Learning and Developmental Pathways in Early Coparenting Among Finnish First-Time Parental Couples’

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Learning and Developmental Pathways in Early Coparenting Among Finnish First-Time Parental Couples’ © The Author(s) 2024 Published version Ranta, Minna; Paloniemi, Susanna; Böök, Marja Leena; Rönkä, Anna Ranta, M., Paloniemi, S., Böök, M. L., & Rönkä, A. (2024). Learning and Developmental Pathways in Early Coparenting Among Finnish First-Time Parental Couples’. Journal of Adult Development, Early online. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-024-09505-7 2024 Vol.:(0123456789) Journal of Adult Development https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-024-09505-7 Learning andDevelopmental Pathways inEarly Coparenting Among Finnish First‑Time Parental Couples’ MinnaRanta1 · SusannaPaloniemi1· MarjaLeenaBöök1· AnnaRönkä1 Accepted: 30 October 2024 © The Author(s) 2024 Abstract Since the learning and developmental processes of adults have rarely been studied in the context of coparenting, this study seeks to deepen our understanding of early coparenting development by examining longitudinal qualitative multimethod data. The data of Finnish 30 opposite-sex two-parent families were collected during three different phases: the third trimester of pregnancy with individual interviews, 4–6months postnatal by a survey and diary method, and 18months postnatal through individual interviews. The longitudinal analysis combined initial cross-sectional thematic analysis and longitudinal analysis. The results showed that early coparenting develops among new parental couples through the merging of simultaneous individual and interrelational processes. Early coparenting involves several adult learning processes and turning points. Four developmental pathways illustrating the couples’ journeys were identified: (a) equal and supportive coparenting, (b) from differential adaptation to smooth coparenting, (c) from the mother’s primacy to a communicating team, and (d) a challenging coparenting rollercoaster. These pathways vary from a smooth and linear growth curve to a variable and tense process that takes time and patience. In all, the results indicate that first-time parents (either as couples or partners) can be at different points in adapting to a new life stage and growing into parenthood, which may complicate the development of coparenting. Keywords Coparenting· First-time parent· Adult development· Adult learning· Transition to parenthood· Longitudinal qualitative study Introduction Although there is research on the transition into parenthood as part of the development of adulthood (e.g., Newman & Newman, 1988; Palkovitz etal., 2003), a more detailed description of how two parents, as a couple, develop and learn to work together during this transition remains underexplored. Therefore, this study aimed to fill this gap by combining family research on coparenting and adult learning in the developmental phase of early adulthood. Coparenting has been defined as a central element in family structure and functioning (Feinberg, 2003; Lamela etal., 2016) and denotes the quality of communication and coordination between adult caregivers in raising children together (Feinberg, 2003; McHale etal., 2004). The quality of co-parental relationships has been demonstrated to exert a significant influence on the well-being of the family unit (Feinberg & Kan, 2008). Earlier studies (Durtschi etal., 2017; Feinberg, 2003; McHale etal., 2004) have shown that parents who have a positive coparenting relationship tend to perceive their adaptation to parenthood as more seamless and tend to find it easier to balance their familial and work roles. Moreover, effective co-parenting serves to reinforce the close attachment between the child and both parents (Hock & Mooradian, 2013; Campbell, 2023). When coparenting is understood as a developmental process over time, it becomes part of the context of adult development and learning. The present study employed longitudinal multimethod couple data (n = 30 couples, 60 parents) from qualitative interviews, and open questions of the survey and diary. Thirty Finnish couples were followed from * Minna Ranta [email protected] Susanna Paloniemi [email protected] Marja Leena Böök [email protected] Anna Rönkä [email protected] 1 Department ofEducation, University ofJyväskylä, P.O. Box35, 40014Jyväskylä, Finland M.Ranta et al. the third trimester of pregnancy until their child reached the age of 1.5years. This study argues that parents’ individual development stage of adulthood and parenthood as well as collective turning points and learning processes are important for understanding cooperation between parents (i.e., coparenting). This study draws on a life-course perspective (Elder & Giele, 2009) and the development of early adulthood within the theoretical context of coparenting. The transition into parenthood is traditionally considered a key marker on the road to adult maturity (Palkovitz etal., 2003), involving physical, psychological, and social changes in parents’ lives (Robinson, 2013). First, life-course theorists have focused on developmental changes in terms of the transitions of roles, pathways, or turning points (Allen & Henderson, 2017; Elder, 1998; Rönkä etal., 2003) highlighting the significance of context, process, and socially constructed meanings in shaping human development and family life over time (Bengtson & Allen, 1993). Life-span developmentalists, with their origins in individual psychology, have paid more attention to developmental products (Baltes, 1979; Palkovitz etal., 2003) as individuals adapt to new roles and related expectations and tasks. However, both approaches have described the birth of the first child as a significant life stage in adulthood (e.g., Elder, 1998; Erikson, 1950), providing valuable lenses for exploring the development of early coparenting. Additionally, this study draws on transformative learning theory (Illeris, 2014). So far, adult learning has not been examined in the context of parenthood or coparenting. As argued by Illeris (2004, 2009), all adult learning requires the integration of two very different processes: the external process of interaction between the learner and his/her social and cultural environment and the internal process of elaboration and acquisition, where the concept of identity encompasses all dimensions of learning and mental processes. Moreover, adults’ readiness to learn is closely related to developmental tasks associated with their social roles (Arnett etal., 2020), such as being a parent or coparent. Thus, this study considers adult learning to be a process in which informal learning experiences and important turning points in couples’ family lives shape the coparental relationships of first-time parents. The Transition intoParenthood duringEarly/ Established Adulthood Becoming a parent usually occurs between the ages of 20 and 45 in an adult’s life. Early adulthood, as defined by Robinson (2013), encompasses the period from emerging adulthood to midlife, beginning in one’s mid-20s and ending around 40. The developers of psychosocial adult development theories (e.g., Erikson, 1950; Levinson, 1978) emphasized the importance of parenting for adult development. Erikson’s (1950) map of the lifespan defined that the main task of early adulthood is to develop a sense of intimacy (the ability to be close to others) and the courage to step into social roles (e.g., parenthood and partnership) and commitments without the fear of being trapped by those bonds. This challenge of individuality and togetherness is particularly important and may arise during the transition into parenthood (Robinson, 2013). Conversely, Levinson (1978) introduced life structure as a concept linking internal (e.g., identity and personal values) and external aspects (e.g., family and work roles). Transition involves a change in life structure when the meaning of important things is reevaluated, and the order of importance of these things may change (Levinson, 1986). Arnett etal. (2020) have highlighted recent changes in temporal order, with people moving on to parenthood later than before due to structural changes in adulthood, an expanded range of family structures, and increased life expectancy. Furthermore, Mehta etal. (2020) described a new established adulthood after emerging adulthood that occurs between the ages of 30 and 45 and is characterized by the demands and responsibilities of active childcare and careers. Currently, in Finland, as in most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, the average age of women at the birth of their first child is over 30years (OECD, 2021). Additionally, the average age when Finnish men first become fathers is approximately 31.9years (Official Statistics of Finland, 2022). The demands of different stages of development affect the goals and requirements of parenting and the individual abilities of each parent in different ways (Van Egeren, 2004). Thus, transitions from one development need to another may force a renegotiation of parental relationships. Moreover, cultural expectations and norms (Allan, 2008; Grunow & Evertsson, 2021; Lévesque etal., 2020) and the desire for equal parenting (Ranta etal., 2023) shape gendered parenting roles in the transitional phase. Equality in working life is also present in many modern societies. Especially in the Nordic countries, many mothers return to work when their children are young, and childcare is shared through parental leave for both parents during the baby phase (Nygård & Duvander, 2021). In Finland, the paid family leave policy provides equal benefits for both parents and enables flexible sharing of family leave between parents (Ministry of Social Affairs & Health, 2022). Each parent is entitled to a total of 160days of parental allowance. A maximum of 63days can be transferred from this quota to another parent, and leave may be taken at intervals until the child reaches the age of two. Furthermore, the cognitively demanding nature of work, expectancy of equal parenting, and global interconnectedness require new theories related to adult learning and development (Merriam, 2017). Additionally, families need diverse support during the transition into parenthood to develop their own well-functioning practices and ways of working together as parents. Learning andDevelopmental Pathways inEarly Coparenting Among Finnish First‑Time Parental… Coparenting asaKey Element ofFamily Life Research on coparenting has increased since the 1990s. Coparenting, which is considered central to family life, is defined as a relationship wherein two individuals who share responsibility for raising children relate to one another in their roles as parents (Feinberg, 2003). The coparenting relationship has been linked to the triadic coparenting family system, contributing to parental adjustment, parenting, and child outcomes (Kotila & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2015). It has been shown that the coparental relationship can be considered a family resource (McDaniel etal., 2017). Coparenting, where partners support each other, affects the well-being of the child and both parents and protects parents from parenting-related stress (Durtschi etal., 2017). Feinberg (2003) developed a multidimensional model of coparenting consisting of four interconnected components: parents’ mutual support and undermining, division of labor, childrearing agreement, and joint family management. Additionally, expectant new parents in particular view these coparenting dimensions as an opportunity for growth, development, and learning (Ranta etal., 2023). Research over the past 20years has demonstrated that the quality of coparenting relationships matters, especially during the transition into parenthood. Schoppe-Sullivan etal. (2023) described a high-quality coparenting relationship as consisting of high levels of mutual support between parents and low levels of undermining and conflict. Ranta etal. (2024) highlighted parents’ ability to communicate daily. They found out, within the Finnish sample, parents` mutual support and agreement on their duties were perceived as necessary for well-functioning cooperation. Equal division of duties, sharing of parental leave, or fathers' childcare after the workday (as compensation for absence) promoted coparental cooperation. Schoppe-Sullivan etal. (2022) also found that fathers’ more egalitarian parenting role beliefs or commitment to equal parental roles were associated with fathers’ lower perceived undermining, criticism, and experience of conflict. Life transitions often entail stressful adaptations (Elder & Giele, 2009), including the transition into parenthood, which is a challenging period requiring couples to cooperate and support each other more than before (Halford & Petch, 2010). This transition may even cause health challenges for parents and lead to lower mutual support. Sleep disruption, common in the early months of parenthood, has been linked to parental distress and fatigue (McDaniel & Teti, 2012). Furthermore, parental depression, whose effect may persist over time, is associated with a weakened perception of coparenting by both mothers and fathers (Williams, 2018). Thus, both parents’ mental health plays a role in the coparental framework shaping parents’ perceptions of their cooperation as parents (McHale & Sirotkin, 2019;Williams, 2018). Several longitudinal studies have investigated the temporal stages of coparenting during the first year of a baby’s life. New mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of positive coparenting have been reported to be high and stable from 1 to 6months postpartum (Van Egeren, 2004), and parental agreement remaining relatively stable over the first year, whereas disagreements over discipline require more parental negotiation as infants progress towards toddlerhood (Schmidt etal., 2021). Bernier etal. (2023) have also examined the long-term effects of higher-quality dyadic interactions between fathers and 18-month-old children on better coparental interactions with their partner 4.5years later. Parents’ positive or negative interpretations of the child may also play an important role in shaping their feelings and the need for mutual support (Ranta etal., 2024). However, the development of coparenting does not necessarily progress linearly; rather, it includes conflicts (McHale etal., 2012) that may be meaningful moments that especially promote learning. Thus, it is important to consider the quality of parent‒parent and parent‒child relationships in the development of coparenting over time. Adult Learning andDevelopment During theTransition intoParenthood As children and adults develop, so do the behaviors and relationships between parents (McHale etal., 2004). The responsibilities brought about by parenthood and the coordination of family and work roles serve as impetuses for the development of coparenting (Allan, 2008; Durtschi etal., 2017). Nyman and Nyman (1988) described becoming a parent as a period of psychological growth that stimulates adults and promotes openness to learning new things and ways of coping. McHale etal. (2004) suggested parents can learn by experience in their relationship and modify their behavior so that even negative experiences in the transition into parenthood can form turning points and thus promote (positive) development. These aspects can be examined through life-course theory (Elder & Giele, 2009) and transformative learning theory (Illeris, 2014). Longitudinal life-course studies relate the lived experiences of individuals and social ties to their developmental processes and conceptual distinctions, such as the timing of change in life transitions and turning points (Elder & Giele, 2009). During transitions, past decisions and changes in lifestyle are reevaluated (Clausen, 1995). Turning points are defined as significant events promoting change in people’s developmental paths and are often recognized afterwards (Clausen, 1995; George, 2009; Rönkä etal., 2003). Turning points may be positive life events, such as childbirth (Rönkä etal., 2003), and/or important developmental crises or even negative changes in people’s lives (George, 2009), both of which can lead to learning experiences (Rönkä etal., 2003). M.Ranta et al. According to life-course theory, changes in relationships and social roles underlie the timing of important life events that enable adaptations for attaining individual and collective aspirations (Elder & Giele, 2009; Elder etal., 2003). Transformative learning theory focusing on adults’ life experiences (Merriam, 2017) facilitates the examination of coparenting as the integration of knowledge, emotions, identity, and social interaction (Illeris, 2014). Transformative learning implies the acquisition of qualitatively new information and capacity in learners as they change their understanding and attitudes (Illeris, 2014). The theory describes a person’s motive (e.g., the need to understand his/her own experience) as the ultimate factor in achieving learning as people’s beliefs, interpretations, and meaning making are transformed by reflection on their everyday lives (Mezirow, 1998). According to Illeris’ (2014), the concept of identity plays a crucial role in the learning process, particularly within the family. Early adulthood facilitates comprehensive and transformative learning regarding all aspects of identity, with family identity being one of these aspects related to changes in personal and central identity. In addition, Illeris (2014) emphasized the meaning of emotions and social dimensions in learning processes. This kind of learning leads to progressive (i.e., development) or regressive transformations (i.e., withdrawal). Learning can be collective, and collectivity can sometimes make it easier to succeed with progressive transformations (even though examples of collective transformations involving a regressive process can also be found) (Illeris, 2014). Furthermore, Palkovitz etal. (2003) described, from the perspective of family life, that the more committed a parent is, the more he/she develops through parenting. Committed parenting thus represents the all-encompassing context and ongoing interactions that can influence life-course development, changes in life-course transitions, and developmental paths. The Present Study This study focused on couples’ (women’s and men’s) experiences relating to early coparenting development during the transition into parenthood for the first time. The qualitative and longitudinal research design employed multimethod couple data. The methodological choices (interview, questionnaire, and diary method) were intended (Levitt etal., 2018) to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of coparenting, considering the life situations of families, as well as the changes and turning points that occur over time. This study considered family as a dynamic entity wherein its members influence each other (Allen & Henderson, 2017). Longitudinal qualitative research is conducted with the same people over time, which enables the collection of information on the process and certain conditions of change (Hermanowicz, 2013). To obtain an in-depth understanding of the early developmental pathways of coparenting, the current study sought to explore the developmental and learning processes that occur throughout the transition into parenthood. The study defined the process (Saldaña, 2003) as a journey and change in individual and shared meaning over time, considering the psychological and interrelational levels of coparenting. Learning was seen as a process within the mind involving the integration of knowledge, emotions, and social interactions (see Illeris, 2014). Turning points were defined as significant changes in the couples’ developmental pathways (Rönkä etal., 2003). Accordingly, the research questions were as follows: (a) How does coparenting develop during the transition into parenthood? (b) What learning processes and turning points can be identified in coparenting? (c) What (temporal) developmental pathways can be identified from coparenting experiences over time? In summary, by treating coparenting as a context for learning and adult development, we sought to identify the related developmental pathways. Methods Participants A total of 30 expectant heterosexual married or cohabitating couples (n = 60 individuals) participated in this longitudinal qualitative research. The purposive sampling protocol involved recruiting Finnish-speaking parents expecting their first child and living together at the time of recruitment. Most of the couples (80%) were married, and the remainder were cohabitating. At the beginning of the research, the length of the couple’s relationships ranged from 1 to 15years (average 7years). At the time of the first phase of data collection, the mean participant age was 30.5years, with mothers ranging in age from 23 to 39years and fathers ranging from 23 to 42years. Participants were mostly highly educated, with 70% of the men and more than 80% of the women having at least a bachelor’s degree. Procedures The participants were recruited as part of a larger crossnational longitudinal study (Learning to coparent: A longitudinal, cross-national study on construction of coparenting in transition to parenthood). Recruitment for the study was implemented via advertisements and virtual family classes in maternity health clinics in four large municipalities in Finland. Prior to data collection, the project was approved by the ethics committee of the (Universityof Jyväskylä, Finland). Participation in the study was voluntary, and all participants were informed about the research process. Learning andDevelopmental Pathways inEarly Coparenting Among Finnish First‑Time Parental… The longitudinal qualitative data were collected in three stages (see Fig.1) during 2020–2022. The thirty first-time parental couples were followed from the third trimester of pregnancy until their first-born children reached the age of 1.5years. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in two separate phases: first, when the expectant parents were in late pregnancy (1–3months before the due date); and second, with the same new parents when their infants were 17–19months old. The first author conducted 92 of the 120 individual interviews. The remaining interviews were conducted by other researchers associated with the project. Due to the COVID19 pandemic, the interviews were conducted primarily remotely via video link or by telephone. In addition, to hear the experiences of both parents and to avoid the potential influences of the partner (Cerchiaro, 2023; Daly, 2003; Taylor & Vocht, 2011), participants were interviewed separately, with the majority of interviews conducted on the same day. Between interviews, the project collected survey and diary data when the children were 4–6months old. This study utilized open-ended questions from the survey and mobile diary, which were administered at two different times (first, the survey, and after a month, the diary), and the questions were answered separately by both partners. The participants used their own mobile phones to answer the open questions. The first data collection phase investigated first-time parents’ prenatal expectations about coparenting and compared mothers’ and fathers’ expectations about their coparenting relationship (see Ranta etal., 2023). The semi-structured interviews involved questions about three main themes: expectations for coparenting including areas such as their wishes related to coparental support or cooperation (e.g., “What would you wish your cooperation as parents to be like when the baby is born?”), current life situation including questions related their work and home duties (e.g., “How do you currently share home responsibilities with your partner?”), and role of support and other people on cooperation including questions about social network and services (e.g., “Thinking about the way your own parents worked together as parents, would you like to follow their example or do something differently?”). These individual interviews lasted 35–70min. The second data collection phase aimed to identify first-time parental couples’ experiences and perceptions of meanings related to coparental cooperation at 4–6months postpartum in their family life contexts (see Ranta etal., 2024). The open questions were asked on the last day of the 7-day diary period to obtain reflections on the families’ week (see Bartlett & Milligan, 2015). The open questions in the survey were “How has your and your partner’s cooperation as parents been since the child’s birth?”, “What are the most important things that help you and your partner work together as parents?” and “What are the most important things that complicate you and your partner work together as parents?” The open questions in the diary were as follows: “What observations have you made, or insights have you had over the past week about your ways of working together as parents?” and “Was the past week special in any way for your family (e.g. in terms of challenges or resources)? If so, describe how and why?” Both data sources (survey and diary) were complementary. The diary method, seldom used in qualitative research, enabled a deeper understanding of the daily family life challenges faced by couples (see Bartlett & Milligan, 2015). The last data collection phase consisted of the second semi-structured individual interviews of the parents when their children were approximately 1.5years old. The present study aimed to concentrate on the interview theme of coparenting as a journey (see “Appendix”), which consisted of, for example, the following questions: “If you think about your and your partner’s parenting, what kind of journey has it been for you both from pregnancy to this moment?”, “What have you learnt as a coparent (and parent?” and “What kind of changes or important turning points have there been in your coparenting journey?” These individual interviews lasted 40–75min. Both members of all 30 couples participated in every data collection phase of the longitudinal study. Longitudinal Data Analysis The qualitative longitudinal data were pseudonymized for the analysis. The study analyzed the developmental process in longitudinal research (Lewis, 2007), combining crosssectional analysis and longitudinal analysis (see Fig.2). The first author used Atlas.ti and Microsoft Excel software to organize, categorize and analyse the data in each phase (Levitt etal., 2018). To enhance the transparency and credibility of the data analysis, all decisions were discussed with coauthors. A shared agreement (Braun & Clarke, 2022) on the coding and the phases was discussed and developed among the authors. First, the interview data collected during the prenatal period were analyzed using thematic analysis and Third data collection (18 months postnatal) Method: semi-structured individual interviews (n=60) Second data collection (4–6 months postnatal) Methods: survey, individual answers (n=60), and mobile diary, individual answers (n=60) First data collection (the third trimester of pregnancy ) Method: semi-structured individual interviews (n=60) Fig. 1 The three multimethod data collection phases M.Ranta et al. combining the inductive and abductive approaches (Braun & Clarke, 2006) across the six-phase analysis process (see Ranta etal., 2023). Every data segment was coded from the perspective of coparenting expectations, and four focus categories were identified within the themes: content, aspirations, challenges, and a coparenting ideal. The present study utilized aspirations concentrating on whether these coparenting expectations were aimed at (a) equal parenting and active participation of both parents, including flexibility; (b) equality and responsibility but the mother’s primacy in childcare, e.g., due to the father working overtime; and (c) traditional parenting and gender roles (i.e., the mother’s primacy in childcare and household duties while the father plays the role of helper). Second, the qualitative (cross-sectional) survey and diary data collected at 4–6months postpartum were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis and typification (see Ranta etal., 2024). All data were organized and coded systematically focusing five phases of thematic analysis process (see more details in article). After gaining a holistic view of the dataset, the first author continued via typification aiming to deepen the knowledge of the co-parental cooperation among couples’ daily lives. The present study utilized three different coparenting family types (alternating parents, equal sharers, and stressed searchers) to identify how Finnish firsttime parental couples construct coparental cooperation at 4–6months postnatal. When comparing the couples' level of education, age, time spent together and financial situation, the families were evenly divided between the types (see Table1). The average age of the women was 30.2years and of the men 30.8years. These couples had been together for an average of 8years (range 2–15years). However, highly educated couples were over-represented in the data. Third, the final interview data among these same couples (when their children were 1.5years) were analyzed using thematic analysis, concentrating on couples’ retrospective experiences of the learning process and turning points related to coparenting. The aim was to collect all turning points associated with the development of coparental cooperation and learning processes over time. Table2 presents the thematic categorization of four thematic entities. Finally, after these three analysis phases, the longitudinal analysis was assembled into five temporal timelines (see Fig.2) based on the couples’ (and partners’) significant experiences and the developmental process of coparenting relating to the whole journey since pregnancy (combining interviews and open questions of survey and diary data). The analysis focused on the three coparenting domains (*division of labor issues, management of family dynamics, and learning and developing) because they were closely interconnected and relevant to the content. Fig. 2 The longitudinal analysis process combining previous cross-sectional analyses with longitudinal analysis Time period The third trimester of pregnancy 4 – 6 months postnatal 18 months postnatal Methods Semi-structured individual interviews Survey and diary method (individual answers) Semi-structured individual interviews Focus Expectations and hopes related to coparenting Experiences and meanings of coparental cooperation Turning points and learning process Analysis Thematic analysis (mothers and fathers) Thematic analysis and typification (couple level) Thematic analysis (couple and partner level) Findings used AspirationsCoparenting family typesThematic entities of learning and turning points Qualitative longitudinal analysis of temporal timelines and chance Developmental pathways of coparenting (1–4) *Division of labor issues *Management of family dynamics *Learning and developing Learning andDevelopmental Pathways inEarly Coparenting Among Finnish First‑Time Parental… The critical phases (in coparental cooperation) were then identified by placing *themes on a timeline for each couple and then comparing these thematized timelines across cases to locate commonalities in the developmental pathways. Results Four broader thematic entities and four different developmental pathways of coparenting were identified from the Table 1 Background information of the couples at 4–6months postnatal Journey 1 Equal and Supportive Coparenting, Journey 2 From Differential Adaptation to Smooth Coparenting, Journey 3 From the Mother’s Primacy to a Communicating Team, Journey 4 Involving a Challenging Coparenting Rollercoaster Journey 1, mothers (n = 10) Journey 1, fathers (n = 10) Journey 2 mothers (n = 8) Journey 2 fathers (n = 8) Journey 3 mothers (n = 9) Journey 3 fathers (n = 9) Journey 4 mothers (n = 3) Journey 4 fathers (n = 3) Age 22–28 5 5 3 0 4 2 1 1 29–35 5 5 5 8 4 6 1 0 36–42 1 1 1 2 Educational level High school or vocational school 1 4 2 2 1 3 Bachelor´s degree 2 2 1 4 1 3 1 2 Master´s degree 7 3 4 2 5 2 1 1 Doctoral/licentiate degree 1 1 2 1 1 Financial situation Tight 1 1 Tight-quite good 4 3 2 2 Quite good 5 4 5 5 6 4 2 1 Very good 1 3 1 1 2 4 1 2 Length of relationship Couples Couples Couples Couples 1–4years 1 3 3 1 5–9years 5 3 4 1 10–16years 4 2 2 1 Table 2 Four thematic entities related to the learning processes and turning points of early coparenting Thematic entities Learning processes Turning points Individual-psychological – Learning self-compassion – Becoming less selfish – Growth of self-control and patience – Managing one’s emotions – The perception of oneself as a parent changed – Uncertainty about caring for the child subsided – Confidence in one’s own parenting increased after 6months Interrelational – Learning mutual flexibility and organization – Learning from discussions what should have been done in the situation – Reading each other, recognizing the load – When working together became easier after a difficult start: sharing care during bedtime and the night, new division of responsibilities Child-related – Reading the child, meeting his/her needs – Child’s sleep challenges teach cooperation and flexibility – The child starts eating solids/end of breastfeeding: father able to feed the child and more even distribution in childcare Family-transition – Understanding what parenthood is (complicated, not easy) – Adjusting to life changes (the child is your responsibility) – Birth was a natural transition – New parental identity (old versus new life) found when the child was a year old M.Ranta et al. data. To determine the temporal developmental pathways of coparenting, this study utilized experiences of learning processes and turning points of coparenting. According to 60 first-time parents, learning focused on parents’ experiences of their own and shared learning processes during the transition into parenthood, with a strong emphasis on well-being. Turning points meant the parents’ experiences were essential for the positive development of their coparenting. The four thematic entities identified individualpsychological, interrelational, child-related, or familytransition learning processes and turning points. Thematic Entities oftheLearning Process andTurning Points ofEarly Coparenting The thematic entities outlined two different types of change over time: individual and collective processes of coparenting. As Table2 shows, learning processes and turning points were focused on four thematic entities: individual-psychological, interrelational, child-related, and family-transition. First, individual-psychological learning included experiences related to an individual’s internal changes and mental processes (e.g., parents talked about gaining increased control of their own emotions, acquiring more patience, and learning to recognize their own stress and load). Second, interrelational learning between parents was presented, for instance, as skills of mutual flexibility and organization, as well as the development of communication. Third, learning related to childcare was described as the growth of practical skills and understanding related to childcare. One important insight was that the child affects the realization of equality (e.g., by choosing a parent to put him/her to sleep) and not everything can be agreed upon between two adults alone. Fourth, learning related to the transition to family life was portrayed as a long process of adapting to life changes (e.g., through acceptance of the demands of parenting). One father described the transition into parenthood as follows: “It has been a life-changing journey; full-time and holistic, with family always in mind and involved.” Significantly, all couples experienced learning processes that highlighted these thematic entities. The four thematic entities (see Table2) were also the sources of important turning points related to individual and collective processes, the transition to family life, and the positive development of coparenting. An example of an individual-psychological turning point relating to growing into parenthood was when the mother experienced a decrease in uncertainty and an increase in confidence in her own parenting abilities a year after giving birth. Many couples expressed interrelational turning points; for example, mutual discussions related to the expectations about the division of labor and shared parenting roles facilitated their sharing of duties after childbirth. One distinct turning point relating to childcare was when the child started to eat solids or the mother’s breastfeeding ended, thus enabling a more even distribution of responsibility as the father could also feed the child. In addition, a turning point related to the family transition was the parents’ process of forming their own parental identities; this process lasted at most a year (as one mother described in the interview). However, the findings revealed that first-time parental couples (and individual partners) were often at different points in adapting to a new life stage, growing into parenthood, and coparenting. Therefore, just as developmental changes occurred at different times for different parents, turning points occurred at different times for different couples. Developmental Pathways ofEarly Coparenting After the longitudinal analysis, four different developmental pathways of coparenting were identified: (a) a journey of equal and supportive coparenting, (b) a journey from differential adaptation to smooth coparenting, (c) a journey from the mother’s primacy to a communicating team, and (d) a journey involving a challenging coparenting rollercoaster. As the Table1 shows, the developmental pathways did not differ from each other in terms of participants’ age, educational level or the length of their relationship. The following paragraphs describe the developmental pathways more broadly. A Journey ofEqual andSupportive Coparenting (10 Couples) The first developmental pathway, characterized as smooth, illustrates the easiest way to develop and learn coparenting. What these 10 couples had in common was their prenatal wishes for equal parenting and division of labor and the active participation of both parents, including flexibility. They had already shared a division of housework during the pregnancy period. These couples expected the presence and participation of both parents in parenthood and childcare, making joint plans and decisions, and both parents have the right to parental leave, meaning that both could manage alone with the child. Parenting roles and wishes had already been discussed during the pregnancy. At 4–6months postpartum, these couples belonged to the coparenting family type of equal sharers who had implemented the kind of coparenting they had hoped for, and the same development continued until the child was 1.5years old. These couples’ journeys were characterized by joint and simultaneous growth into parents: they had grown and learned a lot together as people and were both surprised by their natural parenting. One mother, Julia, described the journey as follows: Learning andDevelopmental Pathways inEarly Coparenting Among Finnish First‑Time Parental… 8. Observations from the interview situation (The interviewer speaks aloud the answers to the relevant questions after the interview.) How was the atmosphere like in the interview? How did the interviewee seem to experience the situation? In which parts of the interview did the interviewee react notably emotionally? What kind of emotions did she/he express then and how? Did something unexpected happen during the interview, what? Is there something else relevant related to the interview situation that you want to mention here? – Closing the recording Funding Open Access funding provided by University of Jyväskylä (JYU). The work was supported by the Research Council of Finland (Grant Nos. 323492 and 323493). Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Ethical Approval The study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. 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