Pesticide regulatory risk assessment, monitoring, and fate studies in the northern zone: recommendations from a Nordic-Baltic workshop

CONFERENCE REPORT Pes icide egula o y isk assessmen , moni o ing, and a e s udies in he no he n zone: ecommenda ions om a No dic-Bal ic wo kshop Ma ianne S en ød 1 &Ma i Alm ik 1 &Ole Ma in Eklo 1 &Anne Louise Gimsing 2 & Roge Hol en 1,3 &Kai Künnis-Be es 4,5 &Ma s La sbo 6 &Linas Pu elis 7 &Ka i Siimes 8 & Ina a Tu ka 9 &Jaana Uusi-Kämppä 10 Recei ed: 7 June 2016 /Accep ed: 13 June 2016 /Published online: 22 June 2016 #The Au ho (s) 2016. This a icle is published wi h open access a Sp inge link.com In oduc ion The ecen e ision o he legal amewo k o au ho iza ion o use o plan p o ec ion p oduc s and pes icides wi hin he Eu opean Union/Eu opean Economic A ea (EU/EEA; Regula ion EC 1107/2009, Di ec i e 2009/128/EC) imposes a need o close collabo a ion ac oss coun y bo de s wi hin he h ee pes icide au ho iza ion zones (designa ed he no h, cen al, and sou h zones) in Eu ope. The p inciples o zonal e alua ion and mu ual ecogni ion embedded in Regula ion EC 1107/2009 conce ning ma ke ing o plan p o ec ion p od- uc s a e in ended o educe he app o al imes o pes icides. Howe e , he h ee au ho iza ion zones ep esen a e y sim- pli ied iew compa ed o he 16 clima ic zones/scena ios ha ha e been ou lined o pes icide modeling in Eu ope (Blenkinsop e al. 2008;Fig.1). Pedoclima ic o ag icul u al cons ain s could en i le he indi idual s a es o adop es ic- ions on he use o pes icides app o ed wi hin hei zone o e en o e use app o al. To achie e a sound scien i ic basis o zonal e alua ion and collabo a ion on a egula o y le el, i is also necessa y o in- c ease esea ch collabo a ion and knowledge exchange wi hin he scien i ic communi y. He e, we epo he main conclu- sions and ecommenda ions om a No dic-Bal ic wo kshop on he en i onmen al a e o pes icides, which was conduc ed in Ås, No way, in Sep embe 2014 wi h he aim o p omo ing knowledge exchange, ne wo k building, and a common agen- da o u u e esea ch wi hin he no he n zone. Responsible edi o : Philippe Ga igues *Ma ianne S en ød ma ianne.s en [email protected] 5 Na ional Ins i u e o Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Akadeemia Tee 23, EE-12618 Tallinn, Es onia 6 Depa men o Soil and En i onmen , Swedish Uni e si y o Ag icul u al Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7014, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden 7 Li huanian Resea ch Cen e o Ag icul u e and Fo es y, Ins i u o aleja 1, Akademija, LT-58344 Kėdainiai Dis ic , Li huania 8 Finnish En i onmen Ins i u e (SYKE), P.O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland 9 La ia Uni e si y o Ag icul u e, 2 Liela S ee , Jelga a LV-3001, La ia 10 Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (LUKE), Viikinkaa i 4, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 DOI 10.1007/s11356-016-7087-1 1 No wegian Ins i u e o Bioeconomy Resea ch (NIBIO), Høgskole eien 7, NO-1430 Ås, No way 2 Minis y o En i onmen and Food o Denma k, En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency, S andgade 29, DK-1401 Københa n K, Denma k 3 No wegian Food Sa e y Au ho i y, P.O. Box 383, NO-2381 B umunddal, No way 4 Ins i u e o Ma ine Sys ems, Tallinn Uni e si y o Technology, Ehi aja e ee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Es onia Pes icide egula o y isk assessmen in he no he n zone Zonal e alua ion and mu ual ecogni ion The BGuidance documen on wo k sha ing in he No he n zone in he au ho iza ion o plan p o ec ion p oduc s^ (Anonymous 2015) s a es ha he no he n zone coope a ion includes he EU membe s a es Denma k, Sweden, Finland, Es onia, La ia, and Li huania, as well as he Eu opean Economic Communi y/Eu opean F ee T ade Associa ion (EEC/EFTA) membe s No way and Iceland. The guidance documen was implemen ed in all coun ies wi hin he zone om Janua y 2015. Clima ic zones o pes icide modeling (Blenkinsop e al. 2008) e lec he complexi y o he di e en au ho iza ion zones wi hin Eu ope (Fig. 1). Acco ding o his classi ica ion, he no he n zone coun ies co e se en o he 16 clima ic zones (Table 1). The a ia ion wi hin he no he n zone is u he illus a ed by he 13 en i onmen al zones ep esen ing an agg ega ion o he en i onmen al s a i ica ion o Eu ope (Me zge e al. 2005; Jongman e al. 2006), i e o which a e co e ed by he no he n zone coun ies (Table 2). The du a ion o he g owing season and he sum o ac i e empe a u es a e doubled when mo ing sou hwa d om he alpine no h o he A lan ic no h. This will ine i ably a ec he possibili y o ha monizing isk assessmen p ocedu es and/o equi emen s be ween he coun ies wi hin he no he n zone, and i will also in luence he comme cial iabili y o he pes icide indus y. Due o he s ic limi s o he imeline o he zonal e alu- a ion (SANCO/13169/2010 e . 9), he e mus be good ag ee- men be ween he coun ies in he no he n zone o ensu e a sa is ac o y isk assessmen . The ime ame du ing which he membe s a es a e o app aise speci ic na ional conce ns com- p ises a pe iod o 6 weeks o commen ing on he d a egu- la o y epo and 120 days o assessmen a e he ini ial zonal e alua ion. EU scena ios and model pe o mance in he no he n zone coun ies Se e al s udies ha e been aimed a ha monizing and simpli- ying he equi emen s o g oundwa e isk assessmen wi hin he no he n zone. Conside ing leaching o g oundwa e , a compa ison including 11 di e en scena ios and using he models PEARL, PELMO, and MACROinFOCUS showed subs an ial dispa i ies be ween coun ies (S enemo and Lousa Al in 2013). Howe e , he esul s o ha e alua ion ha e also e ealed la ge di e ences be ween he models and scena ios used wi hin he EU, and only a ce ain deg ee o ha moniza ion has been achie ed in he no he n zone collab- o a ion (Anonymous 2015). The modeling ha is equi ed in Sweden is now also conside ed su icien in No way, and he modeling equi ed in Denma k (which en ails mo e ho ough assessmen o isks ela ed o g oundwa e because i ep e- sen s an impo an sou ce o d inking wa e ) is conside ed su icien in Li huania. In a ecen s udy (Bu ns e al. 2015), he MACRO model was used o assess he o e all ep esen- a i eness and p o ec i eness o he na ional and FOCUS g oundwa e app oaches o modeling he no he n zone. The esul s showed good p o ec i eness in gene al, bu he main conclusion was ha all he na ional scena ios o he Table 1 Clima e zones o pes icide modeling (Blenkinsop e al. 2008) in he no he n zone coun ies Clima e zone Clima e cha ac e is ics 2 Tempe a e ma i ime 4 No h Eu opean and con inen al, cool and d y 7 Modi ied upland empe a e ma i ime, mo e equen ex emes 10 No h Eu opean, cold and d y 12 Ve y we and moun ainous ma i ime, mo e equen ex emes 13 We and ma i ime on exposed wes e n coas s, mo e equen ex emes 16 Modi ied empe a e ma i ime, cool wi h mode a e p ecipi a ion 12 No he n Zone Sou he n Zone Cen al Zone Fig. 1 Zones o pes icide au ho iza ion o e laid on clima ic zones o pes icide modeling ( ep in ed om Blenkinsop e al. 2008 wi h pe mission om Else ie ) in Eu ope 15780 En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 no he n zone coun ies should be included in egula o y simula ions. Compa ed o he es o Eu ope, he no he n pa o Scandina ia is aced wi h speci ic challenges ha a e associ- a ed wi h di e en domina ing soil ypes and a cold clima e wi h eezing and hawing o soil du ing win e . A pilo s udy employing he MACRO model o compa e he FOCUS SWASH scena ios and he No wegian scena ios in WISPE indica ed ha he choice o endpoin s has a subs an ial impac on he simula ion esul s (VKM 2015). In ha in es iga ion, disc epancies be ween he scena ios we e small wi h EU end- poin s bu we e la ge wi h No wegian endpoin s (cold clima e and young soils). De ined acco ding o FOCUS (2001), he empe a u e condi ions o mos o No way all in o he wo s - case (6.6–10 °C) o ex eme wo s -case (<6 °C) ca ego ies, and he p ecipi a ion and echa ge a e chie ly in he ex eme wo s -case ca ego y (>300 mm a e age annual echa ge, >1000 mm a e age annual ain all). In Sweden, he MACRO-SE model has been used o egional-scale assessmen o he impac o clima e change on pes icide leaching o g oundwa e , conside ing bo h di ec e - ec s (inc eased empe a u es and changes in p ecipi a ion pa - e ns) and indi ec e ec s (e.g., ela ed o al e ed land use and c op p o ec ion needs) (S e ens e al. 2015). This egionalized e sion o he MACRO model allows comple e pa ame e iza- ion based on soil maps and de ailed c op s a is ics. Assessmen s using his model ha e sugges ed an inc eased isk unde he cu en clima e p ojec ions, bu hey ha e also highligh ed bo h he need o sound geog aphic in o ma ion and he challenges connec ed wi h model pa ame e iza ion (Moeys e al. 2012; an den Be g e al. 2012; Vande bo gh e al. 2011), as well as he la ge unce ain y a ising om he clima e inpu (S e ens e al. 2014). Thus a , compa isons o model pe o mance o isk o uno o su ace wa e ha e no been pe o med o all he no he n zone coun ies. Mo eo e , he su ace wa e exposu e assessmen has been iden i ied as one o he leas ha monized ypes o e alua ion wi hin his zone, and his is due o assump- ions o low ep esen a i eness o he s anda d EU scena ios and o he di e ences be ween coun ies wi h ega d o e- qui emen s o e ec s o mi iga ion measu es (e.g., non- sp ay bu e zones and d i - educing nozzles). As an exam- ple, No way equi es ha he wo s -case si ua ion be assessed in all a ailable modeling scena ios, assuming ha none o he exis ing EU modeling scena ios will yield su icien ly conse - a i e es ima es o he moun ainous No wegian landscapes. Consequen ly, No way is now using he WISPE model/ applica ion (Bolli e al. 2013) o de elop na ional su ace wa- e scena ios ha include a eas wi h a s eepe slope (app ox. 13 %) han in he EU scena ios (app ox. 4 %). In Finland, he slopes a e seldom s eep and mos o he ields ha e subsu ace d ainage sys ems, bu despi e ha , s udies ha e shown highe concen a ions and losses o pes icides o su ace uno han o d ainage discha ge (e.g., Uusi-Kämppä e al. in p epa a- ion; Lai inen 2000; Siimes e al. 2006;Lai inene al.2009). The esul s o he ci ed in es iga ions sugges ha su ace wa e scena ios o egula o y isk assessmen wi hin he no he n zone should simul aneously ake in o accoun bo h su ace uno and d ainage discha ge as anspo ou es o su ace wa e . In addi ion, he no he n zone coun ies o en equi e assessmen o he FOCUS su ace wa e scena ios D1, and in No way his also applies o D2 (FOCUS 2001), which ep esen s he wo s case o d ain low. Cu en FOCUS su - ace wa e scena ios (>10 yea s old) a e p esen ly unde going e ision, and new and e ised scena ios om he Eu opean Food Sa e y Au ho i y (EFSA) a e expec ed wi hin he nex 1 o 2 yea s. Aspec s o he no he n zone should be included in his wo k o ensu e ha i will be possible o pe o m ha mo- nized isk assessmen s u ilizing scena ios, endpoin s, and models ha encompass he speci ic condi ions p e ailing in he no he n zone coun ies. By compa ison, be e ha moniza ion is achie ed o es i- ma ion o p edic ed en i onmen al concen a ions (PECs) in soil. I is plausible ha he Finnish PEC calcula o (h p://www. ukes. i/pecsoilcalcula o ) ha is cu en ly in use can be u he de eloped in o a no he n zone PEC calcula o . Pes icide moni o ing in he no he n zone coun ies Ta ge ed and coun y-speci ic pes icide moni o ing p og ams ha conside he impac o wea he condi ions on he isk o leaching and uno o pes icides a e a p e equisi e o ensu e sus ainable use o pes icides (Di ec i e 2009/128/EC). The pes icide moni o ing e o s in he No dic coun ies ha e been summa ized by Fause and Mogensen (2002) and K euge (2007). In Denma k, he i s analysis o pes icides in g ound- wa e was begun in he ea ly 1980s, and in Sweden he i s analysis in su ace wa e (se en i e s in he sou he n pa o he coun y) was pe o med in 1985. In No way, long- e m moni o ing o pes icides was es ablished in he ea ly 1990s. Table 2 G owing season cha ac e is ics in he no he n zone based on he en i onmen al s a i ica ion o Eu ope (Me zge e al. 2005; Jongman e al. 2006) En i onmen al zone G owing season cha ac e is ics Du a ion Sum o ac i e empe a u es (days (min–max)) (>+10 °C (min–max)) Alpine No h (ALN) 130 (116–155) 1416 (1277–1719) Bo eal (BOR) 157 (126–185) 1966 (1471–2523) Nemo al (NEM) 196 (190–204) 2717 (2561–2898) Con inen al (CON) 227 (213–257) 3294 (3037–3049) a A lan ic No h (ATN) 255 (199–278) 3198 (2459–3214) a The highes alues a e eached in he con inen al pa s o he Balkan Peninsula En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 15781 The de elopmen o imp o ed analy ical echniques con ib- u ed o he ini ia ion o moni o ing p og ams in he No dic coun ies. Today, a di e se ange o pes icide moni o ing p o- g ams a e being conduc ed, including he ollowing: pes icide leaching assessmen e o s in Denma k (e.g., B üsch e al. 2015); g ab sampling o i e s, ibu a ies (Ka jalainen e al. 2014), and g oundwa e wells (e.g., Vuo imaa e al. 2007)in Finland; composi e sampling o pes icide moni o ing in ag i- cul u al s eams in Sweden (e.g., Linds öm e al. 2013)and No way (e.g., Bechmann and Deels a 2013). Pes icide mon- i o ing ac i i ies in he Bal ic coun ies a e mo e limi ed, al- hough he e is in ensi e c op p oduc ion in a eas wi h a po- en ially high isk o leaching (ni a e ulne able zone) (Jansons e al. 2011). G oundwa e cons i u es 100 % o he d inking wa e sup- ply in Denma k, and hence he pes icide leaching assessmen p og am is essen ial o secu e sa e use o pes icides and clean g oundwa e ee o pes icide esidues. Assessmen si es a e loca ed in i e sepa a e a eas ha ha e dispa a e geological Bo igins^(i.e., soil ype and o igin) and also ep esen he di e en p ecipi a ion Bzones^in Denma k. Ex ensi e quali y p ocedu es ha e been es ablished o e alua e he assessmen esul s, because hese indings a e used in he app o al p ocess o pes icides in Denma k. The Swedish and No wegian long- e m pes icide moni o - ing p og ams co e selec ed small ag icul u al ca chmen s and a e mainly aimed a egis e ing c opping p ac ices and occu - ence o pes icide esidues in su ace wa e in in ensi ely a med a eas, because he d inking wa e supply in hese coun ies is la gely dependen on clean su ace wa e s. The moni o ing p og ams in Sweden and No way p esen ly com- p ise abou 130 and 115 di e en subs ances, espec i ely (Linds öm e al. 2013,2015; S en ød 2015). In Finland, sim- ila moni o ing was ca ied ou o only 1 yea in a single ca chmen and included 98 compounds (Siimes e al. in p ep- a a ion). In moni o ing da a on low-dose he bicides in Sweden, de ec ion equency was ela ed o he ea ed a ea (K euge and Adielsson 2008), and moni o ing esul s ha e also shown an associa ion be ween he de ec ed pes icide con- cen a ions and applica ion a es in his coun y (Linds öm e al. 2013). The long- e m da a se ies illus a e he impo ance o he co e age o he chemical analysis and he e ec o educed quan i ica ion limi s. In con as o g ab sampling, au oma ed con inuous sampling ensu es ha a la ge p opo ion o he pes icides p esen a e de ec ed. Flow-p opo ional composi e sampling is used a No wegian sampling si es, and ime- p opo ional composi e sampling is he p ima y me hod in Swedish esea ch ca chmen s (wi h g ab sampling in i e s). The low-p opo ional wa e sampling is accu a e o de e - mining o al loads, bu addi ional sampling may be necessa y o s udy he quali y o he wa e (e.g., Kyllma e al. 2014). A low- igge ed sampling me hod has been employed in one o he Swedish moni o ing ca chmen s since 2006 o s udy he peak concen a ions o pes icides (Bundschuh e al. 2014; Linds öm e al. 2015), and he esul s show ha au oma ed composi e sampling p ocedu es e eal he long- e m exposu e pa e n, whe eas assessmen o peak exposu es equi es a low-e en - igge ed high- esolu ion sampling s a egy. The en i onmen al isk associa ed wi h he pes icide concen a- ions de ec ed is assessed in ela ion o an en i onmen al qual- i y s anda d (EQS). Such analysis is based chie ly on a chemical-by-chemical app oach, bu e o s a e also being made o e alua e he e ec s o pes icide mix u es using he oxic-uni concep (Bundschuh e al. 2014; Pe e sen e al. 2013,2015). The pes icide moni o ing e o s in Es onia hus a include g ab-sampling-based moni o ing o selec ed i e s co e ing a small numbe o subs ances (<10) in 2003–2008 and a b oade sc eening (47 subs ances) a ou loca ions in 2010, ollowed by a WFD compliance s udy o p io i y subs ances in 19 i e s in 2011. The o e all pic u e indica es ew de ec ions o subs ances in concen a ions below egula o y limi s (pe s. comm. Künnis-Be es). G oundwa e moni o ing in he ni a e ulne able zone du ing 2007–2011 esul ed in no de- ec ions o >0.1 μg/L. Fu he mo e, a soil su ey wi h sam- pling o 118 ag icul u al ields ac oss Es onia showed in gen- e al no de ec ions abo e pe mi ed le els (pe s. comm. Künnis-Be es). In summa y, he complemen a i y o he No dic-Bal ic moni o ing sys ems should be exploi ed ac oss bo de s, bu he e is s ill a need o coun y-speci ic moni o ing p og ams o ensu e ha coun y-speci ic conside a ions and soil and wea he condi ions a e p ope ly add essed. Fu he mo e, he ag icul u al p ac ices in he No dic-Bal ic coun ies di e ma kedly, being go e ned no only by opog aphy and soil and wea he condi ions, bu also by sociocul u al condi ions and go e nmen egula ions. Fa e o pes icides in he no he n zone Impac o cold win e condi ions on pes icide a e Pes icide a e esea ch has shown ha No dic soil and clima e condi ions a e challenging due o slow deg ada ion and he isk o mobiliza ion o so bed pes icides in win e /sp ing caused by he eezing/ hawing o soil (Alm ik e al. 2014; Lai inen e al. 2006,2009; S en ød e al. 2008; Siimes e al. 2006). The e ha e been some e o s wi hin he pes icide mon- i o ing p og ams in he No dic coun ies o assess he loss o pes icides du ing he win e pe iod. Inasmuch as he obse ed concen a ions ha e been low, such measu emen s ha e been made only du ing a sho e pe iod in Finland and only occa- sionally in No way (Ka jalainen e al. 2014; Lud igsen and Lode 2002). Conside ing he clima e changes en ailing mo e in ense au umn p ecipi a ion e en s, mild win e s wi h 15782 En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 equen eeze/ haw e en s, and inc eased isk o leaching and su ace uno , he e is clea ly a need o new da a on he isk o pes icide loss du ing he win e season in cold clima e egions. The Swedish moni o ing p og am has includ- ed sampling in win e a wo si es o e he las ew yea s (Linds öm e al. 2015), and he esul s ob ained will help us a ge u u e e o s owa ds moni o ing he high leaching isk pe iods. Pes icides o pa icula conce n in he no he n zone The coun ies in he no he n zone ha e no common agenda as o wha pes icides a e o pa icula conce n. A e iew o exis ing da a on pes icide use, moni o ing esul s, in o ma ion on oxici y o aqua ic and e es ial o ganisms, and en i on- men al a e cha ac e is ics unde no he n zone condi ions is a p e equisi e o iden i y common challenges wi hin he zone. The ollowing c i e ia o de ining pes icides o conce n we e discussed a he wo kshop: (1) ex ensi e use; (2) equen de ec ions in moni o ing p og ams; (3) oxici y o aqua ic and/o e es ial o ganisms; (4) measu ed en i onmen al con- cen a ions (MECs) abo e (no) e ec concen a ions (P(N)ECs); (5) cumula i e isk assessmen and compounds o pa icula conce n wi h ega d o mix u e oxici y (e.g., syne gis s); and (6) slow deg ada ion in colde clima es and no he n soils. In addi ion o he adi ional ocus on he less so bed and/o mo e mobile compounds, u he a en ion should be gi en o s ongly so bed pes icides. G ea e a en- ion should also be paid o au umn-applied pes icides and pes icide me aboli es in ligh o he challenges caused by a changing clima e, such as al e ed p ecipi a ion pa e ns (e.g., mo e equen hea y au umn ain) and ising empe a u es (e.g., expec ed as e deg ada ion a es) (Kjells öm e al. 2011). Mo eo e , he need o apply pes icides is inc easing as a esul o imp o ed o e win e ing condi ions o cu en weeds and plan pes s and pa hogens, and also because a change in clima e migh c ea e a o able condi ions o new and in asi e species o ha ype in he no he n zone (e.g., Saikkonen e al. 2012). Ka winkel e al. (2011) simula ed po en ial exposu e o insec icides in 25 EU coun ies unde he clima e condi ions in 1990 and 2090, and he da a ob ained indica ed he mos p onounced inc ease in ecological isk in Finland and he Bal ic coun ies. Pes icide leaching o g oundwa e and occu ence in soil The Danish pes icide leaching assessmen p og am uses esul s om con olled leaching expe imen s a ixed ields udysi es,andup o2014i assembledda aon 50 pes icides (B üsch e al. 2015). O hese 50, only 16 showed no leaching a all and 18 we e iden i ied as pes icides o conce n. Also, 16 o he 50 pes icides we e obse ed o be leached a concen a ions >0.1 μg/L, and his g oup included he he bicides me ibuzin, imsul u on, e bu hylazine, and bi enox, and he ungicide me alaxyl-M. The leaching assessmen esul s also indica e challenges ega ding s ongly so bing pes icides ha a e mainly anspo ed h ough mac opo es (e.g., glyphosa e and di lu enican) and wi h espec o he long- e m leaching o pes icide me abo- li es (e.g., me alaxyl me aboli e CGA 108906, luazi op- p-bu yl me aboli e TFMP, desamino-dike o, and dike o- me ibuzin). The ho ough and consis en assessmen o pes icide leaching ha is being conduc ed in Denma k should be supplemen ed by compa able esul s om he o he coun ies in he no he n zone o enable a zonal e alu- a ion o he pes icides o conce n. Cu en soil moni o - ing esul s om Es onia show ha he mos equen ly de ec ed esidues a e ebuconazole and epoxiconazole o ungicides, i lua aline and glyphosa e o he bi- cides, and DDT (banned in 1997) o insec icides. In No way, da a on pes icides in g oundwa e a e e y limi ed. Howe e , sc eening sampling has e ealed occu ence o pes icides in local d inking wa e wells in shallow g oundwa e sys ems benea h ag icul u al land (Rose h 2013), wi h he he bicides ben azon, a azine (banned), and MCPA, he ungicide me alaxyl, and he me aboli e BAM de ec ed mos o en, in some cases a le els o >0.1 μg/L. A ho ough assessmen o pes i- cides e ealed esidues o se e al pes icides in g ound- wa e in an a ea wi h lu ial deposi s o sand wi h a op laye o sil and sandy sil and in ensi e cul i a ion o po a oes and ce eals (K æ ne e al. 2014); he he bi- cides ben azon and MCPA, he ungicide me alaxyl, and he me aboli es ETU and BAM we e ound a concen- a ions abo e 0.1 μg/L. In La ia, no esea ch is cu en ly being conduc ed o ad- d ess leaching o pes icides om ag icul u al a eas in o wa e - ways and soil. This si ua ion exis s despi e he ac ha he mos in ensi e a ming is done in a eas wi h soils ha a e ulne able o leaching, and hal o he na ional ce eal and ape seed yield is ob ained in hese a eas (Jansons e al. 2011). Fu he mo e, pes icide use s a is ics illus a e he cen al ole o he he bicides employed in ag icul u al p oduc ion in La ia and also unde line he need o u he s udies o he en i onmen al a e o hese subs ances unde he condi ions p e ailing in his coun y (Cen al S a is ical Bu eau o La ia 2015). In Finland, he pes icides mos equen ly de ec ed in g oundwa e ha e been iazine he bicides and hei me abo- li es, and he dichlobenil me aboli e BAM. Some d inking wa e sou ces ha e been closed du ing he las decade, be- cause pes icide concen a ions ha e exceeded he egula o y limi s (0.1 μg/L o single subs ances o 0.5 μg/L o he sum o all pes icides). En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 15783 Pes icide anspo h ough uno and d ainage o su ace wa e In Sweden, su ace wa e moni o ing da a show ha he bi- cides a e ound mo e equen ly han ungicides and insec i- cides (Linds öm e al. 2015). The subs ances ha exceeded he wa e quali y objec i es mos o en du ing he pe iod 2002–2012 included he ollowing: di lu enican, picoxys obin ( ungicide), isop o u on, MCPA, e bu hylazin (banned), me ibuzin, me azachlo , iaclop id (insec icide), and imidaclop id (insec icide). Pes icide use s a is ics and moni o ing in Es onia also sug- ges ha he bicides cons i u e he mos ele an g oup o com- pounds o in-dep h s udies. Pes icide use in Es onian ag icul- u e is domina ed by he bicides, wi h glyphosa e and MCPA being he mos widely applied, ep esen ing abou 65 and 20 %, espec i ely, o he o al sales o he bicide ac i e ing e- dien s (S a is ics Es onia 2012). The Es onian moni o ing e- sul s show ha pes icides in gene al ha e seldom been ound in su ace and g oundwa e s, bu glyphosa e and AMPA ha e been de ec ed on se e al occasions. Pes icide moni o ing in Denma k also includes a p og am ocused on he aqua ic en i onmen (NOVANA) (Bou up e al. 2015), which includes g oundwa e wells, su ace and ma ine wa e s, and p ecipi a ion. Since he adop ion o he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e (2000/60/EC), his p og am has mainly a ge ed he de ined p io i y subs ances and o a much lesse deg ee analyzed pes icides ha a e cu en ly in use. The he bicides BAM (me aboli e o he banned he bicide diclobenil), glyphosa e, and MCPA a e he subs ances de ec - ed mos equen ly in s eam wa e (Bou up e al. 2015). In Finland, he numbe o compounds de ec ed has in- c eased wi h an inc easing numbe o compounds analyzed ( om 98 o 218 o e he pe iod 2004–2014). MCPA and dichlo p op-P a e he pes icides ound mos o en in su ace wa e moni o ing, al hough he le els eco ded ha e no been highe han he EQS alues. Howe e , concen a ions o some low-dose sul onylu eas (e.g., iasul u ons) and some old and banned insec icides ha e mo e equen ly exceeded hei sug- ges ed EQS alues (e.g., Ka jalainen e al. 2014). Moni o ing esul s (1995–2012) om small ag icul u al s eams in No way show ha he mobile he bicides MCPA and ben azone a e he subs ances ound mos equen ly, bu he he bicide me ibuzin is mos o en de ec ed abo e concen- a ions ha migh ha e a nega i e e ec on aqua ic o ganisms (S en ød 2015). This moni o ing also demons a es in ensi ied use o ungicides (e.g., p o hioconazole o con ol Fusa ium head bligh in ce eal), as well mo e equen de ec ions o hese subs ances, especially in yea s wi h inc eased p essu e om ungal diseases and equen in ense ain all e en s du - ing he sp aying season. Po en ial p oblems connec ed wi h insec icide use a e di icul o disce n by moni o ing, because he limi s o quan i ica ion o he analy ical me hods applied a e o en 100- old highe han he P(N)ECs in he aqua ic en i onmen . Ne e heless, some challenges ha e been ob- se ed o be connec ed wi h use o he insec icide imidaclop id o coa ing po a o ube s (S en ød 2015)andin g eenhouse p oduc ion (Rose h 2012). Inc easing he a ea unde low- illage p ac ices leads o mo e widesp ead use o he he bicide glyphosa e o con ol weeds, bu his subs ance is no included in all he s eam wa e -moni o ing p og ams in he no he n zone. Moni o ing esul s o he au umn and win e pe iods a e especially sca ce, which is pa icula ly dis u bing conside ing ha glyphosa e is applied on au umn s ubble ields in ce eal c opping. This b ie o e iew shows ha he no he n zone collabo- a ion will enable iden i ica ion o pes icides o conce n in se e al en i onmen al compa men s (e.g., g oundwa e , su - ace wa e , and soil), as well as in he a ious ag icul u al p ac ices. Howe e , hese obse a ions also illus a e he need o inc eased ha moniza ion o moni o ing p og ams o acil- i a e compa ison o esul s and also o pinpoin common pes- icides o conce n wi hin he zone. Pes icides in sedimen s The moni o ing p og ams in he no he n zone a e ocused p edominan ly on pes icides ound in wa e samples, which by na u e a e hyd ophilic subs ances, and much less in e es is gi en o hyd ophobic pes icides so bed o soils and sedimen s. In Sweden (Linds öm e al. 2015) and in Finland (unpub- lished da a), ewe compounds ha e been analyzed in sedi- men samples han in wa e samples, and he numbe o com- pounds ac ually de ec ed is e en lowe . Mos he bicides ha e so p ion coe icien s (Koc) well below 400 mL/g, bu mos ungicides and insec icides ha e Koc alues abo e 400 and a e mo e o less hyd ophobic. I is possible ha pes icides so bed o soil pa icles and sedimen s a e mo e pe sis en in he no he n zone due o he cold clima es, and his issue should be gi en u he a en ion. Knowledge gaps and p oposed measu es De ine no he n zone condi ions o imp o e a e and isk assessmen o pes icides The di ision o Eu ope in o a sou he n, a cen al, and a no h- e n zone unde he cu en pes icide egula ions has ad an- ages (e.g., a mo e e icien app o al p ocess), bu un o u- na ely i also has some d awbacks. The de elopmen and co- o dina ion o pes icide isk assessmen p ocedu es o he EU and associa ed coun ies unde he o me EU pes icide egu- la ions (Council Di ec i e 91/414/EEC) esul ed in a ange o selec ed and ecommended models and scena ios (Fig. 2) (FOCUS 2000,2001). Howe e , inasmuch as bo h he pes i- cide indus y and Eu opean ag icul u e a e o a la ge ex en 15784 En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 loca ed in he coun ies in he cen al and sou he n zones, i is plausible ha he speci ic condi ions in he no he n zone a e no su icien ly ep esen ed in he common EU models and scena ios o allow adequa e pes icide isk assessmen in he no he n zone coun ies. Mo e wo k is needed o con i m he capaci y o he cu en FOCUS scena ios o assessing pes icide a e in he no he n zone coun ies. To accomplish his ask, i will be necessa y o explici ly iden i y he aspec s ha de ine he no he n zone wi h espec o he en i onmen al ac o s ha go e n he a e o pes icides in he en i onmen (e.g., empe a u e, ligh , ain- all in ensi y, snow/ os , and soil), and o e alua e his de i- ni ion in compa ison wi h he cu en ly employed EU scena - ios and endpoin s. Wi hin he no he n zone, he e is consid- e able di e si y in soil and wea he condi ions, as well as in he p edominan c opping p ac ices and en i onmen al con- ce ns ela ed o ag icul u al ac i i ies. P e ious a emp s o speci y No dic e e ence soils (Tibe g 1998) esul edin he selec ion and desc ip ion o 13 di e en soils om Denma k, Finland, No way, and Sweden, which we e assumed o ep e- sen he ollowing: (1) soils co e ing a la ge ac ion o he No dic a ea; (2) soils om he di e en clima ic egions; and (3) en i onmen ally sensi i e soils. These e o s equi e e i- sion and should include he Bal ic coun ies o ensu e ha p ope conside a ion is gi en o he common and a ying soil p ope ies wi hin he no he n zone. In he con ex o es ima - ing he a e o c op p o ec ion chemicals, he ocus should be on ep esen a i e soil scena ios o he ag icul u al a ea in he no he n zone coun ies. The e a e se e al collabo a i e ac i i ies ha should be ini ia ed o imp o e and ha monize a e and isk assessmen o pes icides in he no he n zone: (1) e-e alua e exis ing da a om ield expe imen s ocusing on usabili y in a egula o y con ex ; (2) imp o e exis ing models and inc ease hei usabil- i y o assessmen s o mul iple me aboli es, low applica ion a es, and he e ec s o win e - ela ed p ocesses (e.g., soil eezing and hawing); (3) de elop ha monized FOCUS su - ace uno and g oundwa e leaching scena ios adap ed o no he n zone condi ions; (4) in es iga e he sui abili y o EQS alues as a measu e o oxici y measu es and, when possible, es ablish ha monized EQS alues o pes icides and me aboli es in he no he n zone; (5) de ine he en i on- men al condi ions in he no he n zone and analyze he ep e- sen a i eness o Eu opean (cen al/sou he n zone) condi ions and modeling pa ame e s. Mi iga ion measu es in he no he n zone coun ies The use o a ailable isk mi iga ion measu es should be inc eased wi hin all he no he n zone coun ies, and his should include echnical app oaches such as d i - educing and o he mi iga ion s a egies (e.g., Reichenbe ge e al. 2007; A idsson e al. 2011). Pes icide uno mi iga ion achie ed wi h ege a ed bu - e s ips is gene ally conside ed e ec i e (Sy e sen and Bechmann 2004;A o ae al.2010;Dunne al.2011), al hough he impac o his app oach has been shown o a y g ea ly (Reichenbe ge e al. 2007), assumingly due o si e-speci ic condi ions. Topog aphy in luences he anspo o pes icides om soil o wa e , and he e is a lack o knowledge ega ding how his a ec s he e - icacy o measu es such as g assed bu e s ips (Tang e al. 2012). This issue is impo an in coun ies like No way ha has a la ge p opo ion o ag icul u al a eas on ela i ely s eep slopes, whe e use o bu e s ips migh be less success ul han in la a eas. Thus, mo e de ailed s udies a e needed o iden i y any simila i ies and di e ences wi hin he zone, and hese in es iga ions should include modeling e o s o assess he e icacy o ege a ed il e s ips in he no he n zone coun ies (i.e., VFSMOD; Muñoz-Ca pena e al. 1999). Acco ding o moni o ing esul s, de ec ions o pes i- cide esidues in he en i onmen la gely e lec use pa - e ns, which unde lines he impo ance o good ag icul- u al p ac ices (e.g., dosage and iming). Hence, guid- ance ools and s ewa dship ep esen u he essen ial app oaches o inc ease he sus ainabili y o pes icide use by aising awa eness among a me s. Exis ing web- Jokioinen Hambu g Okehamp on Châ eaudun K emsmüns e Piacenza Se illa Thi a Po o D1 D4 D2 D5 D6 R3 R1 R4 R2 D3 Fig. 2 Loca ion o FOCUS g oundwa e (bulle ) and su ace wa e (black down-poin ing iangle =d ainage,inc emen = uno ) scena ios. Adap ed om FOCUS 2000,2001 En i on Sci Pollu Res (2016) 23:15779–15788 15785 based esou ces designed o p omo e in eg a ed pes manage- men (IPM) and sus ainable pes icide use in he no he n zone include he ollowing: he Swedish online guidance ool aimed a educing he en i onmen al impac s om ag icul u e (G eppa Nä ingen;www.g eppa.nu), wi h c op p o ec ion and pes icide use as cen al opics; he No wegian o ecas sys em o plan diseases, pes s, and weeds (VIPS; www. ips-landb uk. no); he Danish decision suppo sys em o weed managemen (Plan e æ n Online; ipmdss.dk); he Finnish online in o ma ion abou c op p o ec ion and o ecas s o he occu ence o selec ed pes s (Kaspe ;h ps://po al.m . i/po al/page/po al/kaspe ).Toes ablishIPMme hods adap ed o no he n zone condi ions, e o s should be made o u he de elop he collabo a ion be ween he coun ies in his zone o achie e imp o ed pes o ecas ing, p ecision a ming ools, and decision suppo sys ems o in eg a ed pes managemen and sus ainable pes icide use. Conclusions, ecommenda ions, and ou look The e is a need o imp o e and ha monize a e and isk as- sessmen o pes icides in he no he n zone using in o ma ion de i ed om knowledge exchange be ween esea che s. The No dic-Bal ic Pes icide Fa e Wo kshop highligh ed he many possibili ies ha a e wi hin each. The main conclusion d awn om he wo kshop discussions was he need o iden i y he speci ic en i onmen al condi ions in he no he n zone and o asce ain how his pic u e can be ha monized in ( egula o y) pes icide a e modeling. Bo h he wea he condi ions (e.g., empe a u e, ligh , ain all in ensi y, snow/ os ) and soil con- di ions (e.g., soil ype, eezing/ hawing o soil) a y ma kedly be ween di e en a eas wi hin he no he n zone. Fu he mo e, he ag icul u al p ac ices in he No dic and Bal ic coun ies di e ma kedly, being in luenced no only by opog aphy and soil and wea he condi ions, bu also by sociocul u al condi ions and poli ical decisions. Success ul esea ch and egula o y collabo a ion wi hin he no he n zone is essen ial o ensu e ha he speci ic condi ions in his egion a e adequa ely add essed unde he cu en Eu opean pes icide egula ions. The No dic-Bal ic pes icide a e ne wo k should p opose collabo a i e p ojec s ha en ail egula o y moni o - ing and esea ch o achie e he ollowing: &De ine no he n zone en i onmen al condi ions and assess he ep esen a i eness o Eu opean (i.e., cen al and sou h- e n zones) condi ions and modeling pa ame e s. &Imp o e exis ing models and inc ease hei usabili y in assessing mul iple me aboli es, low applica ion a es, and he e ec s o win e - ela ed p ocesses (soil eezing and hawing). &Re iew exis ing da a om ield expe imen s o assess us- abili y in a egula o y con ex . &De elop ha monized FOCUS su ace uno and g oundwa- e leaching scena ios adap ed o no he n zone condi ions. &De e mine he sui abili y o EQS alues as a measu e o oxici y and de elop ha monized EQS alues o pes i- cides and me aboli es in he no he n zone. &Es ablish a join web in o ma ion pla o m o acili a e dissemina ion and exchange o esea ch and egula o y knowledge on pes icides and he a e o hese subs ances in he no he n zone. I is impe a i e o ensu e a con inued ocus on hese issues a ained h ough he egula o y no he n zone collabo a ion. Fu he mo e, he No dic-Bal ic pes icide a e ne wo k should p opose a p ocedu e ou lining how pes icides o conce n wi hin he zone a e o be iden i ied and o be subjec ed o u he ac ions by he no he n zone egula o y wo k g oup. This p o- cedu e should include moni o ing o chemical s a us and biodi- e si y (su ace wa e ) and also assessmen o leaching (unsa - u a ed zone, d ainage, and g oundwa e ). These asks should be conduc ed on a selec ion o a ms a e app o al o new pes i- cides and heo e ical oxici y analysis, ollowed by mo e spe- ci ic labo a o y and ield s udies and isk assessmen by model- ing a e iden i ying pes icides o conce n. The e mus be ag ee- men ega ding bo h h eshold alues (su ace and g oundwa e concen a ions and oxici y assessmen esul s) and he equen- cy o su passing de ined h esholds ha can be accep ed as quali ica ion o mo e de ailed s udies. 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