System merits or failures? Policies for transition to sustainable P and N systems in the Netherlands and Finland

sus ainabili y A icle Sys em Me i s o Failu es? Policies o T ansi ion o Sus ainable P and N Sys ems in The Ne he lands and Finland Thomas Hoppe 1,*, Anna Kuokkanen 2, Mi ja Mikkilä 2, Helena Kahiluo o 3, Miia Kuisma 3, Maa en A en sen 4and Lassi Linnanen 2 1Policy, O ganisa ion, Law & Gaming (POLG), Depa men o Mul i-Ac o Sys ems (MAS), Facul y o Technology, Policy & Managemen (TPM), Del Uni e si y o Technology, Ja alaan 5, 2628 BX Del , The Ne he lands 2Sus ainabili y Science, School o Ene gy Sys ems, Lappeen an a Uni e si y o Technology, FI-53851 Lappeen an a, Finland; [email p o ec ed] (A.K.); [email p o ec ed] (M.M.); [email p o ec ed] (L.L.) 3Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), Jokiniemenkuja 1, 03170 Van aa, Finland; [email p o ec ed] (H.K.), [email p o ec ed] (M.K.) 4Depa men o Go e nance and Technology o Sus ainabili y (CSTM), Ins i u e o Inno a ion and Go e nance S udies (IGS), Facul y o Beha io al, Managemen and Social Sciences (BMS), Uni e si y o Twen e, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Ne he lands; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: T[email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +31-15-278-2783 Academic Edi o : Ba A.G. Bossink Recei ed: 29 Janua y 2016; Accep ed: 4 May 2016; Published: 11 May 2016 Abs ac : Ni ogen (N) and phospho us (P) cycles a e absolu ely i al in main aining sus ainable ood sys ems. Human ac i i ies dis u b he na u al balance o hese cycles by c ea ing eno mous addi ional nu ien luxes, causing eu ophica ion o wa e ways and pollu ion in land sys ems. To ackle his p oblem, sus ainable nu ien managemen is equi ed. This pape add esses sus ainable nu ien managemen in wo coun ies: The Ne he lands and Finland. We adop a c i ical pe spec i e on esou ce poli ics, especially owa ds oppo unis ic policy s a egies o he pollu an managemen o N and P. Two esea ch ques ions a e conside ed. Fi s , wha a e he key sys emic and policy ailu es ha occu ed in he N and P sys ems in he Ne he lands and Finland be ween 1970 and 2015? And second, which lessons can be d awn when add essing he policy esponses in he wo coun ies o cope wi h hese ailu es? The cases a e analyzed wi hin Webe and Roh ache ’s amewo k ha add esses “ ailu es” p e en ing sus ainable ansi ions. The esul s show ha a numbe o ailu es occu ed, besides ma ke ailu es (o e -exploi a ion o he commons, ex e naliza ion o cos s): lack o di ec ionali y, policy coo dina ion, ins i u ions, capabili ies, in as uc u e, demand a icula ion, and e lexi i y. Policy esponses in bo h coun ies esul ed in ponde ous policy amewo ks ha we e adequa e o ackle nu ien p oblems om he indus ial sec o and municipali ies. Howe e , bo h coun ies p o ided only a mode a e esponse in e ms o sys em-wide in eg a ed policy amewo ks o cope wi h sec o al- anscending issues. The ag icul u al use o N and P, in con as o de e gen s, has no been subjec ed o s ong egula o y measu es. Keywo ds: sus ainable ansi ion; ni ogen; phospho us; en i onmen al policy; policy ailu e 1. In oduc ion Mee ing he g owing demand o ood wi hou u he unde mining he in eg i y o he Ea h’s en i onmen al sys ems is an issue ha equi es se ious a en ion [ 1 , 2 ], as ag icul u al sys ems a e majo o ces o global en i onmen al deg ada ion [ 3 ]. I is conside ed possible o mee he ood secu i y Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463; doi:10.3390/su8050463 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 2 o 28 and sus ainabili y challenges, bu only i conside able changes a e implemen ed in nu ien and wa e managemen [4]. In his pape , we add ess he sus ainabili y ansi ion o nu ien managemen in ood sys ems. Ni ogen (N) and phospho us (P) ha e ecei ed less a en ion in he sus ainabili y ansi ion li e a u e, e en hough hey a e o he g ea es impo ance o sus ainable ood sys ems. Human ac i i ies dis u b he na u al balance o N and P cycles by c ea ing eno mous addi ional nu ien luxes, which accumula e in he w ong places, causing eu ophica ion o wa e ways and pollu ion in land sys ems; addi ionally, N adds o he numbe o g eenhouse gases in he a mosphe e [5]. Ine N in he a mosphe e is con e ed in o a eac i e o m h ough he Habe -Bosch eac ion and biological ixa ion. The Habe -Bosch p ocess, in pa icula , has been esponsible o an eno mous su plus o eac i e N in he a mosphe e: each yea 121 million onnes o a mosphe ic N a e con e ed o eac i e s eams o human use. This appea s o a exceed he c i ical bounda y, ega dless o he unce ain y su ounding any p ecise es ima e [6,7]. P is mined om limi ed edaphic deposi s. This p ocess is p oblema ic because i consumes a g ea deal o ossil ene gy; mo eo e , P is a ini e esou ce. I is compa able o ossil ene gy in he sense ha one canno mine all he economically exploi able esou ces [ 8 ]. P sca ci y may ha e se ious implica ions, like ma ke ailu es o e en wa a e, which migh endange u u e ood secu i y. I global ood secu i y is o be gua an eed, P bounda ies mus no be exceeded [9,10]. Mos en i onmen al p oblems a e undamen ally social and policy- ela ed, conce ned wi h managing consump ion and p oduc ion sys ems. Mos likely, his also holds o p oblems ha ha e o do wi h N and P. The managemen and use o N and P, howe e , ha e ecei ed su p isingly li le a en ion by poli ical scien is s. Con e sely, s udies o N and P ma e ial lows ha e ha dly paid any a en ion o he ole o ac o s (al hough a me hod exis s ha combines he wo [11]). This a icle explo es policy making in ela ion o he sus ainabili y managemen o N and P chains. Nu ien managemen implies he managemen o nu ien s o achie e bo h ag onomic and en i onmen al a ge s. To be e ec i e, economic and en i onmen al goals mus be cohe en , lexible, and con ollable [ 12 ]. In his a icle he ansi ion owa ds sus ainable nu ien managemen is analyzed compa ing wo coun ies, he Ne he lands and Finland. Two esea ch ques ions a e add essed. Wha a e he key sys emic and policy ailu es ha occu ed in he N and P managemen sys ems in The Ne he lands and Finland be ween 1970 and 2015? And which lessons can be d awn when add essing he policy esponses in he wo coun ies o cope wi h hese ailu es? The a icle seeks o assess whe he he e a e majo di e ences o simila i ies be ween he coun ies. I c i ically analyzes he de elopmen o he ele an policies and ins i u ional amewo ks, add essing whe he “sys emic” and “policy ailu es” (conce ning N and P loading p oblems) ha e been sol ed o he ex en ha he p oblems dec ease in in ensi y. The concep o “sys em ailu e amewo k” [ 13 ] is used o analyze he app op ia eness o policies and ins i u ional amewo ks o os e sus ainable ansi ion in ega d o P and N sys ems. E e since A ow [ 14 ] acknowledged ha e en pe ec compe i ion does no lead o an e icien alloca ion o esou ces, ma ke ailu es, and la e , s uc u al sys em ailu es app oaches [ 15 ] ha e been used as concep s o analyze inno a ion sys ems and policy jus i ica ion o os e inno a ion [ 16 ]. Howe e , since sus ainabili y ansi ions a e inhe en ly no ma i e, i is impo an o iden i y no only ailu es o inno a e bu also ailu es o he sys em i sel [13]. The a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2add esses he heo e ical no ion o “ ailu es” ha p e en sus ainabili y ansi ions om occu ing. Special a en ion in his sec ion is paid o he “ ailu es amewo k” desc ibed by Webe and Roh ache [ 13 ] as an in eg a ion o he mul ile el pe spec i e (MLP; [ 17 ]) wi h echnical inno a ion sys ems (TIS; [ 18 ]). Sec ion 3add esses esea ch design and me hodology, which is a compa a i e case s udy esea ch design o leas -simila cases. Sec ion 4p esen s he Du ch case s udy, he Finnish one, and he esul s o he compa a i e analysis. In Sec ion 5(Discussion), he esul s a e posi ioned in he academic deba e on sus ainable ansi ions ailu es (including an assessmen o he Webe and Roh ache amewo k as a sui able analy ical ool Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 3 o 28 wi h which o analyze sys em and policy ailu es in sus ainable ansi ions). The pape ends wi h a concluding sec ion. 2. Theo y: Sys emic Failu es P e en ing Sus ainable T ansi ions In hei exposi ion o he concep ual wo k o Wool huis e al. [ 15 ], Webe and Roh ache [ 13 ] de eloped an analy ical amewo k o desc ibe s uc u al- unc ional sys em ailu es in sus ainable inno a ion sys ems. They con ibu ed o he wo k on sys em ailu e amewo k insigh s om MLP by adding he mac o-le el ailu es ha add ess public policies designed o os e sus ainable ans o ma i e change. This amendmen cap u es sys ems as a whole, and in ol es an analysis o whe he ac ions a he mic o le el su icien ly add ess he sys em ans o ma ion [ 19 ]. This is in line wi h he inno a ion sys ems academic adi ion, in which he no ion o “ ailu es” has been used mo e commonly as a sou ce when heo izing on how TIS mechanisms wo k. (No e ha Johnsson and Jacobsson [ 18 ] did he same in hei key publica ion on echnological inno a ion sys ems.) In aking he no ion o “ ailu es” as he main g ound o analysis, Webe and Roh ache [ 13 ] concep ually connec wi h disciplina y app oaches in poli ical science and policy s udies ha ocus on socie al, en i onmen al, and pa icula ly complex p oblems as he uni o analysis (e.g., “wicked p oblems”, a desc ip o coined by Ri el and Webe in 1973 [ 20 ]). As long ago as he 1970s, schola s in hese ields ha e been de eloping and elabo a ing heo ies on agenda-se ing, policy making and implemen a ion, o en on he basis o “wicked”, complex, o ill-s uc u ed p oblems (e.g., [ 20 – 22 ]). This can be pe cei ed as c ea ing ins i u ional amewo ks o cope wi h o mi iga e p oblems—i.e., “ ailu es”—embedded in (socie al and ecological) sys ems. Recen ly, “ ailu es” ha e also been ecei ing mo e a en ion by schola s in sys em unde s anding [ 23 ], wo k ha endo ses some o he a gumen s made by Webe and Roh ache . Table 1p esen s an o e iew o Webe and Roh ache ’s ailu es amewo k [ 13 ]. “Failu es” should be pe cei ed as p oblems [ 24 ] o sys emic bo lenecks, a he han ailu es in e ms o no being able o achie e he p ese policy goals, because he policy goals as such can gi e ise o “ ailu e”. Ha ing said his, we ha e eason o belie e ha sys em ailu es can b eed new insigh s and p o ide new ins umen s o look a nu ien sys ems policies; he sys ems conside ed in his a icles ha e no ans o med in o mo e sus ainable ones. Table 1. O e iew o he ailu es amewo k (Webe and Roch ache , 2012 [13]). Failu e Failu e Mechanism/Ope a ionaliza ion Ma ke ailu es In o ma ion asymme ies Unce ain y and sho - e m ho izon s a egies o p i a e in es o s lead o unde supply o R & D unding Knowledge spill-o e The “collec i e good” cha ac e o knowledge leads o unde in es men in basic esea ch O e exploi a ion o he commons Public esou ces a e o e -used in he absence o ins i u ions es ic ing hei exploi a ion Ex e naliza ion cos s Ex e naliza ion o en i onmen al and social cos s leads o inno a ions damaging hese agen s S uc u al sys em ailu es In as uc u e ailu e Ha d ins i u ional ailu e: Lack o physical o inancial in as uc u e due o la ge-scale, long ime ho izon, and oo poo a e u n on in es men o p i a e in es o s So ins i u ional ailu e: Lack o knowledge and science in as uc u e Ins i u ional ailu e Ha d So Ha d ins i u ional ailu e: absence, excesses o sho comings o o mal ins i u ions So ins i u ional ailu e: social no ms, alues, cul u e, en ep eneu ial spi i , us , e c. can hinde inno a ion Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 4 o 28 Table 1. Con . Failu e Failu e Mechanism/Ope a ionaliza ion In e ac ion ailu e S ong in e ac ion ailu e: s ong in e ac ion leading o lock-in in o es ablished ajec o ies, lack o new ideas, inwa d-looking beha io , lack o weak ies, and dependence o dominan ac o s Weak in e ac ion ailu e: limi ed in e ac ion and knowledge exchange inhibi ing exploi a ion o a ailable knowledge and in e ac i e lea ning Capabili ies Lack o app op ia e compe encies and esou ces o adap o changing ci cums ances and swi ch o al e na i e ajec o y T ans o ma i e unc ioning ailu es Di ec ionali y Lack o sha ed long- e m ision, insu icien ins umen s o guide and consolida e he di ec ion o change, lack o a ge ed unding, inabili y o collec i e coo dina ion Policy coo dina ion Lack o mul i-le el policy coo dina ion ac oss di e en le els and be ween di e en sec o s, lack o ho izon al and e ical coo dina ion, no empo al cohe ence, no cohe ence be ween public policies and p i a e ins i u ions Demand a icula ion Insu icien spaces o an icipa ing and lea ning abou use needs and use up ake o inno a ions, absence o o ien ing and s imula ing signals om public demand, lack o demand-a icula ing compe ence Re lexi i y Insu icien sys ems abili y o moni o , an icipa e, and in ol e ac o s in sel -go e nance, lack o dis ibu ed e lexi e a angemen s, lack o space o expe imen a ion and lea ning, no adap i e policy po olios o di e si y o op ions dealing wi h unce ain y 3. Me hods A compa a i e case s udy esea ch design was used o analyze commonali ies and di e ences in sys emic and policy ailu es p e en ing ans o ma i e change owa ds sus ainable nu ien sys ems in Finland and The Ne he lands, using he concep ual amewo k de eloped by Webe and Roh ache [13]. 3.1. Case Selec ion The empi ical s udy comp ises wo case s udies: The Ne he lands and Finland. The wo coun ies we e selec ed on he basis o wo c i e ia in which hey a y conside ably. The i s c i e ion was a ia ion in key domes ic indica o s o nu ien use, indica ing he nu ien use in ensi y in he espec i e na ional economies (an o e iew o coun y-speci ic indica o s is p esen ed in Table 2). The second c i e ion is he es ablishmen o sus ainable nu ien policy amewo ks, indica ing public esponses o he in ensi y o nu ien p oblems. Mo eo e , The Ne he lands, being amongs he mos indus ialized ag icul u al p oduce s and expo e s in he wo ld, has had o cope wi h N and P loading p oblems o a ela i ely long ime (since he la e 1970s). In compa ison o The Ne he lands, Finland has mo e a mo e ex ensi e ype o p oduc ion, bu due o he long coas line o he sensi i e Bal ic Sea and hund eds o housands o lakes, i has had se ious en i onmen al conce ns abou nu ien o e loading. In The Ne he lands, he p oblem has been amed as a manu e p oblem, due o in ensi e “landless” li es ock p oduc ion based mainly on impo ed odde [ 25 ] policies ha ha e ocused on con olling manu e managemen , whe eas in Finland i has eme ged a he as a p oblem ela ed o o e - e iliza ion, due o he spa ial sepa a ion o animal and c op p oduc ion ollowed by policies add essing e iliza ion a es. Hence, whe eas in The Ne he lands 73% o nu ien inpu s o igina e om o ganic sou ces and only 27% om mine al e ilize s, in Finland he a io is almos equal be ween o ganic and mine al e ilize s; mine al e ilize s being ne e heless highe [ 26 ]. Due o he angibili y and scale o he p oblem, The Ne he lands has been a pionee in se ing s ic manu e egula ions and expe imen ing wi h manage ial, ma ke , and inno a ion-based app oaches, while Finland has so a had no consolida ed op-down sys em ans o ma ion p ojec s. Thus, he e is a sha p con as Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 5 o 28 in backg ound condi ions be ween he coun ies, as well as expec ed di e ences in he design o he sus ainable ins i u ional amewo k o nu ien s ha has been es ablished. Despi e hese sha p di e ences, we expec o ind commonali ies in he ypes o ailu es ha p e en sus ainable ans o ma i e change, which in luence he design o sus ainable nu ien policy amewo ks. This would allow us o u he elabo a e Webe and Roh ache ’s ailu es amewo k [ 13 ]. In sum, o case selec ion, a “leas simila ” selec ion me hod was used [27]. Table 2. Key na ional nu ien indica o s in The Ne he lands and Finland. Some Indica o s in 2012 Uni The Ne he lands Finland GNP Eu o/pe son in 2012 42,193 35,928 [28] Land a ea km241,543 304,331 [29] F eshwa e a ea km233,815 [29] Popula ion 16,788,973 5,426,674 [28] Popula ion densi y Pe sons/km2404.8 18 Indica o s o ag icul u al p oduc ion ‚Milk p oduc ion Million Li e 11.675 2330.10 ‚Bee mea Million kg 373.53 83.07 ‚Po k mea Million kg 1331.73 186.13 ‚Poul y mea Million kg 942 113.37 ‚Eggs Million kg NA 6705 [30] A able land kg/ha o a able land [ 29 ] ‚ce eals % 11 50 ‚g assland % 53 29 Nu ien use in mine al e ilize s ‚Nkg/ha o a able land 210 60 ‚Pkg/ha 20 8 Nu ien loadings in o wa e om ag icul u al soil ‚Nk onne/yea 50 (2013) 30 (2014) ‚Pk onne/yea 4 (2013) 1.8 (2014) [31] Nu ien egula ion: Ag icul u e ‚NTo al N depending on soil and c op ype (150–385 kg N/ha) [32] N om mine al e ilize depending on soil and c op ype (60–120 kgN/ha) and manu e N (10–30 /ha) ‚P To al P depending on soil P (24–50 kg P/ha/a) [33] P om mine al e ilize s depending on soil and c op ype (4–34 kg/ha) and P om manu e (0–40 kg/ha) Dominan sewage sludge disposal (2010) [34]Incine a ion (100%); ag icul u al use (0%) Landscaping, oad cons uc ion («40%); ag icul u al use (3%) 3.2. Compa a i e Analysis o Failu es ha P e en Sus ainable T ans o ma i e Change Fi s o all, case his o ies o The Ne he lands and Finland we e es ablished. Da a used o cons uc he case s udy his o ies we e d awn om seconda y sou ces, such as academic publica ions (jou nal a icles, book chap e s, PhD heses), p o essional epo s (no ably by na ional ag icul u al esea ch ins i u es), and go e nmen publica ions (such as whi e pape s). The Du ch esea che s did his o he Du ch case and he Finnish esea che s o he Finnish one. A e he his o ical case na a i es o he wo coun ies (see Sec ions 4and 5) had been d a ed, a compa a i e analysis was conduc ed spanning he 1970–2015 pe iod. This in ol ed manual coding o bo h case his o ies o he occu ence Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 6 o 28 o pa icula “ ailu es” acco ding o he Webe and Roh ache classi ica ion [ 10 ], in pa icula , he key concep s o “ ailu es” o p e en ans o ma i e change owa ds sus ainable nu ien managemen . These ypes o ailu es we e hen analyzed and compa ed be ween he wo coun ies (conside ing commonali ies and di e ences). In addi ion, o e iews o he key na ional nu ien policy schemes we e made o he 1970–2015 pe iod. The coding p ocess in ol ed wo s eps o sa egua d quali y: i s , he Du ch esea che s coded he case na a i es and analyzed hem o ailu es; secondly, he Finnish esea che s epea ed his p ocedu e. Analysis ollowing he coding p ocess was done ia quali a i e in e p e a ion o ex s. 4. Resul s 4.1. Case S udy: The Ne he lands The Ne he lands is a e y densely popula ed Wes e n Eu opean coun y wi h an economically signi ican ag icul u al sec o . The coun y is enowned o i s la ge-scale, in ensi e li es ock a ming. I has a la ge dai y sec o co e ing o e 60% o ag icul u al land, and also p oduces la ge quan i ies o bee , po k, and poul y. To p o ide eeds ock, many nu ien s a e impo ed (di ec ly and indi ec ly ia eeds ock) and used domes ically, leading o an eno mous nu ien olume, no ably o animal manu e. Al hough he Ne he lands is said o con ol poin sou ce pollu ion well, su ace wa e pollu ion om ans-bounda y sou ces and di use pollu ion om ag icul u al sou ces a e s ill majo p oblems [ 35 , 36 ]. The ag i- ood sec o con ibu es mos o domes ic nu ien accumula ion, o bo h N and P in all economic sec o s. I is he impo o eed p oduc s and o e o e ilize s in combina ion wi h he accumula ion o nu ien s in he soil ha o ms he main cause o he p oblem. Mos P is impo ed as o e, animal eed, and ood p oduc s. The majo i y o nu ien s a e expo ed again as li es ock p oduc s, since Du ch ag icul u e is s ongly expo o ien ed, wi h Ge many as he main expo ma ke . Al hough impo and expo lows a e among he highes in he wo ld ( o 2012 impo : 344 Mln kg N; 16 Mln kg P; expo : 253 Mln kg N; 11 Mln kg P; accumula ion: 91 Mln kg N; 5 Mln kg P), la ge quan i ies o nu ien s accumula e in he Du ch soil due o he su plus o animal manu e and exc e a [37]. 4.1.1. Nu ien Go e nance and Policies Nu ien managemen in The Ne he lands is mos ly p ac iced in wo sec o al domains: ag icul u e and wa e . In adminis a i e e ms, he ag icul u al sec o alls unde he esponsibili y o he Minis y o Economic A ai s, Ag icul u e and Inno a ion. The wa e sec o alls unde he esponsibili y o S a e Wa e A ai s (“Rijkswa e s aa ”), which is pa o he Minis y o In as uc u e and he En i onmen . Responsibili y o en i onmen al a ai s in The Ne he lands lies wi h he Minis y o In as uc u e and he En i onmen . Fos e ing mul i-sec o al and in e depa men al coope a ion has aken yea s o become es ablished, as subs an ial ins i u ional ba ie s ela ed o depa men al and sec o al compe ences and in e es s had o be o e come. Cu en ly, na ional policies o educe nu ien losses a e gene ally implemen a ions o common EU di ec i es, and include many egula ions. The goals, objec i es, a ge s, and measu es o hese EU di ec i es (Ni a e Di ec i e, NECD-NH 3 Di ec i e, and Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e) a e, howe e , clea ly linked [38]. 4.1.2. Nu ien Managemen in he Ag icul u e Sec o The nu ien deba e in ag icul u e has a long adi ion in Du ch poli ics, going back o he ea ly 1960s when in ensi e li es ock a me s we e subjec ed o se e e egula o y es ic ions. Many o hese egula ions we e d opped in he la e 1960s, howe e . En i onmen al issues and nu ien managemen we e no conside ed o any impo ance on poli ical and policy agendas. P o e loads we e, in ac , only asc ibed o de e gen s. The o e supply o manu e was seen as a p oblem ha could be sol ed by imp o ed anspo logis ics; manu e ea men was no e en conside ed as a se ious al e na i e [ 28 ]. Mo eo e , he ag icul u al sec o —as he dominan sec o al egime—was s ongly Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 7 o 28 o ganized and accep ed only ag icul u al s akeholde s and expe s. C i ical en i onmen al NGOs and he en i onmen minis y (Vomil) we e no conside ed se ious pa ne s. The ag icul u al egime ac ed, so o speak, as an “I on T iangle”, wi h li le space o “ egime ou side s”, o he isions, and belie s [ 39 ]. (The no ion o “I on T iangle” in ol es a small, s able se o go e nmen and non-go e nmen ac o s who collabo a e o con ol ai ly na ow go e nmen p og ams and policies which a e in he di ec economic in e es o each pa y o he alliance (in he Du ch case he ag icul u e sec o and he Minis y o Ag icul u e, bu excluding en i onmen al NGOs and he Minis y o he En i onmen ); in I on T iangles he pa icipan s ha e a high deg ee o mu ual commi men o each o he , bu a e a he ese ed owa ds ( he en y) o “ou side s”. I on T iangles di e om “issue ne wo ks”, in which la ge se s o ac o s a e in ol ed wi h a qui e a iable deg ee o mu ual commi men [40,41]). In 1974, he Minis y o Ag icul u e published a Whi e Pape on in ensi e li es ock a ming, and in oduced new policies: manu e s o age banks and le ies on eeds ock (wi h e ol ing unds). The policy, howe e , was no e y e ec i e as he nu ien p oblem had become ob ious in he la e 1970s, mani es ed in he la ge-scale eu ophica ion o su ace wa e s (clea ly isible o he public) and h ea ening wa e quali y. In 1984 a Na ional commi ee (“La ijnhouwe s”) was es ablished o in es iga e he issue. Al hough he u gency o he p oblem was mani es , he (in ensi e) li es ock olume (in pa icula pigs) con inued o g ow (by no less han 20% be ween 1984 and 1986 [39]). In 1983, he so-called “Supe Le y”—implying ha dai y a me s we e o pay a le y o e e y li e o milk ha was p oduced su passing a pa icula quo a—was implemen ed o cope wi h he manu e p oblem. In addi ion, by 1984 he minis e o Ag icul u e (B aks) enac ed a empo a y Ac u ging ag icul u al s akeholde s o ( inally) add ess he manu e p oblem. The es ablishmen o new pig and poul y a ms and enla gemen o exis ing ones was o icially p ohibi ed in some manu e-in ensi e egions. Be ween 1985 and 1987 he (na ional) S ee ing commi ee on “manu e p oblems” was asked wi h designing new egula ions, which would lead o an in ensi ica ion o limi a i e manu e egula ions ia he implemen a ion o a complex se o new egula ions [ 39 ]. In 1987, he i s manu e law was enac ed o egula e he p oduc ion o animal manu e om li es ock a ming in The Ne he lands. This law was a eal miles one in Du ch ag icul u e. Besides he manu e law, he Soil P o ec ion Ac (1986) was also enac ed. In addi ion, compensa o y p o isions by egional (P o incial) go e nmen s we e c ea ed o gain he suppo o he li es ock holde s, which would gi e some leeway in smoo hing he implemen a ion o he Ac (by weakening he expec ed esis ance om he ag icul u al sec o ). Implemen a ion o he “Supe Le y” (and i s suppo ing policies) esul ed in a s a k dec ease in li es ock numbe s (pa icula ly bullocks). Addi ionally, he nu ien con en (no ably P) o (concen a e) eeds ock dec eased. Mo eo e , he use o N e ilize s in ag icul u e dec eased conside ably be ween 1986 and 1990 (a dec ease o 37.4% in use; a dec ease o 61.9% in su plus) [37]. In 1991, he EC enac ed he Ni a e Di ec i e, u ging membe s a e go e nmen s o ake mo e ac ion o os e sus ainable ni a e managemen . In ying o p o ec he li es ock sec o , he Du ch ag icul u al sec o lobbyis s ied o nego ia e less-s ic egula ions on N discha ge. The a emp ailed, howe e , and i would be 1995 be o e N was inally egula ed (limi ing bo h he use o manu e and e ilize s) [ 35 ]. By 1995 he Du ch p ime minis e nego ia ed wi h di e en s akeholde s, which esul ed in s ingen asks o li es ock a me s, “ o a ain a manu e disposal a ge o lowe he p oduc ion olume ( he la e would mean economic decline o he sec o )” [ 39 ]. In ac , EU di ec i es on N and wa e quali y p o ided he necessa y amewo k o he in ensi ica ion o Du ch manu e egula ions. P oduc ion igh s in he o m o adeable quo as and manu e p oduc ion igh s, combined wi h soil emission no ms and s anda ds, domina ed se e al ounds in he e ision o Du ch manu e egula ion. Un il 1999 he use o N e ilize s ba ely declined, howe e , because manu e policy s ill emphasized only cu ing he use o P. In 1998 an inno a i e manu e egis a ion sys em, MINAS, was in oduced o compel a me s o egis e he amoun o nu ien s hey pu chased and used, and how much and whe e hey we e disposed o (in e ilize , eeds ock, and manu e [ 42 ]). Emissions mo e han Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 8 o 28 he p e-se s anda ds (called he “loss” s anda ds) we e subjec o axa ion, gi ing li es ock holde s an incen i e o cu he use o in ensi e N e ilize s and eeds ock concen a es [ 37 ]. By Oc obe 2003, howe e , he Eu opean Cou o Jus ice uled ha The Ne he lands was no complying su icien ly wi h he 1992 Ni a e Di ec i e, in ha he coun y was ailing o mee he Eu opean Ni a e Di ec i e implemen a ion by no ans o ming i in o na ional policy. In o he wo ds, he MINAS sys em’s implemen a ion was alling sho o expec a ions. This led o in ensi ica ion o manu e policy, and he de elopmen o a new policy, using a sys em o usage s anda ds o N and P, eplacing he MINAS sys em. Al hough MINAS was abandoned in 2005, he accoun ing sys em based on a ge s and lexible economic ins umen s con inued o ha e many ad oca es in a o o i s use, as i was conside ed o deli e he highes po en ial, a leas in heo y [ 28 ]. A e 2006, a so-called “new manu e policy” esul ed in he eco e y and e-use o P om was e disposal, diges ion o animal manu e (e.g., o p oduce biogas), e icien use o (concen a ed) eeds ock esou ces, imp o ing u iliza ion o nu ien s, and imp o ing expo a es o animal manu e [ 37 ]. The egula o y p ocess culmina ed in 2011 in he de elopmen o a new Manu e Ac , pu ing a manu e cap on all indi idual Du ch (li es ock) a ms, combined wi h he compulso y managemen o all a m manu e. This Ac was designed along h ee lines. Fi s , a new sys em would be c ea ed o balance manu e p oduc ion and discha ge a bo h mac o- and mic o-le els. Second, he amoun o nu ien s in manu e was o be dec eased by se ing s anda ds o eeds ock. Thi d, quali y p oduc s om animal manu e (a he same le el o a i icial e ilize quali ies) we e o be ecognized as such in he u u e (animal manu e p oduc s eplacing a i icial e ilize s). Figu es 1and 2p esen ime se ies o N and P su plus on ag icul u al g ound in The Ne he lands o he pe iod o 1980–2013. Sus ainabili y2016,8,4638o 28 discha gea bo hmac o‐ andmic o‐le els.Second, heamoun o nu ien sinmanu ewas obe dec easedbyse ings anda ds o  eeds ock.Thi d,quali yp oduc s omanimalmanu e(a  he samele elo a i icial e ilize quali ies)we e obe ecognizedassuchin he u u e(animalmanu e p oduc s eplacinga i icial e ilize s).Figu es1and2p esen  imese ieso NandPsu pluson ag icul u alg oundinTheNe he lands o  hepe iodo 1980–2013.  Figu e1.Ninag icul u alg oundinTheNe he lands1980–2013[31].  Figu e2.Pinag icul u alg oundinTheNe he lands1980–2013[31]. Besides heNi a eDi ec i e,ano he commonEUDi ec i ewasenac ed o educelosseso  nu ien s.TheNa ionalEmissionCeilings(NEC)Di ec i e(enac edby heEUin2000andadop ed byTheNe he landsin2001)aimed odec ease henega i ee ec so acidi ica ion,eu ophica ion, andg ound‐le elozonepollu ion.Fo allEUMembe S a es,pe iodicceilingswe ese  o alimi ed se o subs ances.In ela ion onu ien emissions om heag icul u alsec o , heNECDi ec i e wasimpo an becausei se ou  odec ease heimpac o ammonia(NH 3 ).I simplemen a ionin Du chpolicywaslaiddownin egula ions(i.e., heAmmoniaandLi es ockAc andse e al egula o ydec ees)andincluded uleson helow‐emissionuseo manu e[43]. InWes e nEu ope,Du chmanu epolicyiss illconside ed e ys ingen ;muchmo eso han compa ableWes e nEu opeancoun ies,suchasBelgiumandDenma k[44].Disposalo animal manu eiss illconside ed e yexpensi e o li es ockholde s(pa icula ly hosewhoown oo Figu e 1. N in ag icul u al g ound in The Ne he lands 1980–2013 [31]. Sus ainabili y2016,8,4638o 28 discha gea bo hmac o‐ andmic o‐le els.Second, heamoun o nu ien sinmanu ewas obe dec easedbyse ings anda ds o  eeds ock.Thi d,quali yp oduc s omanimalmanu e(a  he samele elo a i icial e ilize quali ies)we e obe ecognizedassuchin he u u e(animalmanu e p oduc s eplacinga i icial e ilize s).Figu es1and2p esen  imese ieso NandPsu pluson ag icul u alg oundinTheNe he lands o  hepe iodo 1980–2013.  Figu e1.Ninag icul u alg oundinTheNe he lands1980–2013[31].  Figu e2.Pinag icul u alg oundinTheNe he lands1980–2013[31]. Besides heNi a eDi ec i e,ano he commonEUDi ec i ewasenac ed o educelosseso  nu ien s.TheNa ionalEmissionCeilings(NEC)Di ec i e(enac edby heEUin2000andadop ed byTheNe he landsin2001)aimed odec ease henega i ee ec so acidi ica ion,eu ophica ion, andg ound‐le elozonepollu ion.Fo allEUMembe S a es,pe iodicceilingswe ese  o alimi ed se o subs ances.In ela ion onu ien emissions om heag icul u alsec o , heNECDi ec i e wasimpo an becausei se ou  odec ease heimpac o ammonia(NH 3 ).I simplemen a ionin Du chpolicywaslaiddownin egula ions(i.e., heAmmoniaandLi es ockAc andse e al egula o ydec ees)andincluded uleson helow‐emissionuseo manu e[43]. InWes e nEu ope,Du chmanu epolicyiss illconside ed e ys ingen ;muchmo eso han compa ableWes e nEu opeancoun ies,suchasBelgiumandDenma k[44].Disposalo animal manu eiss illconside ed e yexpensi e o li es ockholde s(pa icula ly hosewhoown oo Figu e 2. P in ag icul u al g ound in The Ne he lands 1980–2013 [31]. Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 9 o 28 Besides he Ni a e Di ec i e, ano he common EU Di ec i e was enac ed o educe losses o nu ien s. The Na ional Emission Ceilings (NEC) Di ec i e (enac ed by he EU in 2000 and adop ed by The Ne he lands in 2001) aimed o dec ease he nega i e e ec s o acidi ica ion, eu ophica ion, and g ound-le el ozone pollu ion. Fo all EU Membe S a es, pe iodic ceilings we e se o a limi ed se o subs ances. In ela ion o nu ien emissions om he ag icul u al sec o , he NEC Di ec i e was impo an because i se ou o dec ease he impac o ammonia (NH 3 ). I s implemen a ion in Du ch policy was laid down in egula ions (i.e., he Ammonia and Li es ock Ac and se e al egula o y dec ees) and included ules on he low-emission use o manu e [43]. In Wes e n Eu ope, Du ch manu e policy is s ill conside ed e y s ingen ; much mo e so han compa able Wes e n Eu opean coun ies, such as Belgium and Denma k [ 44 ]. Disposal o animal manu e is s ill conside ed e y expensi e o li es ock holde s (pa icula ly hose who own oo small a land a ea o use i as e ilize and a e hence bound o sell i —o ge id o i in ano he legal way—and pay o anspo a ion). I is e en said o endange hei compe i i e posi ion. By 2014 manu e policy— ollowing EU Di ec i es—was p ima ily based on he p emises o animal (p oduc ion) igh s and milk quo a ( es ic ing he size o li es ock he ds/ locks). This had he disad an age ha he w ong incen i es we e p o ided: no incen i e was pu in place o li es ock holde s o p oduce manu e only once a esponsible manu e ou le had been ound. In addi ion, he sys em was c i icized (by cen al go e nmen ) o impeding en ep eneu ship and limi ing op ions o he li es ock sec o o an icipa e ma ke de elopmen s [ 45 ]. By 2015, howe e , he EU d opped i s policies on milk quo a and animal igh s, which was expec ed o inc ease p oblems wi h he in ensi y o nu ien use [ 44 ]. This p edic ion u ned ou o be co ec , and he size o he na ional dai y he d g ew apidly (by 100,000 since e mina ion o he quo a); as a consequence, he na ional P cap was no me . By ailing o mee his challenge, he ag i- ood sec o ailed o come up wi h a solu ion o i s own (by no esponding adequa ely o an in i a ion om he Sec e a y o S a e). As a consequence, a P “p oduc ion cap” o li es ock a me s (dai y) was in oduced (in line wi h EU policy), leading o widesp ead panic among li es ock a me s who had jus enla ged hei he d (and in es ed in a ming capi al asse s, like inno a i e ba ns) ollowing he e mina ion o animal igh s and milk quo a. Howe e , gi en he u gency o he P p oblem, e en he a me s’ o ganiza ion, LTO, con i med ha “some hing had o be done” [46,47]. 4.1.3. Nu ien Managemen in he Wa e , Indus ial, and Municipal Sec o s Following pollu ion p oblems wi h su ace wa e s in The Ne he lands in he 25 yea s a e WWII, he Su ace Wa e Pollu ion Ac was enac ed in 1970. Besides pollu an s conside ed (di ec ly) dange ous o wa e quali y—like hea y me als—nu ien s we e also egula ed and codi ied. The Ac used a pe mi sys em o achie e wa e quali y s anda ds wi h maximum pollu an concen a ion caps. Wa e quali y objec i es we e p esc ibed o unc ional decen alized go e nmen s—known as “wa e boa ds”—in e ms o educ ion le els o pollu an s. Following he eu ophica ion p oblems in he 1970s and (ea ly) 1980s, N and P we e conside ed he main su ace wa e pollu an s wi hin he scope o he Su ace Wa e Pollu ion Ac . The u gency o he nu ien p oblems in he 1980s also led o mo e a en ion and an inc eased budge o inno a i e wa e ea men echnology. The la e was also suppo ed by a p og essi e en i onmen al pe mi sys em u ging i ms o pu i y wa e and was e s eams e e mo e s ingen ly. By 2000, he wa e boa ds had become inc easingly success ul a emo ing N and phospha e om sewage, some o hem being able o emo e as much as 75% o P and mo e han 70% o N [ 35 ]. Du ing he 1990s, he EU p epa ed he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e, which a ge ed wa e quali y and conse a ion o ela ed (aqua ic) ecosys ems, which was enac ed in 2000 (EC/2000/60), and implemen ed in The Ne he lands in Ap il 2005 (by amendmen s in he Wa e Managemen Ac and he En i onmen Managemen Ac [ 48 ]). Implemen a ion o he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e mean ha nu ien concen a ions we e no o exceed ce ain le els, es ablished o ensu e he conse a ion o ecosys ems, and basically equi ed educ ions in bo h N and P [38]. Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 16 o 28 Table 3. Con . Key Commonali ies Key Di e ences ‚EU Di ec i es p o ided addi ional, necessa y suppo in deli e ing legi ima e policy amewo ks. On he o he hand, he ole o he EU is less suppo i e when one add esses he e mina ion o milk quo a and animal igh s, which in ensi ies nu ien p oblems. ‚In bo h coun ies, BBE is ad oca ed by cen al go e nmen as an in eg a ed echnical solu ion o nu ien p oblems, hus igno ing he op ion o a mo e sys emic, s uc u al change h ough b eaking he egional specializa ion o c opping and animal husband y. 4.4. D i e s o Success ul Nu ien Managemen In e ospec , bo h coun ies ha e been e ec i e in ackling poin -sou ce pollu ion a he end o he pipe. En i onmen al pe mi sys ems, oge he wi h wa e quali y egula ions and policy o spu inno a ion in wa e and was e s eam pu i ica ion sys ems, ha e p o ed o be e ec i e in lowe ing nu ien emissions in indus y and by municipali ies. Fo nu ien managemen in he ag icul u al sec o (in pa icula , ega ding lowe ing N), howe e , i is mo e di icul o iden i y he d i e s o change. The e o e, we ocus on he pe iods in which subs an ial dec eases in nu ien su pluses (o N, in pa icula ) occu ed. Fo The Ne he lands hese we e he pe iods 1986–1990, 1998–2002, and 2004–2007. Fo Finland hese we e he pe iods o 1987–1990 and 1995–2005. Table 4p esen s he key policy ins umen s and incen i es ha we e implemen ed in he espec i e pe iods, and can oughly be asc ibed o lowe ing nu ien emissions. Table 4. Key policy ins umen s and incen i es esponsible o lowe ing nu ien emissions (wi h yea o implemen a ion). Yea Coun y Key Policy Ins umen s and Incen i es 1986–1990 The Ne he lands In e im Ac on Manu e Managemen (1984). Manu e Ac (1987). Soil p o ec ion Ac (1986). Le y sys em (p oduc ion) “Supe le y” (1983). Compensa o y p o isions by p o incial go e nmen s. 1998–2002 The Ne he lands EU Ni a e Di ec i e (1992) and EU Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e (2000): in ensi ica ion o Du ch manu e egula ions (1995). MINAS (manu e egis a ion sys em which emphasized “loss” s anda ds and which was accompanied by manu e ans e ag eemen s; 1998). 2004–2007 The Ne he lands EU Ni a e Di ec i e, EU Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e and EU-NEC Di ec i e ( ia implemen a ion in na ional egula ions). “New manu e policy” ( eplacing he MINAS sys em, wi h usage s anda ds o N and P; 2004). P oduc ion igh s in he o m o adable quo as and manu e p oduc ion igh s. T ansFo um, inno a ion and sus ainable ansi ion p og am. 1987–1990 Finland Fe ilize axa ion (in he pe iod 1976–1994) Fallow egula ions 1995–2005 Finland EU Ni a e Di ec i e (1992) implemen a ion in na ional egula ions ( om 2000). Ag i-en i onmen al (AE) subsidy p og ams (1995). Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 17 o 28 Table 4 e eals ha “success ul” ins umen a ion o lowe ing nu ien emissions basically in ol ed combina ions o egula ion and he use o egis a ion and accoun ing sys ems based on a ge s and lexible economic ins umen s (like subsidy schemes and axa ion). Regula ions we e used in mul iple pa s o nu ien sys ems: e.g., o egula e use o nu ien s (as e ilize s) and o egula e disposal o nu ien s (in he o m o manu e emi ed o wa e o soil). Nu ien egula ions we e ound in di e en domains: manu e policy, wa e (quali y) policy, and soil conse a ion policy. Taxa ion (le ies) was used o in luence p oduc ion igh s (e.g., dai y) and he disposal and anspo a ion o manu e. P og essi e egula ion (pe iodically igh ening no ms) was used o spu inno a ion in nu ien eco e y and wa e pu i ica ion echnology (as well as p og ams speci ically a ge ing ag icul u al inno a ions, like T ansFo um). When implemen ed, howe e , egula ions me conside able esis ance om a me s. Compensa o y p o isions (o en o e ed by egional go e nmen s) we e used o smoo h he implemen a ion o he mo e igo ous egula ions by na ional go e nmen . Mo eo e , by enac ing and en o cing he ni a e and wa e quali y di ec i es, he EU had an impo an ole in nu ien managemen in bo h The Ne he lands and Finland (also in wa ning hese membe s a es and o cing hem o in ensi y na ional policy). Wi hou i s in ol emen , nu ien managemen by he wo coun ies would p obably ha e been conside ably wo se. The se s o “success ul” policy ins umen s and incen i es ha join ly spu ed he lowe ing o nu ien emissions, howe e , do no e eal how nu ien managemen wo ked in p ac ice. The e o e one needs o ha e a mo e nuanced iew o wha happened when hese ins umen s we e implemen ed, wha p oblems hey encoun e ed du ing his p ocess, and how hey ela e o Webe and Roh ache ’s sys emic and ins i u ional ailu es. 4.5. Key Failu es Re ealed The sus ainable nu ien s cases o The Ne he lands and Finland p esen di e en ypes o ailu es, bo h in e ms o no ha ing a “sus ainable nu ien economy” (“In con as o “nu ien managemen ”, which is o en used exclusi ely in ag icul u e and wa e sani a ion con ex s, he nu ien economy in ol es he en i e alue chain o nu ien s, om hei biophysical o m o e ilize s, o plan s and animals, o ood consumed, and inally o he was e and exc e a disposed o by humans and hen ea ed in sani a ion plan s. In addi ion, he e m “economy” as used he e e e s o all he ins umen al elemen s (e.g., policy and ma ke ins i u ions) ha go e n nu ien lows be ween he di e en pa s o he alue chain. In o he wo ds, o he pu poses o his pape , he nu ien economy is a sys em o connec ed ac i i ies be ween which ni ogen and phospho us low o suppo ood p oduc ion and consump ion.” [ 84 ]) (e.g., wi h no mo e “losses” o nu ien s), and ha ing es ablished ins i u ional amewo ks ha appea o ha e “in e wo en” ine ia, alling sho o ecognizing he sys emic, mul i-sec o al, and mul i-le el cha ac e o he sus ainable nu ien s issue. Besides he ob ious ma ke ailu es (o e -exploi a ion o he commons, ex e naliza ion o cos s), we obse ed ailu es in: di ec ionali y, policy coo dina ion, ins i u ions, capabili ies, in as uc u e, demand a icula ion, and e lexi i y. We add ess hese ailu es pe i em (see also Table 5). Table 5. Resul s o he analysis using he “ ailu es” amewo k. Type o Failu e Implica ion in he Du ch and Finnish Case S udies Di ec ionali y ailu e ‚The e appea s o be no single goal on he policy agenda conce ning sus ainable nu ien managemen . Ins ead, he e a e se e al goals (on P, on N, on manu e as such) sca e ed among mul iple policy sub-domains and sec o al domains. ‚ The ag icul u al sec o , on he one hand, and indus y and municipali ies on he o he , a e iewed as he main sec o s o which policy goals ha e been o mula ed. ‚The was e and wa e sec o appea only loosely ela ed o exis ing key policies (e.g., as a sou ce o moni o ing emissions and pu i ica ion o was e s eams). ‚Only ecen ly in Finland and The Ne he lands, ha e ini ia i es been aken o o m an o e a ching, in eg a ed, mul i-sec o al policy agenda o add ess a sus ainable nu ien ansi ion. Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 18 o 28 Table 5. Con . Type o Failu e Implica ion in he Du ch and Finnish Case S udies Policy coo dina ion ailu e ‚The long and in ensi e nego ia ions be ween he ag icul u al sec o ’s ad oca es and hose o he en i onmen al mo emen s in he 1970s and 1980s show ha in e -sec o al collabo a ion canno be aken o g an ed. Up o he p esen day, he discou se coali ions o ag icul u e (in a o o scaling and la ge-sized “mega a ms”), and he en i onmen (opposed o scaling and “mega a ms”) canno easily be econciled, le alone coo dina ed by agencies. ‚The sec o s in ol ed—wa e , was e, ag icul u al, indus y, households—s ill appea o be closely o ganized and ins i u ionalized wi hin hei own espec i e domains ( hese sec o al ins i u ional ine ias esemble ins i u ional ailu es). ‚A emp s o encou age collabo a ion be ween ac o s om di e en sec o s on a non-p io i ized issue like sus ainable nu ien s encoun e conside able esis ance. ‚The lack o policy coo dina ion, o a he he absence o a coo dina ed sus ainable nu ien s policy amewo k, could be a sign indica ing a ne wo king/(in e -sec o al) in e ac ion ailu e. Ins i u ional ailu e ‚Sec o -speci ic ins i u ional ine ia (in pa icula in he ag icul u al sec o ) has an impeding impac on any c oss-sec o al nego ia ions and policy-making. ‚A e yea s o limi a i e egula ions, in 2015, he EU li ed he caps on animal igh s and milk quo a, which immedia ely had a d ama ic impac on manu e p oduc ion, and hence N emissions. ‚ The p oblem wi h he Du ch ag i- ood sec o sec o exceeding he manu e cap in 2015 is a clea sign ha he sec o is no capable o go e ning he issue i sel (hence go e nmen in e en ions we e again equi ed). Capabili ies ailu e ‚In he Du ch case, i was shown ha cen al go e nmen ba gained o less d as ic na ional policy a ge s when nego ia ing wi h he EU o implemen a ion o he nu ien s di ec i e. No (en i ely) su p isingly, a ew yea s la e he coun y was c i icized o non-compliance wi h EU egula ions, and was o ced by he EU o abandon i s domes ic policy app oach. ‚Al hough compliance wi h N and P emission caps has imp o ed in bo h coun ies, policy goals we e no me , and EU no ms we e e en exceeded. Gi en he policies and en o cemen capaci ies in place, his aises ques ions. ‚ Non-compliance wi h manu e egula ions by li es ock holde s (no ably pig a me s) is s ill a majo issue, as sample-wise en o cemen ac ions show. In as uc u al ailu e ‚Rela ed in a sense o he capabili ies ailu e, he e a e p oblems conce ning a lack o app op ia e in as uc u e o s o e, dis ibu e, and dispose o nu ien -in ensi e o ganic s eams, especially in ag icul u e. ‚Whe eas he indus y, household, and wa e sec o s succeeded in bo h coun ies in cons uc ing and ope a ing app op ia e in as uc u es, his does no hold o he ag icul u al sec o . ‚Al hough policy esponses o he se e e manu e p oblems in bo h coun ies in he 1980s spu ed inno a ion and upscaling o in as uc u e suppo ing manu e collec ion (e.g., he MINAS sys em in The Ne he lands, and la e on he manu e dis ibu ion op imiza ion p og ams in bo h coun ies), in as uc u al condi ions a e s ill sub-op imal. Demand a icula ion ailu e ‚His o ical sus ainable nu ien p og ams and policies end o emphasize he supply side o he nu ien sys em (e.g., a ge ing li es ock holde s and indus ies wi h a ple ho a o policies). ‚The e appea s o be a lack o a en ion o he consume side o he ma ke . Bo h coun ies made li le e o , o ins ance, o ma ke low-nu ien p oduc s. Po en ially, such an e o could go hand-in-hand wi h an ecological a m p oduc s ma ke ing app oach. This migh be ela ed o he p opo ion o people consuming ecological ood p oduc s and be e ages in bo h coun ies, which is a he small compa ed o o he coun ies. ‚La ge-scale e ail ood companies end o ha e neglec ed sus ainable nu ien managemen . Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 19 o 28 Table 5. Con . Type o Failu e Implica ion in he Du ch and Finnish Case S udies Re lexi i y ailu e ‚Due o i s complex, mul i-sec o al na u e, he sus ainable nu ien s issue appea s poo ly ecognized and poo ly moni o ed, pa icula ly by hose se ing poli ical and policy agendas. Ves ed sec o al in e es s and pe cep ions a e ha d o eplace, and only a hand ul o “ on unne s” wi hin sec o s a e in ol ed, s essing issues ha appea ela ed o sus ainable nu ien managemen . ‚ I one is o ake he nu ien s issue se iously one has o acknowledge i s mul i-sec o al d i e s and in e connec edness. I appea s ha e lec ion on he issue has only s a ed now ha P is becoming inc easingly sca ce and expensi e and N becomes mo e o a se ious p oblem o (in ensi e) li es ock holde s and wa e boa ds. ‚ The e is no such hing as an (in eg a ed) sus ainable nu ien s inno a ion p og am, as inno a ion p ojec s a e all ca ied ou wi hin hei own espec i e sec o s. ‚ Aside om he success ul (wa e and sludge pu i ica ion) inno a ion in he indus ial sec o , he e is li le e idence o upscaling success ul low-nu ien bes p ac ices (e.g., inno a i e a m ba ns wi h con eyo bel s o cap u e “ esh”, me hane- ich manu e). 4.5.1. Di ec ionali y Failu e The e appea s o be no single goal on he policy agenda conce ning sus ainable nu ien managemen . Ins ead, he e a e se e al goals ( o P, N, and manu e as such) sca e ed among mul iple policy sub-domains and sec o al domains. In bo h coun ies, he ag icul u al sec o on he one hand, and indus y and municipali ies on he o he hand, a e iewed as he main domains o which policy goals ha e been amed. Howe e , hey add ess only one pa o he nu ien alue chain. In he policy amewo ks, he was e and wa e sec o appea only loosely ela ed o exis ing key policies (e.g., mos ly as a sou ce o moni o ing emissions). Mo eo e , in Finland and The Ne he lands, ini ia i es ha e only ecen ly been aken o o m an o e a ching in eg a ed, mul i-sec o al policy agenda o add ess a sus ainable nu ien ansi ion, using a ci cula economy app oach. 4.5.2. Policy Coo dina ion Failu e Rela ed o he di ec ionali y ailu e in e ms o sys emic pa s o a sys em (economic sec o s), is he lack o policy coo dina ion be ween he di e en sec o s. The long and in ensi e nego ia ions be ween he ag icul u al sec o ’s ad oca es and hose o en i onmen al mo emen s in he 1970s and 1980s show ha in e -sec o al collabo a ion canno be aken o g an ed. Up o he p esen day, he discou se coali ions o ag icul u e (in a o o scaling and la ge-sized “mega a ms”), and he en i onmen (opposed o scaling and “mega a ms”) canno easily be econciled, le alone coo dina ed by agencies. Mo eo e , cu en ly, he sec o s in ol ed—wa e , was e, ag icul u al, indus y, households—s ill appea o be closely o ganized and ins i u ionalized wi hin hei own espec i e domains ( hese ypes o sec o al ins i u ional ine ia esemble ins i u ional ailu es). This is, o ins ance, appa en in he poo Du ch implemen a ion o he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e which ha dly con ains any measu es o educe nu ien loads om ag icul u al soils (as 65% o P inpu in su ace wa e s ems om ag icul u al sou ces) [ 38 ]. A emp s o encou age collabo a ion be ween ac o s om di e en sec o s on a non-p io i ized issue like sus ainable nu ien s encoun e conside able esis ance. In a sense, he lack o policy coo dina ion, o a he he absence o a coo dina ed sus ainable nu ien s policy amewo k could be a sign indica ing a ne wo king/(in e -sec o al) in e ac ion ailu e. The lack o c oss-sec o al collabo a ion is p oblema ic, as c oss-sec o al collabo a ion has been iden i ied as necessa y o be e nu ien managemen [85]. 4.5.3. Ins i u ional Failu e Th oughou he pe iod analyzed he e, he e a e disincen i es in sec o al policy amewo ks ha a e highly ele an o sus ainable nu ien managemen . Fo ins ance, a e yea s o limi ing egula ions, in 2015, he EU li ed he caps on animal igh s and he milk quo a, which immedia ely had a d ama ic impac on manu e p oduc ion, and hence N emissions. Mo eo e , sec o -speci ic Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 20 o 28 ins i u ional ine ia (in pa icula in he ag icul u al sec o ) ha e had an impeding impac on any c oss-sec o al nego ia ions and policy-making. The p oblem wi h he Du ch ag i- ood sec o exceeding he manu e cap is a clea sign ha he sec o is no capable o go e ning he issue by i sel (hence go e nmen in e en ions we e again equi ed). Ano he p oblem ela es o p io ailu es o mee he policy goals, which ha e also led o inc easing bu eauc acy, which in u n damps down en ep eneu ial expe imen ing and inno a ion in he ag i- ood sec o . Pa icula ly in he ag i-en i onmen al policy domain, bu eauc acy inc eased apidly due o igh ening o equi emen s and moni o ing no ms, which ha e led o ad e se ou comes. 4.5.4. Capabili ies Failu e Al hough compliance wi h N and P emission caps has imp o ed in bo h coun ies, policy goals we e no me , and EU no ms we e e en exceeded. In The Ne he lands, emission s anda ds we e me un il he ea ly 2000s. Howe e , non-compliance has inc eased e e since (in pa icula in 2015). Gi en he policies and en o cemen capaci ies in place, his aises ques ions. Non-compliance wi h manu e egula ions by li es ock holde s (no ably pig a me s) is s ill a majo issue [ 47 ], as sample-wise en o cemen ac ions ha e shown [ 36 , 50 ]. In addi ion, especially in he Du ch case, i was shown ha cen al go e nmen ba gains o less d as ic na ional policy a ge s when nego ia ing wi h he EU o implemen a ion o he nu ien s di ec i e. No (en i ely) su p isingly, yea s la e he coun y was c i icized o non-compliance wi h EU egula ions, and was o ced o abandon i s domes ic policy app oach. 4.5.5. In as uc u al Failu e Rela ed in a sense o he capabili ies ailu e, he e a e p oblems conce ning a lack o app op ia e in as uc u e o s o e, p ocess, dis ibu e, ma ke , and dispose o nu ien -in ensi e o ganic s eams. Al hough policy esponses o he se e e manu e p oblems in bo h coun ies in he 1980s spu ed inno a ion and upscaling o in as uc u e suppo ing manu e collec ion (e.g., he MINAS sys em in The Ne he lands, and la e on he manu e dis ibu ion op imiza ion p og ams in bo h coun ies), in as uc u al condi ions a e s ill sub-op imal. Fo ins ance, manu e dis ibu ion in Finland emains oublesome, and he same applies o upscaling inno a i e p o-nu ien a m ba ns o li es ock in The Ne he lands. In addi ion, cen alized was ewa e ea men , despi e being e icien in collec ion and p ocessing, has no been connec ed o conside a ions o ci cula economy and nu ien ecycling o ag icul u e (e.g., haza dous elemen s such as an ibio ics and pe sis en o ganic pollu an s (POP) gene ally, and he choice o pu i ica ion chemicals and echnology can hampe ecycling). 4.5.6. Demand A icula ion Failu e His o ical sus ainable nu ien p og ams and policies end o emphasize he supply side o he nu ien sys em (e.g., a ge ing li es ock holde s and indus ies wi h a ple ho a o policies). Mo eo e , he e appea s o be a lack o a en ion o he consume side and ood was e along he consump ion chain, un il e y ecen ly. Bo h coun ies made li le e o , o ins ance, o ma ke low-nu ien p oduc s and encou age cu ing ood was e (al hough ood was e has ecen ly ecei ed inc eased a en ion, wi h p omising s a -ups in bo h coun ies). Po en ially, such an e o could go hand-in-hand wi h an ecological a m p oduc s ma ke ing app oach. This migh be ela ed o he p opo ion o people consuming ecological ood p oduc s and be e ages in bo h coun ies, which is a he small compa ed o o he coun ies. Mo eo e , la ge-scale e ail ood companies end o ha e neglec ed sus ainable nu ien managemen . 4.5.7. Re lexi i y Failu e Due o i s complex, mul i-sec o al na u e, he sus ainable nu ien s issue appea s o be poo ly ecognized and poo ly moni o ed, pa icula ly by hose se ing poli ical and policy agendas. I one is o ake he nu ien s issue se iously, one has o acknowledge i s mul i-sec o al d i e s and Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 21 o 28 in e connec edness. I appea s ha e lec ion on he issue is only s a ing now ha P is becoming sca ce and expensi e, and N is becoming mo e o a se ious p oblem o (in ensi e) li es ock holde s and wa e boa ds. As a esul , ini ia i es like he Du ch P-ne wo k (and he simila ly named mul ila e al ag eemen ) ha e been es ablished, e lec ing he in e -sec o al na u e o he nu ien s issue. Howe e , e en in his mul i-sec o al con igu a ion, he ag icul u al sec o appea s o be qui e absen . Mo eo e , he e is no such hing as an (in eg a ed) sus ainable nu ien s inno a ion p og am, as inno a ion p ojec s a e all ca ied ou wi hin hei own espec i e sec o s. Aside om he success ul (wa e and sludge pu i ica ion) inno a ion in he indus ial sec o , he e is li le e idence o upscaling success ul low-nu ien bes p ac ices (e.g., inno a i e a m ba ns wi h con eyo bel s o cap u e “ esh” manu e). 5. Discussion Webe & Roh ache ’s ailu es amewo k [ 13 ] was use ul o he analysis because i allowed us o quali y he nume ous p oblems ha occu ed and oge he o m conside able ba ie s is-à- is he es ablishmen o sus ainable nu ien s managemen sys ems in The Ne he lands and Finland. The added alue o using he ailu es amewo k, as compa ed o he mo e commonly used p oblem-o ien ed app oaches in he policy s udies li e a u e ([ 20 – 22 ]), is ha i (a) classi ies en i onmen al p oblems (like he nu ien s p oblem), mo e han p e ious concep ual app oaches do (ins ead o aming an issue as a “wicked p oblem” [ 20 ]; o “poo ly s uc u ed” [ 21 ]); and (b) i in eg a es ansi ion and inno a ion s udies insigh s in o policy-o ien ed esea ch). Howe e , ou expe iences he e a e wo old: bo h posi i e and nega i e. The o me ha e been men ioned, and he la e a e desc ibed in mo e de ail below. Fi s , he shee amoun o ailu e Webe and Roh ache [ 13 ] iden i y lea es empi ical esea che s wi h a co nucopia o choices o how o code and classi y p oblems and challenges ha appea om he da a analysis. Mo eo e , ce ain “ ailu es” appea o be in e ela ed. Fo ins ance, he di ec ionali y ailu e (lack o commonly sha ed ision and expec a ions) seems ela ed o he policy coo dina ion ailu e (which can pe haps be iewed as esul s o he o me ) and he ins i u ional ailu e ( o ins ance, as poo ly aligned egula o y amewo ks can be iewed as he esul o a lack o di ec ionali y in he pe iod when hese policies we e d a ed). Bo h o hese wo ailu es migh , in ac , ha e hei oo s in ne wo king (o in e ac ion) ailu es. The la e appea in u n o be oo ed in ins i u ionalized ine ia and sec o -speci ic in e es s and s o ylines o which he sec o ’s main ac o s adhe e. In a sense, he lack o a p ope in as uc u e ha li es ock holde s can use o dispe se and anspo manu e, and he lack o an in as uc u e o collec and s o e nu ien - ich was e s eams, migh no be e med an “in as uc u e ailu e”, bu also a esul o a lack o di ec ionali y and policy (making) coo dina ion. In sum, we belie e i is mos ly in e -sec o al communica ion and collabo a ion, and he gene al absence o a nexus app oach in managing deeply- oo ed con adic ions be ween economic and en i onmen al goals ha appea o be challenges ha make de elopmen s leading o he aming o an in eg a ed sus ainable nu ien s policy amewo k oublesome. Second, al hough he use o key no ions and concep s om he discipline o policy s udies appea s o be absen , many concep s om his li e a u e do appea , in ou iew. Fo ins ance, he ne wo k/in e ac ion ailu e appea s concep ually o be ela ed o a lack o ne wo k managemen [ 86 ]. O he key concep s (which we e in ac qui e impo an in unde s anding policymaking in he domain o nu ien s), like “discou se coali ions” [ 87 ] o “ad ocacy coali ions” [ 88 ], howe e , appea o be absen om he amewo k. In a simila ein, he ailu e o coo dina ion be ween di e en sec o al domains migh pe haps be due o a lack o “bounda y wo k” [ 89 ] o “bounda y spanning” [ 90 ]. Pe haps Webe & Roh ache migh wish o conside “impo ing” some ailu e no ions ela ed o hese a eas o he li e a u e in o hei amewo k. Ano he key concep ha is missing is leade ship, o o pu i in policy s udies e ms, he “policy en ep eneu ” [ 91 , 92 ]. The same holds o he policy li e a u e ying o ind explana ions o he phenomenon o “policy inno a ions” [ 93 , 94 ]. This eme ging concep ual ield—empi ically de eloped in he a ea o he en i onmen al issue o clima e change—would be o Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 22 o 28 g ea impo ance in u he ing insigh s in o he ins i u ional domain ega ding Webe and Roh ache ’s ailu es amewo k [ 13 ]. In a simila ein, adding insigh s o he ins i u ional dimension using Os om’s Ins i u ional Analysis Design amewo k [ 95 ] migh be wo h conside ing. This would be o pa icula use in unde s anding “ ailu es” in ope a ional sus ainabili y policy implemen a ion p ocesses. Fu he mo e, he e migh be oom o expand he concep ual scope o he ailu es amewo k when looking in o ea lie a emp s in he policy s udies li e a u e o in eg a e key concep s in in eg a i e amewo ks; o ins ance, he Policy A angemen s App oach [ 96 ], o he “Go e nance Assessmen Tool” [ 97 ]. Webe and Roh ache migh wish o explo e syne gies be ween hei ailu es amewo k and hese in eg a i e concep ual amewo ks. An addi ional concep ual p oblem we encoun e ed du ing ou analysis o he sus ainable nu ien s cases was he undamen al issue o wha “ ailu es” ac ually a e. Do hey ela e o ailu es in a physical sense (e.g., “ou come”: o e -emission o nu ien s causing se e e en i onmen al p oblems such as eu ophica ion) o a he ailu es in he policy/ins i u ional amewo k causing nega i e side-e ec s when implemen ed (e.g., “ou pu ”: selec ing he w ong se o in e en ions o sol e a pe cei ed nu ien s p oblem; [ 21 ])? In sum, we wonde wha he “dependen a iable” is when using he sus ainable ansi ions ailu es amewo k in empi ical esea ch. Finally, as a sugges ion o apply he comp ehensi e se o “ ailu es” in empi ical esea ch, Webe and Roh ache migh conside in oducing a concise classi ica ion o ailu e ypes ha allows p oblems o be s uc u ed, which pe haps migh one day pe mi esea che s o concep ually (and empi ically es ) ela e (and pe haps p edic ) he use o ce ain ypes o go e nance modes and “policy mixes” (in a way ha pe haps esembles “wicked p oblems” in ela ion o a non-hie a chical ne wo ked go e nance mode [86]). 6. Conclusions This a icle s a ed wi h wo esea ch ques ions: (1) wha a e he key sys emic and policy ailu es ha occu ed in he N and P sys ems in The Ne he lands and Finland be ween 1970 and 2015?; and (2) wha lessons can be d awn when add essing he policy esponses in he wo espec i e coun ies o cope wi h he p e iously men ioned ailu es? In answe ing he i s esea ch ques ion, besides he ob ious ma ke ailu es (o e -exploi a ion o he commons, ex e naliza ion o cos s), ou analysis e ealed ha nu ien managemen o N and P has ailu es ha ela e o: di ec ionali y, policy coo dina ion, ins i u ions, capabili ies, in as uc u e, demand a icula ion, and e lexi i y. Ce ain “ ailu es”, howe e , appea o be in e ela ed. We pe cei e ha he majo i y o hem, in he end, ela e o a lack o di ec ionali y and a lack o c oss-sec o al (policy) coo dina ion. Due o hese pe sis en p oblems, a emp s o design an in eg a ed sus ainable nu ien s policy amewo k encoun e conside able sec o al challenges. The p oblem o in e connec ed ailu es, i s and o emos , has o do wi h policy coo dina ion, ins i u ional ine ia, and he poo way in which he ag icul u al sec o is in ol ed in (in eg a ed) nu ien managemen . The sec o appea s in lexible, and ha d o app oach by nu ien ad oca es om o he sec o s (e.g., wa e , was e, and en i onmen ). Howe e , his o y has shown ha he ag icul u al sec o is sensi i e o p og ams using s ic egula ion and lexible economic incen i es. Pe haps a emp s o align he agenda o he ag icul u al sec o wi h o he sec o s (wa e , was e) can be unde aken when ins umen a ion also includes hese ypes o policy ins umen s (which a e less olun a y), alongside he a he “so ” ins umen s ha ha e al eady been used, like es ablishmen o he P ne wo k and he mul ila e al ag eemen on P use. Regula ion can be e icien ; i could be s ic bu simple, and se as close o he eal oo s o he p oblems as possible, e.g., in oduc ion o excess nu ien s in o he sys em. In addi ion, he in e ela edness o ailu es is linked o he mul i- unc ionali y o ag icul u e, i.e., i is ela ed o he p oduc ion o ood, land and ecosys em s ewa dship, and u al li elihoods. Howe e , he domina ing ajec o y is based on global compe i ion o e u ns o capi al, which o ces de ense om he ad oca es o he o he aspec s o ag icul u e, pulling policies in o di e en di ec ions. The e o e, ood policy ha would link Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 463 23 o 28 p ima y p oduc ion o inal consump ion, as well as hea ily egula ed ag icul u e o global ma ke d i en e ail-sec o and en i onmen al impac s o eeding people, is g ea ly needed. In answe ing he second esea ch ques ion, he policy esponses in bo h coun ies esul ed in se e e policy amewo ks ha we e, on he one hand, su icien o ackle nu ien s p oblems om poin sou ces, such as indus y and municipali ies, and o a la ge ex en con ibu ed posi i ely o a subs an ial lowe ing o nu ien emissions by (manu e p oducing) li es ock holde s in he ag icul u al sec o . In bo h coun ies, he cons uc ion o hese amewo ks was only possible a e long and in ensi e nego ia ions be ween ag icul u al sec o ad oca es and hose o en i onmen al mo emen s. Mo eo e , EU di ec i es u ged s ic implemen a ion o s ingen domes ic policies. Al hough his spu ed comp ehensi e policy app oaches ha we e o a g ea ex en success ul in a aining hei speci ic goals, on he o he hand, in bo h coun ies, policies ha e been ine ec i e in add essing di use sou ces in ag icul u e due o he absence o sys em-wide in eg a ed policy amewo ks un il his day. Fu he mo e, policies u ging imp o ed ecycling in he en i e ood sys em ( om was e and esidues back o he p oduc ion) ha would equi e a ans-sec o al app oach we e non-exis en . Mo e esea ch in o his issue is needed o: (i) u he unde s anding o he deepe oo ed p oblems ega ding sub-op imal nu ien s alue chains, and (ii) examine bes p ac ices o policies and o he in e en ion s a egies ha ha e shown p omising signs o imp o ing sus ainable nu ien managemen . Finally, we would like o e lec on he use o Webe and Roh ache ’s ailu e amewo k o sus ainable ansi ions [ 13 ]. Al hough his comp ehensi e amewo k o e s a b oad a ay o concep s ha a e use ul o analyze p ac ical cases is-à- is sus ainable ansi ions, we ha e wo c i icisms ha call o a en ion. Fi s , he amewo k appea s o e -comp ehensi e and di icul o use when applied o case s udies (le alone o he esea ch designs ha ypically equi e mo e simpli ied concep ual amewo ks). Many o he ailu e concep s u n ou o be in e - ela ed, and he e migh e en be a causal ela ionship o a hie a chy be ween hem. Second, al hough we app ecia e he use o alid a iables om ansi ion and inno a ions s udies, we miss concep s om policy s udies (a discipline ha we conside highly ele an o an unde s anding o sys emic and policy ailu es). When s udying p oblems/ ailu es ha p e en sus ainable ansi ions om happening we eel ha hese concep s would be e y use ul. 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