Profiles of Parental Burnout Around the Globe : Similarities and Differences Across 36 Countries

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Profiles of Parental Burnout Around the Globe : Similarities and Differences Across 36 Countries © 2023 SAGE Publications. Published version Matias, Marisa; Aguiar, Joyce; Fontaine, Anne Marie; Akgun, Ege; Arikan, Gizem; Aunola, Kaisa; Barham, Elizabeth; Beyers, Wim; Boujut, Emilie; Brytek-Matera, Anna; Carbonneau, Noémie; César, Filipa; Chen, Bin-Bin; Dorard, Géraldine; Dunsmuir, Sandra; Egorova, Natalia; Elias, Luciana; Favez, Nicolas; Foran, Heather M.; Furutani, Kaichiro; Gannagé, Myrna; Gaspar, Maria; Godbout, Lucie; Gross, James; Hatta, Ogma; Huynh, Mai-Trang; Kellou, Nassima; Knezevic, Goran; Lazarevic, Ljiljana; Le Vigouroux, Sarah; Leme, Vanessa; Manrique-Millones, Denisse; Millones Rivalles, Rosa; Miranda-Orrego, María Isabel; Miscioscia, Marina; Morgades-Bamba, Clara I.; Mousavi, Seyyedeh Fatemeh; MoutassemMimouni, Badra; Muntean, Ana; Murphy, Hugh; Tenkue, Josué Ngnombouowo; Osman, Fatumo; Oyarce, Cadiz Daniela; Pérez-Díaz, Pablo A.; Petrides, Konstantinos; Scola, Céline; Simonelli, Alessandra; Soenens, Bart; Sorbring, Emma; Sorkkila, Matilda; Stănculescu, Elena; Starchenkova, Elena; Szczygiel, Dorota; Tremblay, Mélissa; Ustundag-Budak, A. Meltem; van Bakel, Hedwig; Verhofstadt, Lesley; Wendland, Jaqueline; Mikolajczak, Moira; Roskam, Isabelle Matias, M., Aguiar, J., Fontaine, A. M., Akgun, E., Arikan, G., Aunola, K., Barham, E., Beyers, W., Boujut, E., Brytek-Matera, A., Carbonneau, N., César, F., Chen, B.-B., Dorard, G., Dunsmuir, S., Egorova, N., Elias, L., Favez, N., Foran, H. M., . . . Roskam, I. (2023). Profiles of Parental Burnout Around the Globe : Similarities and Differences Across 36 Countries. Cross-Cultural Research, 57(5), 499-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/10693971231174551 2023 Original Research Article Cross-Cultural Research 2023, Vol. 0(0) 1–40 © 2023 SAGE Publications Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1177/10693971231174551 journals.sagepub.com/home/ccr Profiles of Parental Burnout Around the Globe: Similarities and Differences Across 36 Countries Marisa Matias 1 , Joyce Aguiar 2 , Anne Marie Fontaine 1 , Ege Akgun 3 , Gizem Arikan 4 , Kaisa Aunola 5 , Elizabeth Barham 6 , Wim Beyers 7 , Emilie Boujut 8 , Anna Brytek-Matera 9 , No´ emie Carbonneau 10 , Filipa C´ esar 11 , Bin-Bin Chen 12 , G´ eraldine Dorard 13 , Sandra Dunsmuir 14 , Natalia Egorova 15 , Luciana Elias 16 , Nicolas Favez 17 , Heather M. Foran 18 , Kaichiro Furutani 19 , Myrna Gannag´ e 20 , Maria Gaspar 21 , Lucie Godbout 10 , James Gross 22 , Ogma Hatta 23 , Mai-Trang Huynh 24 , Nassima Kellou 25 , Goran Knezevic 26 , Ljiljana Lazarevic 26 , Sarah Le Vigouroux 27 , Vanessa Leme 28 , Denisse Manrique-Millones 29 , Rosa Millones Rivalles 30 , Mar´ ıa Isabel Miranda-Orrego 31 , Marina Miscioscia 32 , Clara I. Morgades-Bamba 33 , Seyyedeh Fatemeh Mousavi 34 , Badra Moutassem-Mimouni 35 , Ana Muntean 36 , Hugh Murphy 37 , Josu´ e Ngnombouowo Tenkue 38 , Fatumo Osman 39 , Daniela Oyarce Cadiz 40 , Pablo A. P´ erez-D´ ıaz 41 , Konstantinos Petrides 14 , C´ eline Scola 42 , Alessandra Simonelli 43 , Bart Soenens 44 , Emma Sorbring 45 , Matilda Sorkkila 46 , Elena St˘ anculescu 47 , Elena Starchenkova 48 , Dorota Szczygiel 48 ,M ´ elissa Tremblay 10,49 , A. Meltem Ustundag-Budak 50 , Hedwig van Bakel 51 , Lesley Verhofstadt 7 , Jaqueline Wendland 52 , Moira Mikolajczak 53 , and Isabelle Roskam 54  1 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Center for Psychology, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal 2 Center for Reaearch in Higher Education Policies, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal 3 Department of Preschool Education, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey 4 Department of Psychology, Ozyegin Universitesi, Istanbul, Turkey 5 Department of Psychology, University of Jyv¨ askyl¨ a, Jyv¨ askyl¨ a, Finland 6 Department of Psychology, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Sao Carlos, Brazil 7 Developmental, Personality & Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium 8 Institute of Psychology, Universit´ e Paris Cit´ e, Paris, France 9 Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw Faculty of Historical and Pedagogical Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland 10 Department of Psychology, Universit´ eduQu´ ebec ` a Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivieres, QC, Canada 11 Department of Education, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal 12 Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China 13 Laboratoire de Psychopathologie et Processus de Sant´ e (UR 4057), Universit´ e Paris Cit´ e, Paris, France 14 Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK 15 Psychiatrie adulte; EPSM de l’agglom´ eration lilloise, Saint-Andre-lez-Lille, France 16 Departamento de Psicologia, Universidade de São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil 17 Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland 18 Health Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria 19 Faculty of Business Admission, Hokkai-Gakuen University, Sapporo, Japan 20 Department of Psychology, Saint Joseph University, Beirut, Lebanon 21 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal 22 Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA 23 D´ epartement de psychologie et des sciences de l’´ education, Universit´ e de Kara, Kara, Togo 24 Department of Psychology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 25 D´ epartement of Psychology, University of Oran 2 Mohamed Ben Ahmed, Oran, Algeria 26 Department of Psychology, University of Belgrade, Beograd, Serbia 27 Department of Psychology, University of Nimes Library, Nimes, France 28 Department of Psychology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 29 Carrera de Psicolog´ ıa, Universidad Cient´ ıfica del Sur, Miraflores, Peru 30 Universidad Marcelino Champagnat, Lima, Peru 31 Faculty of Psychology, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador 32 Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, Padova, Italy 33 Departament of Social Psychology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain 2Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Abstract Parental burnout (PB) is a pervasive phenomenon. Parenting is embedded in cultural values, and previous research has shown the role of individualism in PB. In this paper, we reanalyze previously collected data to identify profiles based on the four dimensions of PB, and explore whether these profiles vary across countries’levels of collectivistic-individualistic (COL-IND) values. Our sample comprised 16,885 individuals from 36 countries (73% women; 27% men), and we used a latent profile approach to uncover PB profiles. The findings showed five profiles: Fulfilled, Not in PB, Low risk of PB, High risk of PB and Burned out. The profiles pointed to climbing levels of PB in the total sample and in each of the three country groups (High COL/Low IND, Medium COL-IND, Low COL/High IND). Exploratory analyses revealed that distinct dimensions of PB had the most prominent roles in the climbing pattern, depending on the countries’levels of COL/IND. In particular, we found contrast to be a hallmark dimension and an indicator of severe burnout for individualistic countries. Contrary to our predictions, emotional distance and saturation did not allow a 34 Department of Psychology, Women Research Center, Al Zahra University, Tehran, Iran 35 D´ epartement de Psyhcology et d’Orthophonie, Universit´ ed’Oran 2 Mohamed Ben Ahmed, Oran, Algeria 36 Department of Sociology and Psychology, West University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania 37 Health Psychology, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria 38 Department of Psychology, Universit´ e de Yaound´ e I, Yaounde, Cameroon 39 School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden 40 Carrera de Psicolog´ ıa, Universidad Santo Tom´ as, Santiago, Chile 41 Institute of Psychology, Sede Puerto Montt, Austral University of Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile 42 PsyCL´ E, Aix-Marseille Universit´ e, Marseille, France 43 Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University Library of Padova, Padova, Italy 44 Department of Social and Behavioural Studies, University West, Trollhattan, Sweden 45 Department of Psychology, Department of Education, University of Jyv¨ askyl¨ a, Jyvaskyla, Finland 46 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucuresti, Romania 47 Department of Psychological Ensuring of Professional Activities, Saint Petersburg State University Faculty of Philology, Sankt-Peterburg, Russia 48 Faculty in Sopot, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warszawa, Poland 49 D´ epartement de Psychologie, Universit´ eduQu ´ ebec ` a Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivieres, QC, Canada 50 Department of Psychology, Bahcesehir Universitesi, Istanbul, Turkey 51 Department of Tranzo, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands 52 Institut de Psychologie, Universit´ e Paris Cit´ e, Paris, France 53 Department of Psychology, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium 54 Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Received: 18 October 2022; accepted: 19 April 2023 Corresponding Author: Marisa Matias, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; Center for Psychology, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, Porto 4200392, Portugal. Email: [email protected] Matias et al. 3 clear differentiation across collectivistic countries. Our findings support several research avenues regarding PB measurement and intervention. Keywords parental burnout, cultural values, individualism, collectivism, latent profile analyses An impressive set of studies have been published in the past five to 10 years on the specific topic of parental burnout (PB). PB is characterized by i) an overwhelming sense of exhaustion related to the parental role, which leaves the parent feeling emotionally drained; ii) a strong contrast between how parents see themselves acting now compared to before—parents no longer recognize themselves in their parental role (Roskam et al., 2018); iii) saturation or feeling fed up with parenting—parents find their parental role burdensome, and no longer enjoy being with their children, and iv) emotional distancing of parents from their children, limiting interactions to functional or instrumental issues, without responding to their emotional needs (Roskam et al., 2018). Parental burnout has been shown to differ from other related constructs, such as job burnout and depressive symptoms, as reported by a recent study by Mikolajczak et al. (2020). In their study using factor analysis and associations with other constructs, the authors ascertained the distinctiveness of parental burnout in both axes: parental burnout is factorially distinct from job burnout and depressive symptomatology and has specific consequences which could not be predicted by job burnout and depression, such as parental neglect and violence (Mikolajczak et al., 2020). Despite the reasons for taking a multifaceted approach to PB, the specific role of the four dimensions on its severity remains unexplored mainly because the validation study of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA, Roskam et al., 2018) found a high correlation between the four dimensions. This high association was further replicated in several samples and in several languages (e.g., Arikan et al., 2020;Aunola et al., 2020;Cheng et al., 2020;Furutani et al., 2020;Ganna´ e et al., 2020;Hamvai et al., 2022;Manrique-Millones et al., 2020;Matias et al., 2020;Mousavi et al., 2020;Sodi et al., 2020; St˘ anculescu et al., 2020;Szczygiełet al., 2020). Not surprisingly, most subsequent studies - with notable exceptions such as Hansotte et al. (2021), Roskam et al. (2021), and Roskam & Mikolajczak (2021)—have used the total score for PB, leaving the contribution of PB-specific dimensions largely unexplored. However, PB is a developmental process. The symptoms (dimensions) do not appear altogether, and some dimensions, i.e., emotional distancing and a sense of inefficacy in the parental role, reinforce each other over time (Roskam & Mikolajczak, 2021). It is likely that, depending on where they are in the 4Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) process, parents do not experience high levels in all four dimensions. It is also likely that parents scoring high on PB could either be particularly exhausted and fed up with the parental role or instead, feel contrast with their previous parental self and emotional distance from their children. Therefore, different profiles of PB should occur and the specific role of the four dimensions in PB deserves better attention. Studies of PB profiles are scarce. Apart from Roskam and Mikolajczak (2021), who studied the developmental process of PB with a variable-centered approach, Hansotte et al., (2021) is currently the only study that has taken a person-centered approach to disentangle PB profiles. Five profiles of parents were identified: two profiles (not in parental burnout and inefficient) that could be regarded as not representing PB since the scores on emotional exhaustion were low; a profile of emotionally exhausted parents (at risk of parental burnout); and two other profiles representing largely exhausted parents (emotionally exhausted and distant and burned out parents), in which the dimensions of PB were present but with different intensities. These findings were promising and pointed to the relevance of a person-centered approach. Those two exceptional studies assessed the PB dimensions using the Parental Burnout Inventory (PBI, Roskam et al., 2017), a measure derived from the theoretical framework for job burnout. But researchers have questioned whether the items derived from the work context best represent burnout in the parenting context (see Roskam et al., 2018). The PBAwas more recently developed using an inductive method, which constructed the items based on interviews with burned-out parents. In this way, the PBA overcame some of the PBI’s important limitations by including two unidentified dimensions which surfaced in burned-out parents’testimonies, i.e., saturation in the parental role (feelings of being fed up) and contrast with previous parental self. Although saturation in the parental role is close to the loss of personal accomplishment dimension of the PBI, contrast is not evaluated by the PBI. This fundamental diagnostic criterion is only captured by the PBA. And in the absence of any contrast with the parent they once were, no parent can be said to be in burnout. Based on its background and the excellent psychometric properties of its test score across studies (e.g., Arikan et al., 2020;Aunola et al., 2020;Chen et al., 2020;Furutani et al., 2020;Matias et al., 2020;Mousavi et al., 2020; Roskam et al., 2018;St˘ anculescu et al., 2020;Szczygiełet al., 2020), the PBA is now considered the gold standard measure for parental burnout, i.e., the best single test and the preferred method of diagnosing parental burnout, against which other methods of diagnosing parental burnout should be compared. The current work aims to expand previous findings to a worldwide sample of parents, using a person-centered approach with the PBA. Matias et al. 5 Cultural Variation in Parental Burnout Profiles Culture deeply influences parenting (Harkness & Super, 1996;Jose et al., 2000); thus, parenting cultures emerge around the globe (Lin et al., 2022). They are characterized by specific beliefs and norms about how one should feel, think, and behave as a parent (Bornstein, 2012). “Good parent”beliefs in different cultural contexts may translate not only into differences in the frequency of PB, as suggested by Roskam et al. (2021), but also into differences in how the four dimensions combine to form profiles of PB. Roskam et al. (2021) showed that PB as measured by the total score of the PBA was more prevalent in cultures with higher individualistic values. However, less is known about how the distinct facets of parental burnout vary according to individualistic cultural values. Shedding light on this may respond to the need identified by Roskam et al. (2021) to clarify why parents in more individualistic or less collectivistic countries are more exposed to parental burnout. Individualism centralizes the personal and peripheralizes the social (Oyserman et al., 2002). In individualistic cultures, self-reliance is highly valued by parents, and they raise their children to be independent, selfinterested and materially more successful than themselves (Harkness & Super, 2021;Super & Harkness, 2002). Furthermore, in such cultures where a preoccupation with performance and high standards prevail in most life domains, including parenting, adults, including mothers or fathers, are focused on personal autonomy and self-fulfillment as the basis of identity (Hofstede, 1983;Triandis, 1995). With the spread of a new ideology of intensive parenting in most Euro-American countries, the requirements for being a “good parent”became more demanding (Hays, 1996;Milkie et al., 2010). Parents who share individualistic values face tremendous pressure, exacerbating the risk of PB. In this context, it is likely that the contrast dimension of PB will be particularly salient when parents believe that they are no longer “good parents”, being unable to fulfill the social prescriptions for the parenting role. As Roskam et al. (2021) showed, such self-discrepancies are associated with higher parental burnout. We can thus expect that in individualistic cultures, contrast will be a stronger marker of burnout profiles. Testing this prediction will help us gain a deeper understanding of parental burnout and of the previous findings of Roskam et al. (2023) regarding the role of individualism. Whereas individualistic cultures promote higher individuation and value independent construals of self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), group membership and maintaining harmonious relationships with close others are central aspects of identity in collectivistic cultures (Oyserman et al., 2002). In such cultures, individuals consider themselves to be closely related to or connected with others. Collectivistic individuals are expressly motivated by the goals, norms and values of their cultural or social group (Mann & Cheng, 6Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) 2013). Successful childrearing is more a collective than a personal challenge, and responsibility for the intensive demands of parenting is shared with other members of the community who are expected to support the parents. To achieve this kind of solidarity, parents in collectivist cultures rely on close relationships between family members. As closeness in relationships is the basis of society, feelings of emotional distance from one’s children would be particularly harmful. We can thus expect that in collectivist cultures, Emotional Distance from the children will be the stronger marker of burnout profiles. Detailing the role of specific PB facets is an innovative approach that should yield a deeper understanding of the links between cultural values and PB. The Current Study In the current study, we first explored the profiles of PB using the PBA completed by parents from 36 countries. Second, at the individual level, we explored the profiles according to the parents’sociodemographic characteristics. Third, at the country level, we explored the profiles of PB in collectivistic and individualistic countries separately. We then compared the mean levels of the dimensions in each profile according to the countries’level of collectivism-individualism. Method Participants and Data Collection Procedure Using data from a previous study (Roskam et al., 2021) conducted by the IIPB Consortium, which covers 42 countries, we performed further analyses encompassing the parental burnout facets and the countries’levels of collectivism-individualism. Ethics approval was obtained in all participating countries before the data collection. To participate in the study, parents were required to have at least one child, regardless of age, still living at home. In this study, however, we restricted the data to information from participants from 36 countries with scores on Hofstede’s individualism scale, comprising 16,093 individuals. Data collection occurred between January 2018 and November 2019 with various recruitment procedures, including newspaper advertisement, word of mouth, social networks, door-to-door, and varied survey presentations, namely paper and pencil and online. See Table 1 for specific information regarding the data collection in each country. See Table 2 for detailed information about the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents in each country. The majority of participants were part of two-parent families (79.2%), were women (73%), and were active in the labor market (82%). The other family Matias et al. 7 Table 1. Data Collection Procedures in Each Country. Sampling Procedure Location of Data Collection a Survey Type Online Versus Paper-Pencil (% Online) Algeria Snowball Oran, Mostaganem, Tlemcen, Ain Temouchent, Relizane, Chlef, El Bayadh, Annaba, Constantine et Oum El Bouaghi 0 Argentina Snowball and convenience San Miguel de Tucum´ an 100 Australia Snowball New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory 100 Austria Snowball and convenience Undefined 100 Belgium Snowball Flanders and Wallonia 100 Brazil Snowball and convenience São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro states: Amazonas, Cear´ a, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para´ ıba, Paran´ a, Pernambuco, Piau´ ı, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Sergipe 65.1 Canada Snowball Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Quebec, Northwest Territories 100 Chile Snowball and convenience Santiago, los Lagos (Puerto Montt), Del Maule (Talca) 100 China Convenience Zhejiang 100 Colombia Snowball and convenience Undefined 100 Costa Rica Snowball and convenience San Jos´ e, San Ramon, Heredia, Cartago, Alajuela 94 Ecuador Convenience Quito, Latacunga, Ibarra Otavalo, Saquisil´ ı, Salcedo, El Corazón, Guaranda, Tulc´ an, Cuenca, Guayaquil, Portoviejo, Esmeraldas, Lago 100 Finland Snowball and convenience Hyvink¨ a¨ a, Posio, Jyv¨ askyl¨ a 86.3 France Snowball and convenience Provence-Alpes-Cˆ ote d’Azur, Ilede-France 100 (continued) 8Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Table 4. Profile Means for the Five-Profile Solution (n= 16,885). Fulfilled (n= 10246) 60.68% No PB (n= 3770) 22.33% Low Risk of PB (n= 1614) 9.56% High Risk of PB (n= 788) 4.67% Burned out (n= 467) 2.77% FValue Emotional exhaustion .61 .34 1.22 2.07 2.85 18909.72* Contrast .51 .11 .99 2.04 3.45 14532.49* Saturation .53 .11 1.00 2.20 3.67 27967.20* Emotional distancing .48 .22 .90 1.63 3.02 6487.33* Note. All values are standardized means. ∗ For all F-values, p< .001. All scores differ between profiles at p< .001. Matias et al. 15 had no parents in burnout, while Profile 4 (High risk of PB) had 20.7% and Profile 5 (Burned out) had 98.8% of parents in burnout. In the total sample 3.6% of parents could be said to be in PB. The Sociodemographic Characteristics of Parental Burnout Profiles Details of parents in each profile according to background characteristics can be found in Appendix 1. As can be seen from Table 5, Chi-square independence tests showed that gender, number of children in the house, type of family and professional status were not independent from profile membership. Furthermore, inspecting the adjusted residuals we examined which profiles had the largest difference between the expected counts and the actual counts relative to sample size. Men were more represented in the Fulfilled profile and less represented in all remaining profiles than would be expected if their distribution was identical across all five profiles. In terms of the number of children at home, the Fulfilled profile was characterized by having more families with one child than the remaining profiles. The Fulfilled profile was also characterized by having more two-parent and multigenerational families than the remaining profiles. Finally, regarding work status, working parents were more frequent in the Fulfilled profile than would be expected in a uniform distribution of parents. Parental Burnout Profiles in Collectivistic and Individualistic Countries Table 6 shows the fit indices of the LPA for the different solutions. For the High COL-Low IND group, a three-profile solution was selected, whereas for Figure 1. Graphical depiction of the mean for the five profile solution (n= 16,885). 16 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Table 5. Background Differences in Parental Burnout Profiles. Fulfilled Not in PB Low risk of PB High risk for PB PB χ 2 Gender (%) Male 54.9 (24.4) 25.2 (–14.3) 11.0 (–10.2) 5.5 (–8.2) 3.4 (–7.5) 604.32* Female 75.3 (–24.4) 15 (14.3) 5.9 (10.2) 2.5 (8.2) 1.3 (7.5) No. of children in house (%) 1 66.5 (12.4) 19.6 (–6.6) 7.9 (–5.6) 3.9 (–4.0) 2.0 (–4.8) 219.51* 259.2 (–3.0) 22.8 (1.3) 9.8 (0.9) 5.2 (2.8) 2.9 (.07) 3 or more 51.9 (–11.3) 26.6 (6.5) 12.2 (5.8) 5.2 (1.5) 4.1 (5.0) Type of family (%) Two-parent 61.4 (3.5) 22.5 (0.9) 9.2 (–2.7) 4.5 (–2.4) 2.5 (–4.6) 156.70* Single-parent 52.6 (–6.8) 23.7 (1.3) 11.4 (2.7) 7.9 (6.3) 4.4 (3.9) Step-family 55.0 (–3.9) 23.5 (0.9) 12.7 (3.6) 4.8 (0.1) 4.2 (2.7) Multigenerational 72.8 (7.0) 15.8 (–4.5) 6.8 (–2.6) 1.7 (–4.1) 3.0 (0.3) Professional status (%) Working 62.0 (7.5) 22.3 (0.2) 9.1 (–4.7) 4.2 (–5.9) 2.4 (–6.9) 120.87* Not working 54.7 (-7.5) 22.2 (–0.2) 11.8 (4.7) 6.7 (5.99 4.6 (6.9) Note. *For all χ 2 values, p< .001. Values in parentheses represent the adjusted residuals. Values higher that |1.96| indicate that there are more (or less, if negative) cases in the cell than there would be if the variables were independent, adjusting for sample size. Gray cells highlight when the actual counts were higher than would be expected if the parents were distributed identically across all profiles and bold values indicate when the actual counts were lower than would be expected. Matias et al. 17 Table 6. Fit Indicators of the LPA (n= 16,885) According to the Levels of Individualism and Collectivism. Profile n° Log-likelihood # Free Parameters AIC BIC Ssabic LMR-LRT BLRT (p) Entropy High COL-low IND countries 214,025.033 13 28,076.07 28,157.089 28,115.781 .001 .001 0.98 312,031.119 18 24,098.24 24,210.423 24,153.227 .000 .000 0.96 411,301.856 23 22,649.71 22,793.058 22,719.975 .050 .053 0.93 510,874.537 28 21,805.07 21,979.582 21,890.611 .052 .054 0.93 Medium COL-IND countries 226,748 13 53,521.96 53,609.325 53,568.02 .000 .000 0.98 323,977.1 18 47,990.17 48,111.14 48,053.94 .000 .000 0.95 422,789.5 23 45,625.07 45,779.64 45,706.55 .000 .000 0.93 522,215 28 44,486.04 44,674.21 44,585.24 .000 .000 0.90 621,715.7 33 43,497.41 43,719.19 43,614.32 .117 .124 0.91 Low COL-high IND countries 228,749.4 13 57,524.811 57,612.34 57,571.03 .000 .000 0.97 325,689.2 18 51,414.435 51,535.63 51,478.43 .000 .000 0.95 424,389.4 23 48,824.708 48,979.57 48,906.48 .000 .000 0.91 523,862.3 28 47,780.535 47,969.06 47,880.08 .003 .003 0.89 623,442.9 33 46,951.794 47,173.98 47,069.12 .054 .057 0.89 Note. AIC = Akaike information criterion; BIC = Bayesian information criterion; SSA-BIC = sample size adjusted BIC; LMR-LRT = Lo-Mendel-Rubin adjusted likelihood ratio; BLRT = bootstrap likelihood ratio test. 18 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) the Medium COL-IND and High IND-Low COL groups a five-profile solution seemed to fit better. In Figure 2 we compare the threeand five-profile solutions for the High COL-Low IND group, showing that the profiles that emerged were rather parallel. Although the five-profile solution allowed for more refinement on each PB dimension, no PB dimension had a marked role in these profiles. We therefore used the five-profile solution for all groups of countries in the subsequent analyses. Appendix 2 shows the five profiles according to each COL-IND group. Generally, the five profiles were repeated in each group of countries, i.e. a first profile comprised of most Fulfilled parents, a second profile with No parental burnout, a third profile with parents at Low risk of burnout, a fourth profile Figure 2. Comparison of the mean levels on each PB dimension for the three-and five-profile solutions for high COL-low IND countries. Matias et al. 19 Table 7. Standardized Mean Levels of PB Dimensions in Each Profile Across the Two Most Contrasting Groups—High COL-Low IND Versus Low COL-High IND Countries. High COL-Low IND Collectivistic Countries Low COL-High IND Individualistic Countries Increment on the Means Between the Two Groups t Profile 1 (fulfilled) n= 2594 n= 3465 Emotional exhaustion 0.69 0.49 .20 22.69*** Contrast 0.55 0.46 .09 12.10*** Saturation 0.60 0.47 .13 21.23*** Emotional distancing 0.55 0.46 .09 8.81*** Profile 2 (No PB) n= 723 n= 1493 Emotional exhaustion 0.25 0.53 .28 12.83*** Contrast 0.01 0.18 .17 7.56*** Saturation 0.05 0.20 .25 12.01*** Emotional distancing 0.17 0.16 .01 .36 ns Profile 3 (low risk of PB) n= 303 n= 673 Emotional exhaustion 0.98 1.45 .47 11.19*** Contrast 0.77 1.17 .40 8.33*** Saturation 0.94 1.09 .15 3.96*** Emotional distancing 0.72 0.92 .20 3.24*** Profile 4 (high risk of PB) n=90 n= 339 Emotional exhaustion 1.98 2.20 .22 3.75*** Contrast 2.00 2.01 .01 0.11 ns Saturation 2.17 2.41 .24 3.06** Emotional distancing 1.58 1.78 .20 1.83 ns (continued) 20 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Table 7. (continued) High COL-Low IND Collectivistic Countries Low COL-High IND Individualistic Countries Increment on the Means Between the Two Groups t Profile 5 (PB) n=51 n= 234 Emotional exhaustion 2.76 2.92 .16 1.81 ns Contrast 3.34 3.57 .23 2.33* Saturation 3.58 3.73 .15 1.59 ns Emotional distancing 3.27 3.10 .17 1.17 ns Note. All values are standardized means. ***p< .001; **p< .01; *p< .05. Matias et al. 21 with a High risk of parental burnout and finally a fifth profile characterized by burned-out parents. The results of the mean comparisons of the dimensions in each profile between the most contrasting groups of countries, that is, the High COL-Low IND countries and the Low COL-High IND countries, are shown in Table 7. The most marked differences regularly observed in all profiles was that parents in individualistic countries had higher emotional exhaustion and higher saturation levels than parents in collectivistic countries for all profiles apart from Burned out. Additionally, parents in individualistic countries had higher levels of contrast than parents from the collectivistic countries with the exception of the High risk of PB parents. Moreover, for parents who belonged to the Burned out profile, there were only marked differences in the levels of contrast, which were particularly high for the individualistic countries. Finally, differences in emotional distancing were only observed when the risk of burnout was low or inexistent In sum, as expected, contrast was the only dimension in the Burned out parents profile to show a significant difference between individualistic and collectivistic countries. Emotional distancing was significantly lower in collectivistic than in individualistic countries in Profile 3. However, the level of emotional distancing in the collectivistic countries was higher in Profile four and Profile 5. In the latter profile, it reached the level found in individualistic countries. A similar pattern of results occurred for both saturation and emotional exhaustion. These two dimensions were lower in collectivistic than in individualistic countries in Profile four and Profile 5. Again, in these latter profile, they both reached the level found in individualistic countries. Discussion In this study, we aimed to go deeper into the analyses of PB profiles and examine how these profiles varied in prevalence and were shaped by different cultural contexts. Using the gold-standard measure of assessing parental burnout, the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) (Roskam et al., 2018), we can first highlight that PB dimensions translated into five profiles. Of these, one profile consisted of Fulfilled parents and another of parents who were not in burnout; the remaining three were more related to different expressions of PB. These expressions of PB are distinct from those found in the earlier study, probably because the PBA allows a distinction to be made between saturation and contrast, unlike the PBI (used in the earlier study). We were also able to support the validity of these profiles, given that Profile 5, Burned out parents, aggregated 99% of parents who could be said to be in clinical burnout. Another remarkable finding is that most parents belonged to the Fulfilled profile. This profile also had a relatively high proportion of men, working parents of a single child and parents in two-parent or multigenerational families. These results are consistent with previous evidence in the field of PB. 22 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Although socio-demographic variables explained a very low part of the variance, gender-related differences previously reported mean that the high proportion of men in this profile was not surprising: most parental tasks are still performed by women worldwide, and women report higher parental stress than men (Aguiar et al., 2021;Roskam et al., 2022). Although this finding was consistent with previous studies, it was interesting to note that working outside the home was a protective factor (working parents were more frequent in the Fulfilled profile). It seems helpful for parents to have another role to focus on and perhaps to derive satisfaction and self-esteem from. Belonging to a twoparent or multigenerational family also appeared to be a protective factor, probably because more support is available in such households (i.e., the task of parenting can be shared with the partner or other family members). In the total sample, but also in both the High COL-Low IND and the Low COL-High IND country groups, the scores in each PB facet were progressively higher from one profile to another. Although we retained the five-profile solution for all groups, we noted that a three-profile solution would also fit the data in the High COL-Low IND group. Both the threeand five-profile solution pointed to the same progressive pattern. As the internal consistency between the four scales of the PBA and between the 23 items in general was very high, it was difficult to identify profiles that were anything other than levels of burnout. However, a closer look at the values of each PB facet in the two country groups showed that the absolute value of each facet was higher in the Low COL-High IND group. For this group of countries, the absolute values for emotional exhaustion and saturation were quite high in all profiles but the last, even in the Fulfilled profile. In the Low and High risk of PB profiles, besides these two facets, emotional distancing was also much higher in the Low COL-High IND group. Although the contrast dimension was higher in all profiles except for High risk of PB, it was noteworthy that in the Burned out profile, the contrast dimension was the only one which differentiated the parents from collectivistic and individualistic countries. These results supported our hypothesis that contrast was the hallmark for burned out parents in highly individualistic countries. Considering the mean levels of each dimension within countries and across profiles, especially between the High risk of PB and Burned out profiles, we saw that in the individualistic countries, the dimension that increased the most between these two profiles was contrast (from 2.01 to 3.57). A larger mean difference was also observed for emotional exhaustion in both collectivistic and individualistic countries. This set of findings may be considered together with previous results using the PBI in a longitudinal perspective that suggested exhaustion as a first step in the PB process across different countries (Roskam & Mikolajczak, 2021). We hypothesized that specific dimensions would play a particular role in the two cultural groups. Although we could not confirm our predictions of Matias et al. 23 different profiles for different cultural groups, we saw that being Burned out is the result of higher levels in all dimensions. However, a major increase of contrast seems to be the final sign of severe burnout, depending on the level of collectivism-individualism of the country. In the Low COL-High IND countries, the profiles were marked by the largest differences in contrast. This distinctive role of contrast seems to align with our prediction that in this type of country, as parents are more focused on their own achievement and autonomy, contrast is what increases the most in the Burned out profile. For these parents, it seems that this is the most relevant facet of the experience of burnout. Interestingly, this dimension, which is not present in the model of job burnout, emerged saliently from the testimonies of burned-out parents that were used to conceptualize parental burnout and develop the PBA. Such results are in line with previous studies that have suggested parental perfectionism as a major risk factor for parental burnout (Furutani et al., 2020;Lin et al., 2021;Sorkkila & Aunola, 2020;St˘ anculescu et al., 2020), and higher parental goals as a possible mediator between culture and parental burnout (Roskam et al., 2023). Our results also point in this direction. In a culture where concerns about performance and exacting standards prevail in most life domains, including parenting, feeling a contrast between the parent one is and the parent one was or wanted to be is a very salient aspect. Our predictions regarding emotional distancing as the most relevant sign for severe burnout in High COL/Low IND countries were not supported. Emotional distancing showed an upward trend across profiles which was quite similar for both groups of countries. In Profile 4, emotional distancing was higher for Low COL/High IND countries, but in Profile five this difference was reversed, and emotional distancing was higher for High COL/Low IND countries. One methodological explanation for this finding could be that the number of participants from individualistic countries was much higher than that of participants from collectivist countries. Another explanation could be that parents’testimonies used to conceptualize parental burnout and to develop the PBA were collected from Western parents. There may be specific facets of parental burnout in collectivist cultures that the PBA does not fully assess. Although the PBA validation has been replicated in non-Western countries, there may be specific dimensions of parental burnout that are not present in these countries, and other culture-specific dimensions may not be fully grasped by the PBA. Therefore, despite our use of a new methodological approach on these data, we could not fully discern the role of specific facets in the most collectivist countries. If this interpretation is correct, inductive research needs to be conducted in the most collectivist countries to test whether the same or other new dimensions appear in parental burnout. These findings add to our knowledge of the structure of parental burnout across the globe and also point to important practical implications regarding how the process unfolds. For individualistic countries, contrast seems to be 24 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Arikan, G., ¨ Ustündag-Budak, A. M., Akgün, E., Mikolajczak, M., & Roskam, I. (2020). Validation of the Turkish version of the parental burnout assessment (PBA). New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development,2020(174), 1–18 https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20375 Aunola, K., Sorkkila, M., & Tolvanen, A. (2020). 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Her major research interests include comparative studies, mobility, and internationalization in higher education. Anne Marie Fontaine is an Emeritus Professor in Psychology at the University of Porto. Her main research interests have been related to Differential Psychology, Intraindividual and Intergroup differences in major life and social transitions such as school transitions, transition to adulthood, to parenthood, and Intergenerational Solidarity. Ege Akgün, PhD, is an associate professor at Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey. Her research focuses on the parent child relationship and socialemotional development in early childhood. 34 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Gizem Arikan, PhD, is a clinical psychologist and her research areas focus on attachment theory, parenting, traumatic stress and social media addiction. She works at Ozyegin University, Istanbul, Turkey, Kaisa Aunola is professor of developmental psychology at the University of Jyv¨ askyl¨ a, Finland. Her research focuses on parenting, family relations, and the role of family in children’s socio-emotional and academic learning. Elizabeth Barham is a psychologist at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil. She studies emotion regulation, social skills, and planning and their effects on caregiving relationships and on perceptions of work-life balance. Wim Beyers is professor in Developmental Psychology at Ghent University in Belgium. His research focuses on adolelscent develpment, including topics on adolescents’autononomy, identity and sexuality. Recent research also focuses on important life transitions, such as transition from secundary school to university, and transition toward parenthood. Emilie Boujut is working at the Universit´ e Paris Cit´ e (Institut for Psychology). She focuses on adaptation to stressful situations in the fields of illness, education and work and the to mental health. Anna Brytek-Matera, PhD, is a Professor of Medical and Health Sciences at University of Wroclaw. She is a Head of Nutritional Psychology Unit, Eat Lab and Postgraduate studies in Psychodietetics. Her research focuses on eating disorders, orthorexia nervosa and eating behaviour. No´ emie Carbonneau, PhD, is a professor at the Department of Psychology, Universit´ eduQu ´ ebec ` a Trois-Rivières, Canada. Her primary areas of research include eating behaviors, body image, parental practices, close relationships, motivation, and well-being. Filipa C´ esar, PhD, editorial assistant of the journal Educação, Sociedade & Culturas and works as an assistant at the Centre for Research and Intervention in Education (CIIE) at the Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences of the University of Porto. Her research interests are motherhood, parenthood and qualitative research methods. Bin-Bin Chen, PhD, is a Professor and Department Head in the Department of Psychology at Fudan University, China. His research interests include various aspects of family relationships and the social and emotional development of children and adolescents in Chinese contexts. G´ eraldine Dorard, PhD, is an Associate Professor of psychopathology at Universit´ eParisCit ´ e, France. Her main areas of research are adolescent and young adult psychopathology, and adaptation to illness and disability in a family context. Matias et al. 35 Sandra Dunsmuir PhD, is Professor of Educational and Child Psychology at University College London. Natalia Egorova is a clinical psychologist with sp´ ecialisation in individual psychotherapy and familiy and couples therapy. Luciana Carla S. Elias PhD, is Professor of Psychology at University of São Paulo. She studies social skills, school psychology, school inclusion anda learning difficulties. Nicolas Favez is full professor of clinical psychology at the University of Geneva, Switzerland, and is Co-Director of the Research Unit of the Center for Family Study (IUP, Lausanne University Hospital). His research activities and teaching relate to family and couples relations, with a focus on the transition to parenthood. Heather M. Foran is a full professor of psychology at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. She is chair of the university Public research cluster and a licensed clinical psychologist. Her research interests are in prevention of mental health problems and family violence. Furutani K. Ph.D, is Professor of faculty of Informatics at Kansai University. Myrna Gannag´ eis full professor of clinical psychology at St Joseph’s University in Beirut and Dean of the Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences at the same University. She is the Founder and Executive Director of the Psychological Consultation Centers for the Welfare of War Children in Lebanon, the first specialized outpatient units for children who had suffered from the war. She is the author of numerous scientific publications in the field of trauma. Maria Filomena Ribeiro da Fonseca Gaspar is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of the University of Coimbra, Portugal. Develops research activities and intervention in the context of parenting and co-parenting. Lucie Godbout is a professor at Universit´ eduQu ´ ebec ` a Trois-Rivières, Qu´ ebec, Canada. James Gross is the Ernest R. Hilgard Professor of Psychology at Stanford University, where he directs the Stanford Psychophysiology Laboratory (https://spl.stanford.edu/). His research focuses on emotion regulation, and he hase600 publications, which have been citede200,000 times. Ogma Hatta is a clinical and health psychologist practicing in Togo. He has a PhD in psychological and educational sciences and conducts research in the fields of clinical - health - social (family) psychology: substance use, quality of life, prosocial behaviour, parental burnout, etc. 36 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Mai-Trang Huynh is professor, Department of Psychology, HCMC University of Education, Vietnam. Nassima Kellou is Doctor in Clinical Psychology and na associate researcher at CRASC Oran Alg´ erie. Goran Knezevic is a professor of individual differences at the University of Belgrade. His research interest focuses predominantly on the structure of basic personality traits and psychotic-like experiences & behaviors. Ljiljana Lazarevi´ cis senior research associate at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Serbia. Her reserach focus is on basic personality traits and their measurement. She also studies psychosis-proneness as basic personality trait. Sarah Le Vigouroux is associate professor of clinical and developmental psychology at the University of Nˆ ımes. Her research focuses on inter and intra individual differences in affective dynamics. Vanessa B R Leme PhD, is Professor of Psychology, Department of Cognition and Development at State University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Denisse Manrique-Millones, PhD, is professor at the Department of Psychology, Universidad Cientifica del Sur, Lima, Peru. Her main areas of research are family studies, positive youth development and psychological assessment. Rosa Millones-Rivalles is professor and coordinator of the research department at the Universidad Marcelino Champagnat in Lima, Peru. Her research interests are related to socio-educational aspects of university students in the Peruvian context. Maria Isabel Miranda-Orrego is lecturer at Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador. Phd Student at Universit´ e de Bourgogne Franche-Comt´ eUFR SLHS Unit´ e de Recherche de Psychologie UR3188 in France. She researchs the relation between the containing function of the teams of crèches and the process of subjectivation of babies and young children in an intercultural context. Marina Miscioscia is Assistant Professor of Dynamic Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy). Her research focuses mainly on Children and Adolescent Mental Health, Parenting (e.g.Coparenting, Desire and Intentions, Transition to Parenthood, LGBT+ parent families), Gender Identity and Transgender Health Clara Morgades-Bamba, PhD, is a clinical psychologist and her research areas focus on mental health, wellbeing, attachment, upbringing, psychopatology, anxiety, psychosis, extremist movements and violence. She works at her health center in Spain. Matias et al. 37 Seyyedeh Fatemeh Mousavi is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the Women Research Center in the only single-sex university of Iran, who has been studying and researching Iranian families for more than 10 years in the field of marital interactions and parenting. She has many books and papers in various fields of Gender, Marital and Parent-child Interactions. Since 2018, she has been active as a member of IIPB consortium in the field of Parental Burnout, and now she is a member of the editorial board and responsible director of the Journal of Women and Family Studies. Badra Moutassem-Mimouni, PhD in clinical psychology, is Professor at the University of Oran2. She is a member of the editorial board of the Revue Insaniyat. Preferred areas of research: “childhood deprived of family”“child and adolescent psychopathology”. Associate researcher at the Center for Research in Social and Cultural Anthropology, she has been the head of several projects and a member of many projects that have resulted in the publication of books (suicide, family, drugs, education, violence against women, children deprived of families, parental burnout, divorce, etc.) and has contributed, within teams, to the development of public policies (family, violence against women, strategy to combat against drugs and drug addiction, etc.). His latest publications have focused on “Parental Burnout”and on “Covid19. Ana Muntean works at the department of social work in the West University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania. Hugh Murphy is a Doctoral student at the University of Klagenfurt. He has previously working on health-related topics (International Investigation of Parental Burnout and the RISE Parenting for Lifelong Health - Young Children program). Hugh completed his master’s degree in psychology and mental health at the University of Edinburgh. Before this, he studied child mental health in University College Dublin (UCD) and, prior to this had studied Addiction Therapy in UCD. In addition, he worked for nine years as a project/support worker in the mental health and addiction sector in Ireland providing services along a continuum of care from harm reduction to rehabilitation and integration. During this time, he also worked as an addiction therapist both in a private and public capacity. Josu´ e Ngnombouowo Tenkue is a PhD student at the University of Yaound´ e 1. His research focuses on externalized disorders, in particular Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and bereavement support in palliative care. Fatumo Osman is senior lecturer and associate professor in nursing at Dalarna University. Her research focuses on implementing and evaluating culturally tailored interventions for immigrant families. 38 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0) Daniela Oyarce Cadiz is a clinical psychologist and has a PhD in Psychology from the Catholic Univeristy of Louvain. Her research interests are in childhood and parenting issues. Pablo A. P´ erez-D´ ıaz holds a PhD in Psychology and Psychometrics from University College London, U.K. He is Assistant Professor and Director of the Institute of Psychology at Austral University of Chile, Campus Puerto Montt, Chile. He has researched on trait emotional intelligence, psychometrics, parental burnout, and positive youth development. He is the PI of the national Chilean research grant FONDECYT No 11230239. Konstantinos V. Petrides is Founding Director of the London Psychometric Laboratory and the first-ever Professor of Psychometrics at UCL (the birthplace of psychometrics). He is the developer of Psychobionomy, trait emotional intelligence theory, and of the family of Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaires (TEIQue) that are used globally in commercial, medical, and scientific research and applications. C´ eline Scola is Associate professor at Aix marseille university in Developmental psychology. Her research research concerns early interactions. She focuses on mother-child interactions and on the understanding of peer interactions. Alessandra Simonelli is a professor of Developmental Psychopathology at the University of PAdova. Her research interest focuses predominantly on quality of the the early adult-child interactions and their influence on infant development in typical atypical and/or psychopathological conditions. Bart Soenens is a professor in developmental psychology at Ghent University. His main research focus is on parent-child relationships and on the complex ways in which parenting affects children’s and adolescents’psychosocial development. Emma Sorbring is a professor of childand youth studies at UniversityWest, Sweden, and academic supervisor at Campus V¨ astervik. Her teaching and research focuses parenting, children and youth. Matilda Sorkkila is a Docent (Adjunct Professor) at the University of Jyv¨ askyl¨ a, Finland. She is specialized in the field of Psychology ofWellbeing and particularly interested in findings ways to prevent burnout across contexts. Elena St˘ anculescu is a Professor at the University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences. Her research interests include mental health applied in educational settings, with special focus on children and adolescents well-being, teacher and parental burnout, as well risk factors and outcomes of problematic use of online communication. Matias et al. 39 Elena Starchenkova is an Associate Professor of the Faculty of Psychology at Saint Petersburg State University, Russia. Her main areas of research include occupational health, psychological stress, job burnout, parental burnout, and proactive coping behaviour. Dorota Szczygieł, PhD, is a Lecturer at the SWPS University, Department of Psychology in Sopot, Poland. Her research focuses on emotional intelligence, emotion regulation, and parental burnout. M´ elissa Tremblay is a Doctoral student at the Universit´ eduQu ´ ebec ` a TroisRivières. Her research include parental burnout, executive function, neuropsychology and child development. Dr ¨ U stünda˘ g -Budak is an adjunct Associate Professor at Bahçes ¸ehir University. She is interested in clinical implications of AAI in her therapeutic work. Her research interest includes attachment, perinatal mental health, parenting styles, mindfulness and wellbeing. She teaches DBT skills set to improve individuals’wellbeing and help them to acquire secure attachment strategies. Hedwig van Bakel is endowed professor Infant Mental Health at Tilburg University in the Netherlands. Her research includes parenting, parent-infant interactions. Lesley Verhofstadt is Associate Professor of Family Psychology at Ghent University and Director of the UGent Familylab. Jaqueline Wendland, Full Professor of infant and perinatal clinical psychology and psychopathology at the Institute of Psychology, University Paris Cit´ e, France. She is head of two University Specializations Diplomas on Psychology and Psychopathology of Parenthood and on Early Development and Perinatal Psychopathology. Her research focuses mainly on the parenting process in its typical and atypical aspects, particularly in situations where the parent-child interactions are exposed to psychopathological, psychosocial and/or somatic risk factors. Mo¨ ıra Mikolajczak, Ph.D., is professor at the Department of Psychology of the Universit´ e Catholoique de Louvain where she heads the Parental Burnout Research Lab with Isabelle Roskam. Isabelle Roskam is full professor of developmental psychology at the UCLouvain, Belgium, and is Co-Director of the BParent Research Lab in the Psychological Sciences Research Institute (IPSY). Her research activities and teaching relate to child development and parenting, with a focus on externalizing behavior and parental burnout. She is with Prof. Mo¨ ıra Mikolajczak the founder and leader of the International Investigation of Parental Burnout (IIPB) consortium. 40 Cross-Cultural Research 0(0)