
d inking Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Fibe s
and
o he
ma e ials
om
plan s,
algae
and
animals
o
di ec
use
o
p ocessing
Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Su ace
wa e
o
non-d inking
pu poses
Benefi
Mass
Mainly
s a is ical
da ase s
G ound
wa e
o
non-d inking
pu poses
Benefi
Mass
Mainly
s a is ical
da ase s
Plan -based
esou ces Benefi
Biomass
S a is ical
da ase s
Animal-based
esou ces
Benefi
Biomass
Mainly
s a is ical
da ase s
Animal-based
ene gy
Benefi
Biomass
Mainly
s a is ical
da ase s
Regula ing
and
main enance
Bio- emedia ion
by
mic o-o ganisms,
algae,
plan s,
and
animals
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es
Fil a ion/seques a ion/s o age/accumula ion
by
mic o-o ganisms,
algae,
plan s,
and
animals
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es
Fil a ion/seques a ion/s o age/accumula ion
by
ecosys ems
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es
Media ion
o
smell/noise/ isual
impac s
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es
Dilu ion
by
a mosphe e,
eshwa e
and
ma ine
ecosys ems
Func ion
Hyd ological
cycle
Func ion
Wa e
flow
main enance
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
Mass
s abiliza ion
and
con ol
o
e osion
a es
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
Global
clima e
egula ion
by
educ ion
o
g eenhouse
gas
concen a ions
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
Mic o
and
egional
clima e
egula ion
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
Bu e ing
and
a enua ion
o
mass
flows
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es;
Geospa ial
models
Flood
p o ec ion
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es;
Geospa ial
models
S o m
p o ec ion
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es;
Geospa ial
models
Pollina ion
and
seed
dispe sal
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es;
Geospa ial
models
Main aining
nu se y
popula ions
and
habi a s
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es;
Complex
indica o s
in eg a ed
wi h
geospa ial
models
Pes
and
disease
con ol
Se ice
In e ac ion
Biophysical
models
and/o
measu es;
Geospa ial
models
Ven ila ion
and
anspi a ion
Func ion
Wea he ing
p ocesses
Func ion
Decomposi ion
and
fixing
p ocesses
Func ion
Chemical
condi ion
o
eshwa e s
Biophysical
s uc u e
Chemical
condi ion
o
sal
wa e s
Biophysical
s uc u e
Cul u al
Expe ien ial
use
o
plan s,
animals
and
land-/seascapes
in
di e en
en i onmen al
se ings
Se ice
In o ma ion
Geospa ial
models/complex
indica o s
Physical
use
o
land-/seascapes
in
di e en
en i onmen al
se ings
Se ice
In o ma ion
Geospa ial
models/complex
indica o s
Aes he ic
Se ice
In o ma ion
Geospa ial
models/complex
indica o s
Educa ion
Se ice
In o ma ion
Complex
indica o s
He i age,
cul u al
Se ice
In o ma ion
Complex
indica o s
En e ainmen
Se ice
In o ma ion
Complex
indica o s
Scien ific
Se ice
In o ma ion
Complex
indica o s
Symbolic
Se ice
In o ma ion
Complex
indica o s
Sac ed
and/o
eligious
Se ice
In o ma ion
Complex
indica o s
Exis ence
Value
Beques
Value
The
a emp
is
o
de elop
he
same
examples
h oughou
he
‘ e minology
chain’
o
show
ha
hey
a e
indeed
di e en
s age
o
he
same
p ocess.
E.g.
o
di e en ia e
he
ca bon
cycling
as
unc ion
om
ca bon
seques a ion
as
se ice
om
CO2 ons
will
(i
e e )
be
he
ask
o
he
biophysical
model,
i.e.
only
one
o
hose
s ages
will
be
mapped
and
assessed,
i
will
depend
on
he
echnique
used
o
assess
(model
o
indica o
o
s a is ics).
400
A.
La
No e
e
al.
/
Ecological
Indica o s
74
(2017)
392–402
Fig.
4.
F om
a
2D
o
a
elescopic
cascade
amewo k
(a)
T adi ional
unde s anding
o
he
cascade
amewo k
wi h
emphasis
on
end-use
benefi s;
(b)
Sys ems
Ecology
e-in e p e a ion
o
he
cascade
amewo k,
wi h
emphasis
on
he
unde pinning
complexi y
o
he
ecological
sys em.
se ice7:
hey
a e
wha
allows
he
se ice
flow
o
be
gene a ed
(c .
Mononen
e
al.,
2016).
In
CICES
exis ence
and
beques
alues
a e
lis ed
as
se ices:
when
a emp ing
a
mone a y
alua ion,
exis ence
and
beques
non-use
alues
a e
concep s
ha
acili a e
he
choice
o
he
alua ion
echnique
o
be
adop ed,
bu
hey
a e
no
hem-
sel es
ecosys em
se ices.
Sys ems
ecology
heo y
can
hus
p o ide
guidance
o
ecosys em
se ice
assessmen s:
Table
3
p esen s
a
new
classifica ion
app oach
o
ecosys em
se ices
assessmen s.
In
Table
3
we
a emp
o
ack
co espondence
wi h
he
di e en
ypologies
o
modeling
echniques.
By
e e ing
o
he
sys ems
ecol-
ogy
ca ego ies
o
biomass,
in e ac ion
and
in o ma ion
we
could
s a e
how
complex
he
le el
o
modeling
should
be.
When
ecosys em
se ices
a e
iden ified
as
biomass,
measu e-
men
will
equi e
he
collec ion
o
en i onmen al
s a is ics
and
in en o ies.
This
is
he
case
o
many
p o isioning
se ices,
whe e
7This
is
he
eason
why
in
Table
3
wha
co esponds
o
‘Biophysical
s uc u e’
and
‘Func ion’
is
no
classified
in
e ms
o
Sys ems
Ecology
ca ego y,
and
Assessmen
echnique
a e
hus
epo ed
as
g ey
cells.
da a
is
usually
ex ac ed
om
ag icul u e
and
o es y
s a is i-
cal
da abases
and
in en o ies,
o
om
ma ke
ansac ions,
a he
han
biophysical
p ocesses.
Simple
and
a ailable
indica o s
can
be
used,
such
as
land-use
and
land-co e
da a,
biodi e si y
moni o -
ing
maps,
o
na ional
o es
in en o ies.
In
his
case,
a he
han
assessing
he
se ice
i sel ,
he
benefi
is
used
as
p oxy
o
he
ecosys em
se ice.
This
is
mos
ele an
o
p o isioning
se ices
and
he
cu en
p ac ice
o
assessmen .
When
ecosys em
se ices
a e
iden ified
as
in e ac ion,
hen
eco-
logical
modeling
o
moni o ing
is
needed.
To
co ec ly
assess
he
se ice,
he
na u e
o
he
p ocess
should
be
unde s ood,
desc ibed
analy ically
and
measu ed.
This
is
he
case
o
some
egula ing
se -
ices
(i.e.
all
hose
se ices
ha
di ec ly
in ol e
biogeochemical
cycles)
whe e
p ocess-based
modeling
would
be e
fi
he
pu -
pose,
because
he
model
should
be
able
o
ep esen / eplica e
he
ecosys em
unc ioning
(e.g.
Lique e
e
al.,
2016b).
The e
a e,
how-
e e ,
cases
in
which
spa ial
modeling
and
s a is ical
modeling
could
se e
he
assessmen
pu pose.
In
spa ial
modeling
algo i hms
based
on
spa ial
ea u es
a e
used
and/o
di e en
indica o s
a e
linked
wi h
land
use
da a
o
de i e
mo e
complex
indica o s
(see
o
exam-