Shifting from even-aged management to less intensive forestry in varying proportions of forest land in Finland: impacts on carbon storage, harvest removals, and harvesting costs
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Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10342-019-01163-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
Shi ing ome en‑aged managemen olessin ensi e o es y
in a ying p opo ions o o es land inFinland: impac s onca bon
s o age, ha es emo als, andha es ing cos s
Ja iVauhkonen1 · TuulaPackalen1
Recei ed: 4 June 2018 / Re ised: 24 Decembe 2018 / Accep ed: 8 Janua y 2019 / Published online: 21 Janua y 2019
© The Au ho (s) 2019
Abs ac
Many s udies ha e epo ed inc eased mul i- unc ionali y and inancial p o i s due o a shi om e en- o une en-aged o es
managemen . Howe e , li le is known ( om long- e m expe iences o p edic ions) how al e na i e managemen sys ems
could a ec na ional-scale wood p oduc ion and ca bon s o age, i adop ed o e e y la ge a eas. We analysed hese e ec s
using an a ea-based amewo k, in which mul iple Ma ko chain models we e used o simula e he de elopmen o o es s
acco ding o di e en managemen sys ems. Classi ica ion o o es s o wood a ailabili y ca ego ies was used o de e mine he
sys em o be applied. We enhanced he amewo k o allow shi s be ween managemen sys ems ha co espond o en o ced
o olun a y changes in o es use. Simula ions o ex ensi e shi s om con en ional e en-aged managemen o al e na i e
sil icul u al sys ems e ealed in e es ing de elopmen al pa e ns ha canno be di ec ly deduced om s udies ha upscale
om smalle a eas. Ou esul s show ha he amoun o ca bon s o ed by Finnish o es s can be inc eased by applying less
in ensi e managemen sys ems, al hough his has ade-o s in e ms o ha es s and associa ed inancial cos s. The le el o
ade-o s di e ed depending on he ype o o es ha shi ed be ween managemen sys ems and whe he a eas we e also
assumed o be comple ely se aside om o es y. These di e ences we e u he p onounced i he desi ed ha es le els
and hei alloca ion changed along wi h he managemen sys em. I he s udied a ibu es we e conside ed a he same ela-
i e scale and wi h equal weigh ing, he ex ensi e shi s o al e na i e managemen sys ems exhibi ed he s onges impac
on ha es ing cos s.
Keywo ds Eu opean Fo es y Dynamics Model (EFDM)· Fo es esou ce p ojec ion· In eg a ed o es managemen ·
Ma ix model· Na ional Fo es In en o y (NFI) da a· Scena io analysis
In oduc ion
Cu en ly, se e al in e na ional and na ional s a egies
s i e o a ansi ion om a ossil- o a bio-based economy,
which calls o an inc ease in he use o ( o es ) biomass o
p oduc s, such as bio uels and ene gy, chemicals, polyme s,
and wood-based s uc u es. Howe e , conce ns in ega d o
agmen a ion, deg ada ion, and loss o o es habi a s ha e
been inc easingly exp essed and in e na ional and na ional
ag eemen s ha e been signed o e e se his end. In pa -
icula , he es o a ion o a leas 15% o deg aded ecosys-
ems by 2020 (CBD 2010), also known as Aichi Ta ge 15,
is widely accep ed as a na ional and global conse a ion
a ge . Howe e , main aining bo h high economic o es
yields and he iabili y o o es species in ol es ade-o s.
In Finland, o example, Ko iaho e al. (2016) ha e es ima ed
ha mee ing Aichi Ta ge 15 would cos be ween 12 and 23
billion eu o, o 368–658 million eu o pe annum, when only
o es s and pea lands a e conside ed and i he conse a ion
ac ions we e p olonged un il 2050. Fo compa a i e pu -
poses, annual s umpage ea nings amoun o app oxima ely
1.5 billion eu o (MAF 2015).
Communica ed by Mi en del Rio.
Elec onic supplemen a y ma e ial The online e sion o his
a icle (h ps ://doi.o g/10.1007/s1034 2-019-01163 -9) con ains
supplemen a y ma e ial, which is a ailable o au ho ized use s.
* Ja i Vauhkonen
ja i. auhk[email p o ec ed]
1 Bioeconomy andEn i onmen Uni , Na u al Resou ces
Ins i u e Finland (Luke), Yliopis oka u 6, 80100Joensuu,
Finland
220 Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
Ra he han seg ega ing he o es and conse a ion sec-
o s, a good comp omise could be achie ed by combining
cos -e ec i e conse a ion ac ions wi h he sus ainable use
o o es s and pea lands (see also Ko iaho e al. 2016). Fo
example, he managemen o a p opo ion o o es land
as “mul i-use conse a ion landscapes” (MUCLs; Hanski
2011) is a p ac ical and cos -e ec i e means o aid o es
conse a ion s a egies, in addi ion o he s ic p o ec ion o
o es ne wo ks (see also S e ens and Mon gome y 2002).
Mo e p ecisely, Hanski (2011) has p oposed ha manage-
men o a hi d o he land as MUCLs, and he s ic p o-
ec ion o a hi d o his a ea, would be su icien o he
conse a ion needs o specialis species, pa icula ly i he
MUCLs we e composed o agg ega ed habi a pa ch clus e s
and could be connec ed o exis ing p o ec ed a ea ne wo ks
(see also Rybicki and Hanski 2013). Howe e , he wo k ci ed
abo e does no speci y easible sil icul u al p ac ices o
managemen in ensi ies o he p opo ion o MUCLs ( wo-
hi ds) ha a e no s ic ly p o ec ed. Ye , we can assume
ha such a eas could be managed acco ding o he p inciples
o mul iple-use (Fü s enau e al. 2007) o in eg a ed o es
managemen (Diaci e al. 2011), which suppo he p oduc-
ion o ecosys em se ices o he han jus species conse a-
ion based on a mo e di e se se o sil icul u al p ac ices,
compa ed o con en ional o a ion o es y o e en-aged
managemen sys ems.
Fo es y p ac ices in Finland ha e been based on e en-
aged managemen since Wo ld Wa II (Kuulu ainen e al.
2012), bu op ions o o es managemen p ac ices will
clea ly inc ease in he u u e. By op ions, we e e o he a -
ious o ms o une en-aged managemen , such as con inuous
co e o es y as de ined by Pukkala (2016a). Con inuous
co e o es y essen ially di e s om e en-aged manage-
men in ha i a oids clea elling and plan ing by u ilizing
hinnings om abo e and by p omo ing na u al egene a ion.
These choices may con e s ands owa ds une en-aged o -
es s uc u es, al hough con e ging o a s eady-s a e s uc u e
o any kind is no equi ed (Pukkala 2016a). Con inuous
co e o es y is expec ed o become mo e common, because
o i s po en ial o supply mul iple ecosys em se ices (Puk-
kala 2016b; Peu a e al. 2018) and educe he inancial cos s
ela ed o egene a ion and o he sil icul u al ope a ions
(Pukkala 2016a) compa ed o e en-aged managemen (see
also Knoke 2012; Kuulu ainen e al. 2012; Pue mann e al.
2015; Nieminen e al. 2018).
Compa isons o al e na i e o es managemen sys ems
and subsequen ade-o analyses a e ypically based on
long- e m obse a ions (Su he land e al. 2016; S eng-
bom e al. 2018), me amodelling (La ond e al. 2017) o
simula ions. The la e ha e been ca ied ou a he o es
s and o small o es holding le el (Pukkala e al. 2011;
Pukkala 2016a, b; Ca pen ie e al. 2017), he landscape
le el (> 100km2; T i iño e al. 2015; Diaz-Bal ei o e al.
2017; Peu a e al. 2018), and he egional le el (> 1000km2;
Sch ö e e al. 2014; Pang e al. 2017). Howe e , long- e m
expe iences o p edic ions as o how al e na i e p ac ices
may a ec na ional-scale wood p oduc ion i adop ed o e
e y la ge a eas a e no known. Wi h he excep ion o
ecen ly o mula ed g ow h (Bollandsås e al. 2008; Puk-
kala e al. 2013) and hinning models (Pukkala e al. 2015;
Vauhkonen and Pukkala 2016), mos con en ional o es
simula o s and p ojec ion ools ha e been de eloped o
e en-aged o es y sys ems. Con en ional models o o es
de elopmen would, he e o e, ex apola e ou side he o igi-
nal popula ion i applied in une en-aged o es s. Mo eo e ,
de ailed o es -speci ic hinning ins uc ions migh no ec-
oncile wi h la ge-a ea p ojec ions based on agg ega ed spa-
ial scales (c ., Ve ke k e al. 2014; C eu zbu g e al. 2017;
Mouche e al. 2017). As such, he e is a need o lexible
ools ha can combine de ailed ins uc ions wi h p ojec ion
capabili ies o la ge a eas.
F om he pe spec i e o egional o na ional-le el wood
p oduc ion, he a eas subjec o conse a ion o in eg a ed
managemen educe he amoun o Fo es s A ailable o
Wood Supply (FAWS; Albe di e al. 2016). F om he poin
o iew o p o isioning o non-wood o es p oduc s o o he
ecosys em se ices, i is use ul o also simula e he de elop-
men o a ea and g owing s ock in he emaining a eas—i.e.
in Fo es s No A ailable o Wood Supply (FNAWS) and
Fo es s wi h Res ic ions on A ailabili y o Wood Supply
(FRAWS; see also Vauhkonen and Packalen 2017). Ex en-
si e o es in en o ies, such as he Na ional Fo es In en o y
(NFI), also p o ide da a o he simula ion o ansi ions
due o g ow h o managemen o o es s p io i ized o
uses o he han solely wood p oduc ion. Se e al app oaches
ha e been p esen ed o he p ojec ion o he u u e de el-
opmen o o es esou ces based on ansi ion p obabili y
ma ices o s and-speci ic diame e classes (e.g. Bollandsås
e al. 2008; Schou and Meilby 2013; Roessige e al. 2016).
Howe e , co esponding Ma ko chain models based on
ansi ion ma ices o o es size and s uc u e classes (e.g.
Vauhkonen and Packalen 2017) could be mo e sui able o
a ea-based p ojec ions o o es dynamics based on he NFI
da a.
Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017) simula ed he de elop-
men o o es size and s uc u e classes de i ed om NFI
da a by combining mul iple Ma ko chain models o di -
e en sil icul u al sys ems. In hei s udy, classi ica ion o
o es s o wood a ailabili y ca ego ies de e mined which
sys em was applied. Wood a ailabili y depended on admin-
is a i e o es use es ic ions as eco ded in he NFI da a.
A eas whe e o es y ope a ions we e o bidden (FNAWS)
o es ic ed o selec i e ha es s o he enhancemen o
ecosys em se ices o he han wood supply (FRAWS) we e
dis inguished om FAWS. The u u e de elopmen o FAWS
was simula ed wi h e en-aged managemen ; FRAWS wi h
221Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
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con inuous co e o es y, in which he inal elling was
eplaced by hinning om abo e; and only he na u al p o-
cesses we e simula ed o FNAWS. The assump ion ha
es ic ions on o es use de e mine he sil icul u al sys em is
a simpli ica ion ha migh be un ealis ic, especially, i la ge
p opo ions o FAWS di e ge om e en-aged managemen
in he u u e, as easoned abo e. Howe e , he FAWS in ou
in en o y da a a e la gely composed o e en-aged s ands;
o es managemen ins uc ionswe e based on e en-aged
sil icul u e un il he inal measu emen s o he 11 h Finnish
NFI in 2013. Thus, inc easing he p opo ion o al e na i e
managemen sys ems in FAWS undamen ally means ha
mo e o es s will be managed in a simila ashion o FRAWS
o FNAWS a e obliga o y managed because o adminis a-
i e o es use es ic ions. We p opose ha simula ion o
shi s be ween hese ca ego ies should allow u he exami-
na ion o he na ional-scale e ec s o mo ing om e en-
aged, o a ion o es managemen o al e na i e sil icul u al
egimes, which may esul om en o ced poli ical decisions
o p omo e less in ensi e o es y o inc eased na u e conse -
a ion o olun a y changes in he use o o es s.
The objec i es o his s udy a e (1) o enhance he
Ma ko chain modelling amewo k by he simula ion o
shi s be ween o es managemen sys ems and (2) o use
he de eloped amewo k o assess he ade-o s be ween
ca bon s o age, ha es emo al, and ha es ing cos s due
o hese shi s. We i s de i ed benchma k p ojec ions o
he u u e de elopmen o o es s acco ding o sil icul u al
sys ems associa ed wi h cu en wood a ailabili y ca ego ies
as desc ibed in he p e ious pa ag aph. We hen epea ed
he simula ions wi h a ying p opo ions o e en-aged o -
es s managed acco ding o con inuous co e o es y o se
aside o assess he e ec s o di e ging om business-as-
usual managemen in an inc easing p opo ion o o es land.
Me hods
Simula ion amewo k andda a
We simula ed he u u e de elopmen o o es s in Finland
using an a ea-based Ma ko chain model (c . Vauhkonen
and Packalen 2017). Ou analyses conside ed almos he
en i e o es land o Finland, excluding no he nmos a eas
and o es s loca ed in he sou he n a chipelago, which a e
conside ed o ha e a low impo ance in e ms o wood sup-
ply o Finland. The o al a ea o o es s on p oduc i e and
poo ly p oduc i e o es land was 21.28 million ha, wi h an
ini ial g owing s ock o 2234 million m3 ( he 11 h Finnish
NFI–NFI11; measu emen s in 2009–2013), which equa es
o app oxima ely 95% o he en i e g owing s ock in Finland.
As in Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017), he o es s we e
assigned o wood a ailabili y ca ego ies acco ding o o es
use es ic ions in he NFI da a: ini ially, 10.1% and 10.6% o
he o al o es a ea we e classi ied as FNAWS and FRAWS,
espec i ely, wi h he emainde classi ied as FAWS. In o de
o s udy he na ional-scale e ec s o di e ging om he
cu en managemen sys em, a ying p opo ions o o es
we e emo ed om FAWS and assigned o ei he FRAWS
o FNAWS. These we e subsequen ly simula ed o u u e
de elopmen along wi h o es s ha a e cu en ly assigned
o hese ca ego ies due o adminis a i e o es use es ic-
ions. Speci ically, o es s ha ecei ed e en-aged manage-
men in he benchma k simula ions we e ei he assigned o
con inuous co e o es y (in he p opo ion ansi ed o he
FRAWS ca ego y) o se aside (FNAWS) a he beginning
o he simula ions.
The selec ion o land ansi ed om FAWS o he o he
ca ego ies was simula ed acco ding o ou di e en s a e-
gies ha mimic he di e en d i e s and land a ailabili y
in he ansi ions. The aim was o mimic he es ablishmen
o ei he (a) MUCLs as a a ian o he concep p oposed
by Hanski (2011), which consis o bo h con inuous co e
o es y and se -aside a eas; o (b) mul i-use landscapes
(MULs) managed by con inuous co e o es y wi hou se -
aside a eas. The ou s a egies we e ob ained by emphasiz-
ing he selec ion o o es s wi h high (s a egies MUCLhigh,
MULhigh) o low (MUCLlow, MULlow) p oxy conse a-
ion alues, de e mined as a unc ion o he ma u i y o he
ees, ee species composi ion, and si e e ili y (Appendix
2; Leh omäki e al. 2015). Because o i s o mula ion, he
p oxy migh ac as a su oga e no only o he biodi e si y
ea u es o conse a ion in e es , bu also he mo e gene al
mul iple-use po en ial o a o es . As u he discussed in
Sec .4.1, he ou s a egies gene ally co e he ange o p o-
duc ion possibili ies, by educing he managemen in ensi y
in ex ensi e p opo ions o he di e en o es ypes.
Each land ansi ion s a egy was composed o eigh
p opo ions p, whe e p was ei he 5, 10, …, o 40% o he
FAWS land a ea, which was hen added o ei he FRAWS
o FNAWS. The p opo ions we e selec ed by i s compu -
ing he conse a ion alue (cons al) o each NFI plo , as
desc ibed in Appendix 2, and he cumula i e dis ibu ion
o cons al sepa a ely o each o he 15 o es y egions (o
Fo es Cen es as dis inguished by he Finnish NFI). The
numbe o plo s equi ed o ep esen p% o he FAWS land
a ea was selec ed a equal in e als om he cumula i e dis-
ibu ion o each o es y egion as ollows:
• MUCLhigh p% o FAWS was i s selec ed acco ding o
cons al. A hi d o his a ea was u he selec ed acco d-
ing o he cumula i e dis ibu ion o cons al compu ed
o plo s in he selec ed p% and assumed o ansi o
FNAWS (no managemen ). The emaining p opo ion o
p% was assumed o ansi o FRAWS and o be managed
as con inuous co e o es y. The emphasis in he new
222 Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
MUCLs es ablished acco ding o his s a egy was on
FAWS wi h a high conse a ion alue. One- hi d o his
selec ion (wi h an emphasis on o es s wi h he highes
conse a ion alues) was se aside.
• MUCLlow As wi h MUCLhigh, bu he land a ea o
ansi was selec ed acco ding o he in e se o con-
s al, excluding plo s wi h cons al = 0 (i.e. ba e land).
The emphasis in he new MUCLs was on FAWS wi h a
low conse a ion alue. One- hi d o he o es s wi h he
highes conse a ion alues in he i s selec ion we e
comple ely se aside.
• MULhigh p% o FAWS was selec ed acco ding o con-
s al and assumed o ansi o FRAWS o be managed
as con inuous co e o es y. The emphasis in he new
MULs was on FAWS wi h high conse a ion alue. No
addi ional o es a eas we e se aside.
• MULlow As wi h MULhigh, bu he land a ea o ansi
was selec ed acco ding o he in e se o cons al, exclud-
ing plo s wi h cons al = 0 (i.e. ba e land). The emphasis
in he new MULs was on FAWS wi h low conse a ion
alue. No addi ional o es a eas we e se aside.
Simula ions o o es de elopmen
As he Ma ko chain model, we used . 2.0. o he Eu opean
Fo es y Dynamics Model (EFDM), which is implemen ed
in he R s a is ical modelling en i onmen (R Co e Team
2016) and can be downloaded om h ps ://gi hu b.com/ec-
j c/e dm as open sou ce unde he Eu opean Union Public
License (EUPL). The EFDM app oach is based on a ang-
ing he o es a ea in o ma ix cells acco ding o ecological
and socioeconomic ac o s and simula ing he de elopmen
o he esul ing ma ices. In he simula ions, he a ea ep-
esen ed by each ma ix cell is managed acco ding o a se
o p e-de ined ac i i ies, which may ansi he a ea o o he
cell(s) depending on he ansi ion p obabili ies associa ed
wi h he ac i i ies. In p ac ice, he o es a ea dis ibu ion
a e one simula ion s ep (i + 1) is ob ained as a mul iplica-
ion o he a ea in s a e i by he p obabili y ha he a ea
ecei es one o j ac i i ies and he ac i i y-condi ional an-
si ion p obabili ies ( o de ails, see Si kiä 2012 o Packalen
e al. 2014).
The simula ions we e ca ied ou in i e-yea ime-s eps,
which co espond o he measu emen in e al in he da a
used o de i e he ansi ion p obabili ies. In o al, en s eps
we e simula ed (i.e. he las yea in he simula ion pe iod
is app oxima ely 2060, depending on he ini ial measu e-
men yea ). The ini ial o es s a e, (business-as-usual) an-
si ion and ac i i y p obabili ies, and ou pu coe icien s o
he model we e de i ed om he NFI11 da a acco ding o
he wo k low p esen ed by Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017)
based on using pe manen NFI plo s as pai wise da a o
na u al p ocesses. Appendix 2 also illus a es he p ocess
o de i ing he ini ial s a e and he simula ion o he u u e
de elopmen o one example o es . In he ollowing sec-
ions, we b ie ly desc ibe he pa ame e iza ion, bu no e ha
pa ame e s and hei e ec s a e explained in mo e de ail in
Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017).
Ini ial s a e
The EFDM is pa ame e ized by ma ices wi h dynamic
(e.g. age, olume) and s a ic (e.g. geog aphical egion,
si e e ili y) dimensions (hence o h “ ac o s”). Simila o
Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017), we de ined he dynamic
ac o s sepa a ely o o es s o be managed using di e en
sil icul u al a ibu es, such as age and olume o e en-
aged managemen sys ems o s em numbe and olume o
con inuous co e o es y. The na u al p ocesses o FNAWS
we e simula ed using age and olume ma ices; no di e -
ences would ha e been obse ed i s em numbe and ol-
ume ma ices we e applied (Vauhkonen and Packalen 2017).
The con inuous measu emen s om he NFI we e classi ied
using age classes o 0, 5, 10, …, 120, 120+ yea s, whe eas
he class limi s o bo h he olume and s em numbe we e
de e mined as he alues o he 10 h, 20 h, …, 90 h and 95 h
quan iles o he pai wise obse a ions made om he pe -
manen NFI plo s. The class limi s (p esen ed in Appendix
1) we e de ined by Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017) wi h a
mo i a ion o ob ain an app oxima ely equal amoun o pai -
wise obse a ions pe class and o educe he alue ange o
he las class by hal ing he numbe o obse a ions included
in i . These dynamic ac o ma ices we e de i ed sepa a ely
by applying he ollowing s a ic ac o s: (1) known land-use
es ic ions: FAWS, FRAWS, FNAWS; (2) o es owne ship:
p i a e, public + o he ; (3) si e e ili y: a o al o i e ca ego-
ies ha co espond o he ou axa ion classes ha p oduc-
i e o es s a e assigned in he Finnish NFI + a i h class
ha includes all poo ly p oduc i e o es land; (4) dominan
species: pine, sp uce, deciduous ees.
Managemen ac i i ies and hei p obabili ies
Possible managemen ac i i ies we e “no managemen ”
(i.e. simula ion o na u al p ocesses only), “ hinning”, and
“ egene a ion ha es ”. A “ hinning” always e e ed o a
managemen hinning and was implemen ed as a hinning
om below o bo h FAWS and FRAWS. A “ egene a-
ion ha es ” was implemen ed ei he as a inal elling in
he e en-aged managemen sys em (simula ed o FAWS)
o a hinning om abo e in con inuous co e o es y ( o
FRAWS), as desc ibed in Sec .2.2.3.
The p obabili ies o he ac i i ies we e de e mined in wo
s eps. Fi s , he NFI da a we e used o compu e he mu ual
p opo ions o he ac i i ies, esul ing in wo al e na i e allo-
ca ions o he ac i i ies: (1) a business-as-usual alloca ion
223Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
(ABAU) based on he p opo ions o pe manen NFI plo s no
managed, hinned, o egene a ed du ing he mos ecen
5-yea pe iod; o (2) a schoolbook-alloca ion (ASB) based
on he p opo ions o he NFI plo s ha should be managed
wi hin he nex 5yea s s ic ly acco ding o o es manage-
men ins uc ions. The p opo ions we e based on he NFI
eco ds ha we e made acco ding o he ins uc ions ha
p e ailed a he ime o he measu emen s [ o mo e de ails,
see Y jölä (2002)]. The wo al e na i e alloca ions a e class
speci ic (c . Figu e1 o Vauhkonen and Packalen 2018);
ollowing he ini ial p opo ions o ASB would, in gene al,
in ol e p oposing much mo e managemen ac i i ies han
Fig. 1 E ec s o wood a ail-
abili y on ca bon s o age a he
end o he simula ion pe iod
( op panel), o al ha es emo -
als du ing he simula ion pe iod
(middle), and a e age ha es -
ing cos s o e he simula ion
pe iod (bo om) unde business-
as-usual ac i i y and ansi ion
p obabili ies. The x-axes o he
sub- igu es indica e he a ea
di e ging om e en-aged man-
agemen . The black- illed do s
ep esen simula ions wi h he
cu en p opo ions o Fo es s
A ailable o Wood Supply
(FAWS), Fo es s No A ailable
o Wood Supply (FNAWS) and
Fo es s wi h Res ic ions on
A ailabili y o Wood Supply
(FRAWS). The lines depic
scena ios, whe e he p opo ion
o he FAWS a ea co espond-
ing o di e en le els o p%
was shi ed om FAWS o he
o he wo ca ego ies acco ding
o he ou s a egies desc ibed
in Sec .2.1. The open ci cles
deno e a hypo he ical si ua ion,
whe e all o es s a e conside ed
as FAWS and simula ed acco d-
ing o he e en-aged manage-
men sys em
224 Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
ABAU. Second, he ac i i y p obabili ies we e i e a ed o he
le el ha yielded a speci ied o al oundwood ha es le el.
As in Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017), he i e a ion was
ca ied ou by epea edly mul iplying he ac i i y p obabili-
ies ≠ 0 by 1.01 o 0.99, depending on he sign o he di e -
ence be ween he goal and he ha es le el gi en by he cu -
en ac i i y p obabili ies, un il he ha es ing goal was me
o he ac i i y p obabili ies could no be changed. The speci-
ied o al ha es goal was calcula ed om wo ha es le els
p o ided in he Na ional Fo es S a egy o Finland (MAF
2015): he business-as-usual le el (65 million m3/a) and he
desi ed u u e le el (80 million m3/a). Because ou analyses
conside ed abou 95% o he o al g owing s ock in Finland,
bo h goals we e mul iplied by his p opo ion o yield he
inal ha es a ge s o app oxima ely 62 million m3/a o 76
million m3/a, espec i ely. Ac i i y p obabili ies we e i e -
a ed o mee hese ha es ing goals only a he beginning o
he simula ions. The ea e , he same p opo ion o he land
a ea was managed in e e y simula ion s ep, i.e. he olume
ha es ed a e he i s simula ion s ep depended on how
he o es class dis ibu ion e ol ed du ing he simula ions.
T ansi ion p obabili ies
The ansi ion p obabili ies o he na u al p ocesses (g ow h)
we e de i ed using pai wise obse a ions om he pe ma-
nen NFI plo s ( o al: 11,987 o abou 23% o he plo s),
which we e measu ed a app oxima ely i e-yea in e als
be ween NFI11 and he ea lie in en o y (NFI10). Posi i e
di e ences in o al olumes on plo s wi h no ea men s,
based on da a ha could be ma ched wi h ce ain y be ween
he wo subsequen in en o ies, we e eco ded as he pai -
wise da a. The es ima ed ansi ions, he e o e, included
g ow h and mo ali y, bu no po en ial educ ions due o
calami ies o na u al dis u bances, o example.
The ansi ions due o managemen ac i i ies we e
based on simula ions o hei expec ed de elopmen . The
o es s a ec ed by inal ellings we e o ced o ansi o
he beginning o he e en-aged o a ion. Thei ea ly de el-
opmen was simula ed conse a i ely, such ha 25% o
he inal- elled a ea mo ed o olume class #2 (Appendix
1) in he i s simula ion s ep a e inal elling, and he
emainde he ea e . A hinning simula o was imple-
men ed o de i e pai wise obse a ions due o he ea -
men s. The simula o de e mined he ees o be emo ed
ollowing wo ypes o ins uc ions: (1) a hinning om
below co esponding o con en ional ins uc ions o o -
es managemen and (2) a hinning om abo e wi h an
in ensi y co esponding o an in e es a e o 3%, as p e-
dic ed by Eq.2 in Pukkala e al. (2015). As de ailed in
Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017), hese simula ions we e
applied o plo s wi h an ini ial basal a ea > 10m2/ha and
a mean heigh > 10m, which co esponds o comme cial
hinnings. In addi ion, p e-comme cial hinnings we e
simula ed o he less ma u e plo s wi h a hinning need
eco ded by he NFI. These hinnings we e implemen ed
as hinning om below, bu ins ead o applying a hinning
cu e o he ha es emo al, he aim was always o e ain
a esidual s and wi h app oxima ely 1000 ees/ha. In mim-
icking an ope a ional implemen a ion, he ees o be cu
we e dis ibu ed o di e en pa s o he diame e dis i-
bu ion, as desc ibed in de ail by Vauhkonen and Packalen
(2017). The hinnings ook place a he beginning o each
simula ion s ep. The g ow h o he o es s hinned om
below was simula ed by applying he ansi ion p obabili-
ies o o es s no managed in he simula ion s ep whe e
he hinning ook place.
The ansi ion p obabili ies we e simula ed using he
same pai wise da a o bo h age- olume and s em numbe -
olume classes and can be expec ed o de elop simila o
es ablished o es s (c . Vauhkonen and Packalen 2017).
Howe e , di e ences may occu be ween he manage-
men sys ems due o assump ions on he ea ly de elopmen
a e he egene a ion ha es . To assess he sensi i i y o
hese assump ions on he managemen sys ems, all igu es
o Sec .3 we e al e na i ely ep oduced using he same
me hodology, bu wi h di e en assump ions o he ea ly
de elopmen o e en-aged and con inuous co e o es y.
Speci ically, he pa ame e s abo e we e modi ied such ha
75% o he inal- elled a ea mo ed o he nex olume class
ha was al eady in he i s simula ion s ep a e inal ell-
ing; and he o es s hinned om abo e we e simula ed o
g ow h in he same simula ion s ep ha he ha es occu ed,
simila o o es s hinned om below, i.e. hey we e assumed
o eco e apidly despi e hea y hinning. A compa ison o
he ull esul s indica ed inc easing di e ences, i.e. unce -
ain ies owa ds he end o he simula ion pe iod. Howe e ,
he managemen sys ems we e no essen ially di e en om
each o he , based on ei he o he esul s, so ou analyses
ocused on he esul s om he conse a i e ea ly de elop-
men simula ions, while he esul s o he mo e apid de el-
opmen a e p o ided as Elec onic Supplemen a y Ma e ial
o he eade who wishes o e alua e he deg ee o sensi i -
i y in he simula ions.
Ou pu coe icien s
As he simula ions only conside ed he de elopmen o he
o es a ea dis ibu ion, sepa a e ans o ma ion coe icien s
we e de e mined o de i e u he in o ma ion o he a i-
ables o in e es (ca bon s o age, ha es emo al, and ha -
es ing cos s). The coe icien s we e de e mined as he mean
alues o he NFI plo s wi hin he dynamic classes (Appen-
dix 1) as ollows:
225Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
• Ca bon s o age The o al abo e- and below-g ound bio-
mass o each NFI plo was i s compu ed by es ima ing
s em, b anch, oliage, s ump, and oo biomass wi h he
models desc ibed in Repola (2008, 2009). The biomass
componen s we e mul iplied by species-speci ic expan-
sion ac o s (app oxima ely 0.5; see Table1 in Pukkala
2014) and summed o ob ain he ca bon con en in each
plo . The ans o ma ion coe icien s we e compu ed as
mean alues o he olume classes (Appendix 1) using
all NFI plo s.
• Ha es emo al The p opo ions o log- and pulp wood
o he o al olume ob ained om he di e en ha es s
we e i s compu ed om he es ima es o asso men ol-
umes ob ained by heo e ically bucking he ees in he
NFI plo s, ollowing he cu - o-leng h ha es ing me hod.
The o al ellings we e compu ed by summing hese p o-
po ions. Coe icien s o he hinnings we e de e mined
as mean olumes o logs o sawn wood and pulp wood
om he NFI plo s o which he hinnings we e simu-
la ed. The coe icien s o he inal ellings we e based
on simila mean alues in all NFI plo s and de e mined
using bo h age and olume classes.
• Ha es ing cos s The ime expendi u e o cu - o-leng h
logging and oadside- anspo a ion o he ees in he
NFI plo s was es ima ed using he models desc ibed in
Rummukainen e al. (1995). The models we e applied
wi h he assump ion ha one hec a e o o es ep e-
sen ed by an NFI plo was cu o he imbe asso men s
as desc ibed abo e. The models assumed highe ime
expendi u e o hinning- ypes o ha es s compa ed
o inal ellings, bu ypical e ain condi ions and wi h
no en y ime o he logging equipmen , i.e. he ime
expendi u e alues only depended on he amoun o im-
be asso men s ob ained as a esul o he di e en ypes
o ha es s. As in Vauhkonen and Pukkala (2016), he
ha es ing cos s we e compu ed wi h he assump ion ha
ope a ing a ha es e and a o wa de cos 80 €/h and
57 €/h, espec i ely. The ans o ma ion coe icien s o
ha es ing cos s (exp essed as €/m3) we e compu ed as
mean alues o he olume classes based ei he on all
NFI plo s ( inal ellings) o plo s o which he hinnings
we e simula ed ( hinnings).
Resul s
To al e ec s unde business‑as‑usual (BAU)
managemen
Assuming BAU managemen and he cu en wood a ail-
abili y ca ego ies, he o al ca bon s o age in he abo e- and
below-g ound li ing biomass was 883.2 million onnes
ca bon a he end o he simula ion pe iod. In o al, 4057.1
million m3 o oundwood was ha es ed du ing he simula-
ion (a e age: 73.8 million m3/a, wi h a a ia ion om 61.9
o 79.5 million m3/a be ween he simula ion s eps). The uni
cos s o ha es ing a ied om 16.9 o 21.5 €/m3 (a e age:
18.85 €/m3) be ween he simula ion s eps. Figu es1 and 2
show how hese alues de eloped acco ding o he a ying
p opo ions o wood a ailabili y.
All land ansi ion al e na i es esul ed in inc eased
ca bon s o age in he abo e- and below-g ound li ing bio-
mass a he end o he simula ion pe iod, compa ed o cu -
en wood a ailabili y (Fig.1, op panel). The MUCLlow
al e na i e esul ed in he highes le els o ca bon s o age
(903.8–1090.1 million onnes ca bon, depending on p%).
The highe he p% alue assigned o MUCLlow, he g ea e
he di e ence o he o he land ansi ion al e na i es. The
la e beha ed simila ly when compa ed o each o he in
e ms o he inc ease in ca bon s o age and he magni ude
o his inc emen as a unc ion o p% (Fig.1, op panel).
The educ ion in po en ial ha es emo al was g ea es
in he MUCLhigh al e na i e, ollowed by he MUCLlow
al e na i e (Fig.1, middle panel). To al ha es emo als
(compu ed o 55yea s by empo ally alloca ing he ha -
es s o he beginning o he simula ion s eps in EFDM)
a ied om 3984.5 o 3371.2 million m3 in MUCLhigh, and
om 3980.0 o 3508.6 million m3 in MUCLlow. Remo al
depended on he p%: he highe he alue, he g ea e he
di e ence o he ha es emo als o BAU managemen and
wood a ailabili y. Ha es emo als in he o he wo land-
use ansi ion al e na i es a ied om 4051 o 3887 million
m3 acco ding o p%, i.e. he di e ence o BAU managemen
was much less compa ed o he MUCLhigh and MUCLlow
al e na i es. The di e ence in ha es emo als p oduced
by he o he wo s a egies emained cons an despi e he
inc ease in p%. The MULhigh al e na i e esul ed in he
leas educ ion in ha es emo als among he conside ed
land ansi ion al e na i es.
Ha es ing cos s inc eased in conjunc ion wi h he
inc easing p opo ion o land ansi ed om FAWS, com-
pa ed o BAU managemen and wood a ailabili y. This esul
applied o all land ansi ion al e na i es. Howe e , bo h
he MUCLlow and MULlow al e na i es inc eased cos s
sligh ly, wi h uni cos s a ying be ween 19.0 and 21.15 €/
m3, depending on he p% alue. In addi ion, hese cos s we e
no a ec ed o any ex en by he inc ease in p%. On he
con a y, he e was a s ong posi i e co ela ion be ween he
p% alue and cos s in he MULhigh and MUCLhigh s a e-
gies. The la e s a egy also esul ed in he highes uni cos s
(19.9–30.2 €/m3, depending on he p% alue).
Tempo al e ec s unde BAU managemen
Ca bon s o age in he abo e- and below-g ound li ing bio-
mass, ha es emo als, and ha es ing cos s de eloped
226 Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
o e ime un il he end o he simula ion pe iod (Fig.2). As
men ioned in Sec .2.2.2 and u he discussed in Sec .4,
he ha es s o he i s simula ion s ep we e i e a ed o he
same le el in all land ansi ion al e na i es, so he di e -
ences begin o show immedia ely a e he i s simula ion
s ep. Ca bon s o age s a ed o inc ease in app oxima ely
wo s eps (10yea s) a e he land ansi ions, whe eas he
inc ease in he ha es ing cos s ook place immedia ely.
Wi h espec o ca bon s o age, he land ansi ion al e na-
i es di e ed in magni ude, bu he ends we e simila o e
ime. The land-use ansi ion al e na i es di e ed mo e wi h
espec o ha es emo als and cos s.
While Fig.1 sugges s ha he inc ease in p% almos
equally a ec ed he o al ha es le els based on he MUL-
high and MULlow land ansi ions, hese al e na i es
clea ly di e ed in e ms o empo al de elopmen pa -
e n o e he en i e simula ion (Fig.2). In pa icula , he
ha es s o MULlow we e close o BAU o e he i s
ew simula ion s eps, whe eas he ha es s o MULhigh
app oached hose o BAU owa ds he end o he simu-
la ion, e en ually exceeding ha le el. MULhigh also
di e ed om he o he s a egies in ha he highes p%
alue allowed he g ea es inc eases in ha es owa ds
he end o he simula ion. The empo al de elopmen o
ha es ing cos s also di e ed depending on land ansi ion
s a egy. In al e na i es wi h emphases on high cons al,
he cos s inc eased conside ably due o he land ansi ion,
bu hei empo al de elopmen esembled BAU (i.e. he
cos s dec eased sligh ly o e ime). In al e na i es wi h
Fig. 2 Tempo al de elopmen o ca bon s ock ( op ow), ha es
emo als (middle), and ha es ing cos s (bo om), assuming di e en
deg ees o wood a ailabili y. The g ey ba s o each sub- igu e depic
he de elopmen unde business-as-usual ac i i y and ansi ion p ob-
abili ies and cu en wood a ailabili y. The eigh lines o each sub-
igu e deno e shi s o p% (p = 5, 10, …, o 40; see Sec .2.1) o he
land a ea o Fo es s A ailable o Wood Supply (FAWS) o Fo es s
wi h Res ic ions on A ailabili y o Wood Supply (FRAWS) o Fo -
es s No A ailable o Wood Supply (FNAWS) acco ding o he ou
land ansi ion s a egies
227Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
emphases on low cons al, he cos s did no ini ially di e
om BAU, bu ins ead inc eased o e ime.
Join e ec s due oshi s be weenwood a ailabili y
ca ego ies andchanges in o al ha es ing le els
andalloca ion
Al e ing ha es le els and hei alloca ions a ec ed he le -
els o ca bon s o age in he abo e- and below-g ound li ing
biomass, ha es emo als, and ha es ing cos s unde cu -
en wood a ailabili y, as illus a ed in Fig.3 in a scale no -
malized o he le el o he ini ial alues o hese a ibu es
assuming BAU managemen and cu en wood a ailabili y
(g ey ba s in he le mos column o Fig.3). Rela i e o ha
si ua ion, mo e ha es emo als we e ob ained a lowe
cos s when he ha es alloca ion was changed om ABAU
o ASB. This change also inc eased ca bon s o age owa ds
he end o he simula ion. Ca bon s o age dec eased and
ha es ing cos s inc eased when he ABAU ha es alloca-
ion was main ained, bu he p opo ion o ha es ed a eas
was inc eased a he beginning o he simula ion o co e-
spond wi h he ha es goals ou lined in he Na ional Fo es
S a egy. Howe e , he alloca ion o inc eased ha es le els
(acco ding o ASB) somewha compensa ed o hese e ec s
Fig. 3 The empo al de elopmen o ca bon s ock ( op ow), ha es
emo als (middle), and ha es ing cos s (bo om), assuming di e en
deg ees o wood a ailabili y and ha es ing. The y-axes a e p esen ed
in a scale no malized o he le el o he ini ial alues o hese a ib-
u es assuming business-as-usual ac i i y and ansi ion p obabili ies,
he de elopmen o which is illus a ed in sub- igu e “ABAU; 62 mill”
acco ding o he applied alloca ion o ha es s and he o al amoun
o ha es s in m3/a o he i s simula ion s ep. The g ey ba s depic
he de elopmen assuming cu en wood a ailabili y, while he col-
ou ed lines indica e p = 25% o he land a ea o Fo es s A ailable o
Wood Supply (FAWS) shi ed o Fo es s wi h Res ic ions on A ail-
abili y o Wood Supply (FRAWS) o Fo es s No A ailable o Wood
Supply (FNAWS) acco ding o he di e en s a egies ( e e o Fig.1
cap ion o he in e p e a ion o he symbols). The black lines indica e
he hypo he ical si ua ion whe e all o es s a e conside ed as FAWS
and simula ed acco ding o he e en-aged managemen sys em
234 Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
Appendix2
The pa ame e iza ion o he EFDM equi es ha NFI da a
a e classi ied in o ac o s ha ep esen he ini ial o es
s a e. T ansi ion p obabili ies, managemen ac i i ies, and
ou pu coe icien s a e speci ied o each ac o combina ion
(Vauhkonen and Packalen 2017). The p esen s udy di e s
in ha mo e han one ini ial s a e was de ined o he simula-
ions by ans e ing di e en p opo ions o FAWS o he
o he wood a ailabili y ca ego ies acco ding o a conse -
a ion alue p oxy (c . Sec .2.1). This appendix aims o
(nume ically) exempli y he compu a ions ela ed o he con-
se a ion alue (1), classi ica ion o he NFI da a o ob ain
he ini ial s a e (2) and unning he EFDM simula ions (3)
on an example o es . Conside ha an NFI plo wi hou o -
es use es ic ions was loca ed on p i a e land in sou he n
Finland. In o al, 19 ees o sp uce, bi ch, and aspen species
ha we e g owing on he mos e ile soil we e measu ed,
wi h he b eas heigh diame e s (d; measu emen s in mm)
dis ibu ed as ollows: dsp uce = {323, 265, 219, 249, 238,
427, 291, 345, 313, 407, 445, 505, 407, 402}; dbi ch = {231,
199, 177, 147}; daspen = {414}.
Conse a ion alue p oxy
The p opo ion o land ans e ed om FAWS o he o he
ca ego ies was selec ed acco ding o a conse a ion alue
p oxy (adap ed omLeh omäki e al. 2015):
whe e diame e and olume a e he species-speci ic mean
diame e and g owing s ock olume o a plo , () is a species-
speci ic ans o ma ion unc ion used o con e he diame e
o a conse a ion alue index based on expe knowledge,
w is a weigh ing ha co esponds o si e e ili y, and sp is
a species index. To compu e cons al, he ees measu ed
om each NFI plo we e assigned o g oups o pine, sp uce,
bi ch, and o he deciduous species. The median and maxi-
mum alues o he mean diame e s o hese species we e
(1)
cons al
=
∑
sp
[wsp × (diame e sp)× olumesp]
,
compu ed o each o he 15 o es y egions in Finland.
Species-speci ic asymp o e and scaling pa ame e s (speci i-
cally, mod_asym, and pa ame e s wi h su ices la dia and
a dia om he ile pa ame e s-esmk.cs ; Leh omäki 2015)
we e ela ed o he median and maximum alues (as ca -
ied ou in ile gis.calcula e.index.R; Leh omäki 2015). The
pa ame e s p oduced sigmoidal ans o ma ion unc ions
(Fig.6) ha we e used o ans o m he species-speci ic
mean diame e s o conse a ion indices be ween 0 and 1.
Figu e6 shows he species-speci ic mean diame e s o he
example plo , he esul ing conse a ion index alues and
sigmoidal ans o ma ion unc ions o e e y o es y egion
and species. Smalle diame e s yield g ea e ans o med
alues in deciduous species han in coni e ous species. Fo
bi ch, his ans o ma ion was s ongly o es y egion spe-
ci ic, in ha occu ences o la ge bi ch ees yielded a highe
conse a ion alue in egions whe e he median diame e o
bi ch is low.
The same species-speci ic weigh ings o si e e ili y,
as used by Leh omäki e al. (2015) in hei “Coa se wi h
classes” wo k low o conse a ion p io i iza ion based on
mul i-sou ce NFI da a, we e ex ac ed. The example plo
abo e was assigned si e weigh ings o 3.0, 4.0, and 7.0 o
sp uce, bi ch and aspen, espec i ely, as i was loca ed on
a Uni s in m3/ha o olume, 1/ha o s em numbe , and yea s o age
Table 1 (con inued)
Age classesa
21. (95, 100]
22. (100, 105]
23. (105, 110]
24. (110, 115]
25. (115, 120]
26. (120, ∞)
Fig. 6 Sigmoidal ans o ma ions om species-speci ic mean diam-
e e o conse a ion alue. Black, ed, blue, and g een lines show he
ans o ma ion unc ions o pine, sp uce, bi ch, and o he deciduous
ees, espec i ely, and he colou ed do s show how he ees meas-
u ed om he example plo ela ed o he ans o ma ion unc ions.
Sepa a e lines a e d awn o depic he di e en o es y egions. No e
ha o some species, he ans o ma ion is de e mined piecewise,
wi h di e en asymp o e and scaling pa ame e s applied o diam-
e e s below and abo e he egion-speci ic median alue. (Colo igu e
online)
235Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
highly e ile soil. To ob ain he inal cons al o he plo ,
he ans o med diame e s we e mul iplied by species-spe-
ci ic o al s em olume and weigh ing o si e e ili y and
summed o e he species in a plo . The o al cons al alue
(907.12) o he example plo was hus ob ained as a sum
o Eq.1 applied pe species as ollows:
Acco ding o he example abo e, he conse a ion alue
would be lowe o plo s wi h he same olume bu wi h
less species. Si e weigh ings a ec he esul conside ably;
he weigh ings a e educed o 1.0–1.5 o coni e species
on less e ile soils. The weigh ings a e also educed o
deciduous species, al hough less se e ely, and he occu -
ence o deciduous species in he leas e ile soils a e
also weigh ed sligh ly highe . O e all, he cons al index
was ound o e lec well he g owing s ock, species and
si e a ia ion, ela i e o a ia ion wi hin o es y egions
(Fig.6).
(2)
cons alsp uce
=3.0 ×0.78 ×310.38 m
3
∕ha ≈
725.8
(3)
cons albi ch
=4.0 ×0.02 ×60.734 m
3
∕ha ≈
4.9
(4)
cons alaspen
=7.0 ×1.0 ×25.212 m
3
∕ha ≈
176.5
EFDM inpu da a
The example plo ep esen s an a ea o 350ha when compu ed
acco ding o NFI me hodology o o es a ea es ima ion (c .
Vauhkonen and Packalen 2017). I is classi ied in he ini ial
o es a ea dis ibu ion ma ix as a sp uce-domina ed, p i a e
FAWS in he highes axa ion class acco ding o he s a ic ac o s
(Sec .2.2.1). I is u he classi ied o olume class #12, s em
numbe class #6, and age class #17 acco ding o i s o al ol-
ume (396m3/ha), s em numbe (730 s ems/ha), age (78yea s),
and class limi s (Appendix 1). A simila classi ica ion is applied
o each plo in bo h he ull and pai wise da a, and hese da a
sou ces a e used o de i e he ini ial s a e, ac i i y/ ansi ion
p obabili ies, and ou pu coe icien s as desc ibed in Sec .2.2
and in mo e de ail by Vauhkonen and Packalen (2017).
EFDM simula ions
The o es a ea dis ibu ion a e one simula ion s ep is
ob ained by wo ma ix mul iplica ions (see Sec .3 in Pack-
alen e al. 2014): (1) he cu en a ea dis ibu ion is mul-
iplied by he ac i i y p obabili ies, which yields sepa a e
ma ices ha ep esen he a ea o each cell a ec ed by each
ac i i y; and (2) he a o emen ioned in e media e ma ices
a e mul iplied by he ansi ion p obabili ies, which yields
he a ea dis ibu ion in he nex s ep. Figu e7 depic s he
Fig. 7 The p opo ion o
di e en managemen ac i i-
ies applied o he example
plo on he i s s ep o he
simula ions. The ac i i y p ob-
abili ies a y depending on
he choice be ween business-
as-usual alloca ion (ABAU) o
schoolbook-alloca ion (ASB) and
whe he he o es is conside ed
as Fo es s A ailable o Wood
Supply (FAWS) o Fo es s wi h
Res ic ions on A ailabili y o
Wood Supply (FRAWS) and,
he e o e, simula ed using age-
olume o s em numbe - olume
ma ices, espec i ely
236 Eu opean Jou nal o Fo es Resea ch (2019) 138:219–238
1 3
ac i i y p obabili ies ha a e applied o he example plo ,
depending on whe he he plo is conside ed ei he as FAWS
o FRAWS and managed acco ding o ei he ABAU o ASB.
Finally, he p opo ions a e adjus ed by wo al e na i e o al
ha es ing amoun s, bu hese e ec s a e omi ed he e o
cla i y pu poses.
The a ea managed by hinnings o inal ellings p oduces
ha es ed emo als. Acco ding o he ou pu coe icien s
o he plo in he i s simula ion s ep, inal elling o he
plo desc ibed abo e would yield in o al 200.5m3/ha and
162.8m3/ha o logs o sawn wood and pulp wood, espec-
i ely, a an es ima ed ( o al) cos o 8.76 €/m3. The co e-
sponding alues a e 57.8m3/ha and 89.1m3/ha o hinning
om below ( o al cos o 15.6 €/m3) and 129.9m3/ha and
95.8m3/ha ( o al cos 12.3 €/m3) o hinning om abo e.
The ansi ion p obabili ies shi he ini ial a ea o he plo
o mul iple ma ix cells. Using age- olume classes, he o es
ha is no managed gains age, bu emains in he (highes )
olume class. Thinnings om below ansi he a ea o ol-
ume classes om #7 upwa ds, he mos common class being
#10. Using s em numbe , abou hal o he olume emains
in he same s em numbe and olume class. Ha es s shi
he a ea om s em numbe / olume classes #3/#6 upwa ds,
he mos common a ge class being #4/#7. No ably, na u al
p ocesses wi h s em numbe may shi he a ea bo h up and
down in e ms o classes, and shi he a ea downwa ds om
bo h hinning om below and abo e, al hough based on di -
e en hinning ules. In he nex simula ion s ep, he o es
a ea o he ecei ing classes is u he upda ed using he
ac i i y and ansi ion p obabili ies o he speci ic classes.
Figu e8 shows how he ini ial a ea o 350ha in one class
e ol ed du ing he 10 simula ion s eps based on ei he age-
olume and s em numbe - olume classes. Because o he
mul iple ansi ions ha ake place due o ac i i y and ansi-
ion p obabili ies, i migh no be easible o ack he de el-
opmen o o es s in a single class, bu he o e all de elop-
men o he class s uc u e is deemed ealis ic wi h espec
o he p ope ies o he o es .
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