Engaging farmers in climate change adaptation planning: Assessing intercropping as a means to support farm adaptive capacity

ag icul u e A icle Engaging Fa me s in Clima e Change Adap a ion Planning: Assessing In e c opping as a Means o Suppo Fa m Adap i e Capaci y Sa i J Himanen 1,*, Hanna Mäkinen 2, Ka oliina Rimhanen 3and Rii a Sa ikko 1 1 Ecological C op Science, Na u al Resou ces and Biop oduc ion, Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), Lönn o inka u 5, Mikkeli FI-50100, Finland; [email p o ec ed] 2Ag oecology, Na u al Resou ces and Biop oduc ion, Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), Jokiniemenkuja 1, Van aa FI-01300, Finland; [email p o ec ed] 3Ag oecology, Na u al Resou ces and Biop oduc ion, Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), La oka anonkaa i 9, Helsinki FI-00790, Finland; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +35-829-532-6132 Academic Edi o s: Annelie Holzkämpe and Sibylle S öckli Recei ed: 30 Ma ch 2016; Accep ed: 19 July 2016; Published: 29 July 2016 Abs ac : Ag icul u e is one o he mos ulne able and adap a ion-p one sou ces o li elihood acing clima e change. Join adap a ion planning by a me s and esea che s can help de elop p ac ically easible and en i onmen ally and economically sound adap a ion ac ions as well as encou age he p oac i e building o a m adap i e capaci y. He e, he pe cep ions o Finnish a me s and u al s akeholde s ega ding in e c opping, he cul i a ion o wo o mo e c op geno ypes oge he in ime and space, as a means o p epa e o clima e change, we e collec ed in an open wo kshop. Ou aim was o iden i y he po en ials and challenges associa ed wi h in e c opping, i s ole as an adap a ion s a egy, and in a m adap i e capaci y. Quali a i e analysis e ealed be e yield secu i y, inc eased nu ien and p o ein sel -su iciency, soil conse a ion and main enance, educed pa hogen p essu e and egula ion o wa e dynamics as he main pe cei ed po en ials o in e c opping. Po en ials ela ing o he a m economy and en i onmen we e also ecognized. The main challenges associa ed wi h in e c opping we e ela ed o he lack o in o ma ion on c op a ie y pe o mance and op imal yielding in mix u es, indus y and policy equi emen s o seed pu i y, mo e complica ed c op managemen and ha es ing, and he economic isks associa ed wi h expe imen ing wi h no el mix u es. Ni ogen- ixing legumes; deep- oo ed species, such as luce ne (Medicago sa i a L.); special c ops, such as he bs in o age mix u es; and au umn-sown win e oilseeds and ce eals we e highligh ed as he mos p omising in e c ops. Because he ecognized po en ials ela e o he sa egua ding o ield c opping om an icipa ed clima e change and he associa ed wea he a iabili y, we conclude ha in e c opping can se e as one adap a ion s a egy o s eng hen he adap i e capaci y o Finnish a ms. Howe e , assu ing ma ke s and policies ha allow he de elopmen o in e c opping, pe o ming expe imen s o assess he bene i s and implemen op ions in p ac ice, and p o iding a me s and a m ad iso s wi h mo e knowledge on he me hod ep esen he c i ical p e equisi es o he b oade adop ion o in e c opping. Keywo ds: adap a ion planning; adap i e capaci y; clima e change; ecological in ensi ica ion; in e c opping; legumes; yield secu i y 1. In oduc ion Ag icul u e is a majo land use, using app oxima ely 38% o he global land a ea [ 1 ]. Clima e change impac s ag icul u e by he need o de elop exis ing p ac ices, including ield c opping, o minimize g eenhouse gas emissions and hus mee he mi iga ion a ge s o clima e change [ 2 ]. Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34; doi:10.3390/ag icul u e6030034 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 2 o 13 Fa me s mus adap o he impac s o clima e change o secu e su icien ood p oduc ion o he g owing wo ld popula ion [ 3 ]. Sus ainable in ensi ica ion, i.e., inc easing p oduc i i y om exis ing ag icul u al lands while minimizing he nega i e en i onmen al e ec s and ensu ing he u u e needs o ood p oduc ion, has been p oposed as a cen al means o es ic u he land clea ing o ag icul u e and ans o m ag icul u e and ood sys ems o ope a e in a mo e sus ainable way [ 4 ]. Bo h clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion ela e o he main esou ces used in ag icul u e: land, ca bon and ni ogen, wa e and ene gy, which p o ide good po en ial o syne gism in he solu ions [ 5 ]. De eloping ‘clima e-sma ’ solu ions o ag icul u e e e s o adop ing p ac ices ha bene i bo h mi iga ion and adap a ion, while ensu ing he p oduc i i y and esilience o a ming, including he economic aspec s [ 6 ]. Campbell e al. [ 7 ] s a e sus ainable in ensi ica ion o be c ucial o bo h mi iga ion and adap a ion ac ions, wi h “all cases o clima e sma ag icul u e in a iably u ning ou o be cases o sus ainable in ensi ica ion”. Imp o ing ag icul u al soil quali y and ca bon s o age ia c op di e si ica ion, impo an o mi iga ion, adap a ion and p oduc i i y, is one example o such a case [8]. While he concep o sus ainable in ensi ica ion ha bou s nume ous ways o achie e clima e-sma ag icul u e, me hod-o ien ed app oaches ha e a isen o guide he ans o ma ions needed in p ac ice. One o hem is ecological in ensi ica ion, which speci ies ha in ensi ica ion is o be achie ed wi h “ he na u al unc ionali ies ha ecosys ems o e ” and by “designing mul i unc ional ag oecosys ems ha a e bo h sus ained by na u e and sus ainable in hei na u e” [ 9 ]. The app oach emphasizes educing he use o ex e nal inpu s such as indus ial e ilize s and pes icides ha u he p essu ize he en i onmen and clima e. I builds on spa io- empo al unc ional di e si ica ion o he ag oecosys em and he combina ion o c op species and ai s ha suppo and make be e use o ecosys em se ices [ 10 ]. Fu he mo e, i emphasizes con ex -speci ic, ac o -ini ia ed, and locally bound solu ions a he han any gene alizable p o ocols [9]. In e c opping ep esen s a wi hin- ield di e si ica ion s a egy ha is based on ecological in ensi ica ion. I e e s o he cul i a ion o wo o mo e c ops oge he in ime and space, and i is an ancien p ac ice o c opping ha aims o maximize p oduc i i y pe land a ea using only ew ex e nal inpu s [ 11 ]. The me hod allows o designing local geno ype combina ions and in e c opping ypes (mixed, elay, s ip o ow) o a ge a ious goals, which makes he me hod in e es ing o be de eloped and employed mo e as a means o sus ainable ag icul u e. O e yielding pe land a ea is one o he o en- epo ed bene i s o in e c opping, and i is po en ia ed by he enhanced u iliza ion o g ow h esou ces: g owing space, wa e , nu ien s and ligh [ 11 ]. Di e se c op geno ypes compe e less wi h each o he han iden ical geno ypes. Le e aging ecosys em se ices such as he biological ixa ion o ni ogen [ 12 ] and acili a i e in e ac ions such as he associa ional esis ance o pes s and pa hogens [ 13 ] educes he use o ag ochemicals in in e c opping. Mixing geno ypes may also s abilize yields [14] and hus con ibu e o ood and eed secu i y. Yield ad an age om in e c opping has o en been no ed o be highe wi h low le els o ni ogen (e.g., [ 15 ]) o phospho us [ 16 ]. Unde high ni ogen e iliza ion, he yield gains om in e c opping can be negligible (e.g., [ 15 ]), making he me hod less a ac i e. The ype o in e c opping, op imal densi ies o he in e c ops and managemen need o be adjus ed case by case [ 17 ] because low complemen a i y can lead o a lack o a ge ed, enhanced u iliza ion o he g ow h esou ces by in e c opping [ 18 ]. Facili a i e and compensa o y in e ac ions be ween plan s can domina e a high abio ic s ess (e.g., [ 19 ]), u he suppo ing he use o in e c opping as a p oac i e adap a ion ac ion o p o ec yields om clima e change-induced challenges. The inc eased p oduc i i y pe ac eage in in e c opping can also con ibu e o highe soil o ganic ma e accumula ion and ca bon seques a ion [ 8 ], which is impo an o g eenhouse gas mi iga ion in ag icul u e in low-ca bon soils. Thus, he po en ial o achie e mul iple bene i s ha ela e o bo h he mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e change and gene al isk a e sion ia di e si ica ion makes in e c opping a good candida e o a clima e-sma c opping p ac ice o be de eloped o use in many locali ies. Howe e , he po en ials and ba ie s o he up ake o no el o ms o in e c opping mus be ecognized i he me hod is o be conside ed o b oade use in mode n, Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 3 o 13 monocul u e-domina ed ag icul u e. Raising awa eness and inc easing communica ion on he me hod among a me s, esea che s, a m ad iso s and o he u al s akeholde s can help assess he associa ed bene i s and isks and encou age he de elopmen o inno a i e in e c opping solu ions [20]. Fa me s in he no he n la i udes, such as in Finland, a e p edic ed o ace p og essi e clima e change h ough a wa ming and leng hening g owing season [ 21 ], educed snow co e ime [ 22 ], highe p ecipi a ion [ 23 ], and po en ially inc easing wea he a iabili y and ex emes such as windiness, hea y ains and wa m spells [ 24 ]. The main ield c ops in Finland a y in hei yield esponses o wea he : sp ing ce eals ha e shown he mos sensi i i y o d ough and ele a ed empe a u es, apeseeds o pes s and high empe a u e episodes, and o age and win e c ops o mild- o-cold shi s o e win e [ 25 ]. The po en ial impac o highe a iabili y in wea he on c op yields [ 26 ] along wi h inc easing pes isks upon wa ming and he yield gains po en ia ed by longe g owing seasons [ 27 ] emphasize he p oac i e adap a ion and adap i e capaci y o a me s. Adap a ions s em om a m adap i e capaci y [ 28 ]: he building o esou ce ulness, social capi al such as knowledge and ne wo ks, and he abili y o ac p oac i ely [ 29 , 30 ]. Recognizing p ac ically easible and ecologically, socially and economically sus ainable means o s eng hen he adap i e capaci y o a ms is c i ical o enhancing hei abili y o cope wi h he ad e se impac s b ough abou by clima e change and he associa ed changes in he economy, policies and ma ke s [ 3 ]. I is a challenge bo h o esea ch o ecognize how o suppo adap a ion planning o a me s and o a me s o e alua e he p os and cons associa ed wi h he up ake o each adap a ion ac ion in he con ex o a m ope a ions and he long- e m goals o a m de elopmen . In addi ion, he decisions and ac ions o a me s ul ima ely decide how e ec i ely clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion ac ions a e implemen ed in ag icul u e; hus, he pa icipa o y planning o p oac i e adap a ion s a egies is c ucial [ 31 ]. The implemen a ion o no el p ac ices such as in e c opping equi es su icien knowledge a use [ 32 ] and he belie abou he bene i s clea ly exceeding he po en ial isks associa ed wi h al e ing he amilia p ac ices used. Many a ge ed adap a ion ac ions ocus on a ce ain ex e nal p essu e and hen on in es ing in speci ic solu ions, such as echnology (i iga ion sys ems, machine y), in as uc u e (bioene gy, li es ock housing) o secu ing s uc u es (wa e egula ion). Howe e , case s udies sugges ha clima e-sma solu ions ela ed o soil, wa e , nu ien and yield main enance could be e ec i e and implemen ed ela i ely easily by employing sys em unde s anding and ag oecological knowledge and de eloping in- a m c opping p ac ices and managemen [ 6 , 7 ]. A u he bene i o assessing in e c opping as such a clima e-sma solu ion is ha he me hod can be de eloped o sui a ious ypes o a ms, and knowledge is he main asse needed o ad ancing [ 9 ]. Employing such me hods a he han mo e in ensi e echnology o o he inpu -based s a egies a oids he c ea ion o an addi ional bu den on he en i onmen . In his s udy, we aimed o ga he pe cep ions o Finnish a me s and u al s akeholde s on he main po en ials and challenges associa ed wi h using in e c opping o ield c ops, iden i y he mos p omising in e c ops in no he n ag icul u e, and de e mine he oles o ac o s in ad ancing in e c opping. Ou u he objec i e was o engage a me s and u al s akeholde s in assessing and de eloping adap a ion s a egies o ag icul u e o ace clima e change, wi h an emphasis on he ole o in e c opping in building he adap i e capaci y o a ms and in de eloping mul i-bene i clima e-sma ac ions. In Finland, mixing o age c ops (g asses and legumes) and unde sowing ce eals wi h pe ennial g asses a e he mos common o ms o in e c opping o da e; meanwhile, o he ypes o in e c opping and mul i-species o cul i a - ich o age mix u es migh help mee a ious p oduc ion goals, including p epa ing o clima e change. To ou knowledge, he e a e no ea lie s udies on he pe cep ions and mo i a ions o a me s on he use o in e c opping and whe he i migh con ibu e o clima e change adap a ion in Finland. Thus, aising awa eness on how o u ilize and design in e c opping migh encou age he de elopmen o in e c opping in p ac ice. The ollowing esea ch ques ions we e add essed: (1) wha a e he po en ials ecognized o in e c opping as one adap a ion s a egy o build a be e adap i e capaci y o Finnish a ms; (2) wha a e he mos p omising in e c ops o use in Finland; and (3) wha a e he challenges o he implemen a ion o in e c opping as an adap a ion Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 4 o 13 s a egy in p ac ice in Finland? Ou app oach o using an ac o wo kshop o add ess hese ques ions aimed o allow o collec i e lea ning and he co-c ea ion o knowledge, which is sui ed well o clima e change adap a ion planning [33]. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods The da a o he s udy we e collec ed in an open wo kshop held in No embe 2013 in Hui inen, sou hwes Finland, as pa o a wide wo kshop se ies a anged by a Finnish na ional communica ion p ojec on clima e change (Clima e change and coun yside) a ge ed a a me s and o he u al s akeholde s. The wo kshop had he i le o “Yield and Fa ming Secu i y ia In e c opping Now and in he Fu u e”, and i comp ised six in i ed sho p esen a ions add essing di e en aspec s o in e c opping: (1) in oduc ion on in e c opping in gene al and i s po en ial in clima e change isk a e sion; (2) o age mix u es; (3) in e c opping in enhancing soil main enance and he use o g ow h esou ces; (4) a ailabili y o seed mix u es; (5) ma ke ing o mix u es; and (6) a me expe iences o in e c opping in p ac ice. They se ed o p o ide gene al in o ma ion on he me hod and we e hen ollowed by a acili a ed wo kshop discussion. In e c opping was es ic ed in he wo kshop o ield c op and c op a ie y mix u es, i.e., ag o o es y was excluded. The discussions add essed o age mix u es, legumes, ce eals, oilseeds and special c ops in in e c opping, unde sown c ops and g een manu e, which e lec he main ypes o ield c opping in Finland and hus he mos amilia o ms o in e c opping o he pa icipan s. A o al o 30 people, o which 13 we e a me s, pa icipa ed in he wo kshop. O he pa icipan s we e o ice s ( ou people), ep esen a i es o business (4), esea che s (3), a m ad iso s (2), u al de elope s (2), a m school eache s (1) and s uden s (1). Some o he pa icipan s had double oles, e.g., ha ing expe ience in bo h esea ch and ad ising o a ming as a second sou ce o li elihood. Twen y o he pa icipan s we e male, and en we e emale. Fou esea che s ac ed as wo kshop acili a o s. The g oup discussion was acili a ed using a h ee-s ep me–we–us me hod [ 34 ]. The me hod is a combina ion o he nominal g oup discussion echnique and he b ains o ming echnique [ 35 , 36 ]. The me hod assu es ac i e pa icipa ion by all (e en hose no keen o ac i ely pa icipa e in join discussions) because e e yone i s w i es down hei opinions on he gi en ques ions indi idually (pa “me”, ca. 5 min ime allo ed o his) ( o he indi idual w i ing me hod see [ 37 ]). These opinions we e hen discussed in andomly o med, small buzz g oups o wo o h ee people (pa “we”, ci ca 5–10 min), and he ideas conside ed mos impo an we e hen epo ed one g oup a a ime o allow o join discussion among all wo kshop pa icipan s (pa “us”, leng h ci ca 40 min) ( o buzz g oup me hod see, e.g., [ 38 ]). In pa “us”, sugges ions we e also w i en in a lip cha o allow e e yone o see and conside hei impo ance along wi h he discussions. The dialogue allowed o ins an eedback and he aising o no el, opposi e o suppo ing pe spec i es. S ep-wise sa u a ion o iews o en ollows. Because he wo kshop pa icipan s we e in oduced o he in e c opping me hod by he in oduc o y p esen a ions, he ou come gained p esen s he esul s o he wo kshop as a g oup communica ion p ocess a he han a collec ion o indi idual opinions. The ollowing ques ions we e posed o he wo kshop pa icipan s: 1. Wha po en ials and challenges do you see o using in e c opping in u u e a ming? 2. Which c ops and ai s a e he mos p omising o use in in e c opping? 3. Who should ac and how o suppo wide up ake o in e c opping? The “us” pa discussions we e eco ded and ansc ibed o acili a e quali a i e analysis o he pe cep ions. All men ioned po en ials and sugges ed challenges, he mos p omising in e c ops and ai s, and he key ac o s and ac ions o ad ancing in e c opping we e lis ed. In he quali a i e analysis, hese po en ials and challenges we e u he o ganized unde hemes ela ed o p oduc ion, a m economy, building social capi al, and en i onmen . The wo kshop indings a e discussed in ela ion o he pe cei ed bene i s and es ic ions o using an in e c opping as epo ed in ea lie s udies, and e lec ing he ope a ing en i onmen o Finland, exempli ying no he n Eu opean mode n ag icul u e. Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 5 o 13 3. Resul s 3.1. Po en ials and Challenges o In e c opping in Finland Pe cei ed po en ials o using in e c opping ela ed mos ly o c op p oduc ion and a m economy, wi h addi ional social and en i onmen al aspec s (Figu e 1). In e c opping was ega ded as suppo ing sel -su iciency o p o ein and nu ien s, imp o ing soil quali y and wa e egula ion, ad ancing no el geno ypes and allowing he educed use o ex e nal inpu s. The po en ial o educe wo kload was iden i ied o ce ain ypes o in e c opping, e.g., co e c opping. Ag icul u e 2016, 6, 34 5 o 13 3.1. Po en ials and Challenges o In e c opping in Finland Pe cei ed po en ials o using in e c opping ela ed mos ly o c op p oduc ion and a m economy, wi h addi ional social and en i onmen al aspec s (Figu e 1). In e c opping was ega ded as suppo ing sel -su iciency o p o ein and nu ien s, imp o ing soil quali y and wa e egula ion, ad ancing no el geno ypes and allowing he educed use o ex e nal inpu s. The po en ial o educe wo kload was iden i ied o ce ain ypes o in e c opping, e.g., co e c opping. As pe cei ed challenges o he use o in e c opping, nume ous challenges ela ed o p oduc ion, ma ke s and policy, and knowledge gaps we e iden i ied (Figu e 2). Mo e demanding c op managemen and inc easing wo kload o sepa a ing seeds o g ain use we e ega ded as he likely challenges in he use o mixed in e c opping. Suppo o he adop ion o in e c opping is also equi ed h ough be e knowledge on he op imal mix u es o speci ic p oduc ion goals and local condi ions and he sui abili y o ma ke s and policy. Figu e 1. The main ecognized po en ials o using in e c opping o he a m, a m communi y and he en i onmen based on he ac o wo kshop. Figu e 2. The main ecognized challenges o using in e c opping a he a m and he ope a ional en i onmen based on he ac o wo kshop. Figu e 1. The main ecognized po en ials o using in e c opping o he a m, a m communi y and he en i onmen based on he ac o wo kshop. As pe cei ed challenges o he use o in e c opping, nume ous challenges ela ed o p oduc ion, ma ke s and policy, and knowledge gaps we e iden i ied (Figu e 2). Mo e demanding c op managemen and inc easing wo kload o sepa a ing seeds o g ain use we e ega ded as he likely challenges in he use o mixed in e c opping. Suppo o he adop ion o in e c opping is also equi ed h ough be e knowledge on he op imal mix u es o speci ic p oduc ion goals and local condi ions and he sui abili y o ma ke s and policy. Ag icul u e 2016, 6, 34 5 o 13 3.1. Po en ials and Challenges o In e c opping in Finland Pe cei ed po en ials o using in e c opping ela ed mos ly o c op p oduc ion and a m economy, wi h addi ional social and en i onmen al aspec s (Figu e 1). In e c opping was ega ded as suppo ing sel -su iciency o p o ein and nu ien s, imp o ing soil quali y and wa e egula ion, ad ancing no el geno ypes and allowing he educed use o ex e nal inpu s. The po en ial o educe wo kload was iden i ied o ce ain ypes o in e c opping, e.g., co e c opping. As pe cei ed challenges o he use o in e c opping, nume ous challenges ela ed o p oduc ion, ma ke s and policy, and knowledge gaps we e iden i ied (Figu e 2). Mo e demanding c op managemen and inc easing wo kload o sepa a ing seeds o g ain use we e ega ded as he likely challenges in he use o mixed in e c opping. Suppo o he adop ion o in e c opping is also equi ed h ough be e knowledge on he op imal mix u es o speci ic p oduc ion goals and local condi ions and he sui abili y o ma ke s and policy. Figu e 1. The main ecognized po en ials o using in e c opping o he a m, a m communi y and he en i onmen based on he ac o wo kshop. Figu e 2. The main ecognized challenges o using in e c opping a he a m and he ope a ional en i onmen based on he ac o wo kshop. Figu e 2. The main ecognized challenges o using in e c opping a he a m and he ope a ional en i onmen based on he ac o wo kshop. Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 6 o 13 3.2. Designing Op imal In e c opping: The Mos P omising In e c ops and T ai s o Use in Finland Fo he mos p omising in e c ops o use in Finland, he pa icipan s lis ed c op species wi h he abili y o biologically ix ni ogen (legumes), especially pea (Pisum sa i um L.), aba bean (Vicia aba L.) and clo e s (T i olium sp.). Clo e s we e emphasized as possessing he addi ional bene i o imp o ing soil s uc u e. G een manu e mix u es including legumes and deep- oo ed species we e also a ed impo an . Ce eal a ms, in pa icula , we e pe cei ed o bene i om ha ing g een manu e mix u es and unde sown c ops o di e si y hei c op o a ions. O he p omising in e c ops we e deep- oo ed c ops ha would imp o e soil s uc u es such as luce ne (Medicago sa i a L.), di e se unde sown g ass-legume mix u es o e ec i ely and complemen a ily ca ch nu ien s, au umn-sown c ops such as win e u nip ape (B assica apa ssp. olei e a L.) and win e ce eals o ully u ilize he leng hening g owing season and p o ide soil co e yea - ound, and special c ops wi h he po en ial o bene icial heal h e ec s on ca le such as he bs and chico y (Cicho ium in ybus L.). The ai s men ioned mo e gene ally as impo an o use in in e c opping included he a o emen ioned symbio ic ni ogen ixa ion, a deep- oo p o ile o imp o e he soil s uc u e, esis ance o plan pa hogens and no el c ops wi h good ma ke alue. The wo kshop pa icipan s ecognized also he po en ial o mix u es o bu e he yield om a ia ions in soil p ope ies (e.g., whi e clo e in mix u es ills compac ed soil pa ches well). In selec ing he in e c ops, he use o yield (whe he o ood, eed o g een manu e) as well as he soil ype we e ound o la gely de e mine he op imal combina ions o geno ypes o mix. The whole chain om ield p oduc ion o ma ke s mus also be conside ed when selec ing he in e c ops. I was discussed ha he goals guiding he selec ion o in e c ops a y by local condi ions and ield plo in annual e sus pe ennial se -ups and ha hey a e impac ed by a m echnical esou ces, mul i-yea planning such as c op o a ions and a m de elopmen goals; case-by-case designs and lea ning-by-expe imen ing in e c opping we e emphasized. 3.3. Ad ancing he Up ake o In e c opping In e c opping was pe cei ed o demand cou age om a me s o conside sowing mul ic ops ins ead o adi ional monocul u es and o allow mo e ag oecosys em di e si y, especially o he mos common monocul u es: ce eal c opping. Fo age mix u es and g een manu es a e easy o adop , and i was discussed ha a me s ha e a high in e es in expe imen ing wi h no el geno ypes and mix u e combina ions. The selec ion o an a ailable ge mplasm, b eeding o good in e c op pe o mance and he a ailabili y o seeds we e ound o be impo an in allowing expe imen a ion wi h mo e di e se mix u es in mixed in e c opping a a ms. Unde sown c ops and g een manu e a e easy o add o he c op o a ions o specialized ce eal a ms, and hei bene i s o he soil s uc u e and en i onmen u he suppo s hei use. In addi ion, using in e c opping o di e si y migh o e no el o ms o collabo a ion be ween plan p oduc ion and li es ock a ms and p o ide no el oppo uni ies o p oduce eeds ock o bioene gy use. Mo e a m-scale esea ch on he di e en in e c op ypes, empo al se -ups and in e c op mix u es ega ding hei bene i s o cons ain s in p ac ice, as well as he sha ing o a me expe iences, we e belie ed o be impo an o ad ancing he adop ion o he me hod mo e b oadly. The in e c opped mixed seed yields would need o ha e equal accep ance as monoc opped yields by he indus y (e.g., abili y o so di e en -sized seeds mechanically) o ensu e he economic easibili y o de eloping he me hod o indus ial c ops. Al e na i ely, echnical solu ions such as using s ip in e c opping migh help sol e hese challenges. Fo be ween- a m eed ma ke s, he me hod was ega ded as al eady ha ing good po en ial. Opinions we e aised ha he policies ha egula e seed mix u es should be suppo i e o hei use in a ious o ms and allow seed supplie s o ma ke no only c op mix u es bu also a ie al mix u es. The di icul y o enabling egula o y au ho i ies o con ol o seed o igin when using mix u es was aised. Fu he mo e, he inabili y o a me s o use hei own seed o nex yea ’s sowing when using mixed in e c opping because he en i onmen al condi ions always shape he a ios o Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 7 o 13 species in he inal yield was discussed as po en ially es ic ing he use o he me hod. I was concluded in he discussions ha policies can be changed and egula ions de eloped. Impe a i ely, ag icul u al policies should no limi bu a he suppo he use o me hods ha ha e demons a ed bene i s o he en i onmen and clima e change p epa a ion. 4. Discussion 4.1. The Po en ial o In e c opping in Facing Clima e Change The ecognized po en ials o in e c opping, albei acknowledged o depend on he in e c ops and he ype o in e c opping used, including enhanced yield secu i y, soil conse a ion, egula ion o wa e dynamics, bu e ing om pa hogens, inc eased nu ien and p o ein sel -su iciency, and he educed use o ossil ene gy-based ex e nal inpu s, ela e o add essing many clima e change- ela ed challenges o no he n ield c opping. Thus, in e c opping can be ega ded as bo h a a ge ed adap i e s a egy o a a m, a po en ial clima e-sma p ac ice o be de eloped locally and con ex -speci ically, and a means o enhancing a m adap i e capaci y. O he ecognized po en ials, yield s abili y (low a ia ion in yield) has been ound o be highe in di e se s ands o plan species, bo h in na u al ecosys ems [ 14 ] and in ag oecosys ems ( e iewed by e.g., [ 39 ]). In he ace o clima e change, he highe incidence o wea he ex emes and changes in he amoun and iming o p ecipi a ion a e likely o induce e en mo e a ia ion in yields be ween yea s [ 26 ]. Because he yield esponses o clima e and wea he di e among Finnish ield c op species and a ie ies [ 25 , 40 , 41 ], secu ing a yield ia in e c opping migh se e as a sa egua ding s a egy owa ds inc easing unce ain y. By combining c ops and a ie ies ha possess di e ing g ow h hy hms, sensi i i y and compensa ional abili ies, a a me migh ha e a be e chance o ob aining a su icien yield despi e mee ing a ying challenges ela ed o clima e, wea he o g ow h esou ces. Main aining and imp o ing soil quali y and e ili y ia in e c opping was ega ded as an impo an po en ial o in e c opping in ou wo kshop. Soil is a cen al esou ce o a ms, and i ela es o bo h clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion ac ions. Ea lie s udies ha e epo ed how di e se and p olonged soil co e and shade can p o ec soil om wea he ex emes such as hea y ain o p olonged d ough [ 42 ]. E apo a ion (wa e escaping in o he ai om ba e soil) can be lowe , and wa e use e iciency (wa e up aken and anspi ed by he mo e dense canopy) can be highe wi h in e c opping [ 43 , 44 ]. Field wa e dynamics, including wa e use e iciency, uno and excess wa e , a e inc easingly impo an when conside ing wa e budge s and yield unde clima e change. In in e c opping, plan s wi h di e ing oo s uc u es can ake up wa e om a ying dep hs, and adding deep- oo ed o d ough - esis an c op geno ypes can educe he be ween-c op compe i ion o sca ce wa e [ 11 ]. In e c opping can induce oo g ow h in o deepe soil laye s, as epo ed o , e.g., aba bean in e c opped wi h whea [ 45 ]. Inc easing species di e si y (a 16-species mix u e) was also ound o inc ease he deep- oo ( oo s below 30 cm) biomass se en- old compa ed wi h monocul u e plo s [ 46 ]. The ex ensi e oo biomass seques e s mo e ca bon in he soil in ca bon-deple ed soils, especially in he deepe laye s [ 47 ]. The inc eased ege a ion co e and educed illage, as po en ia ed by elay in e c opping, can also impac g eenhouse gas emissions du ing win e - ime mel ing and eezing cycles [48]. Reduced pa hogen and insec pes in es a ion le els ha e been epo ed in se e al c op and a ie y mix u es; while, cases wi h no e ec s demons a ed by in e c opping also exis [ 13 , 49 ]. The use o mix u es o limi pa hogens was aised as one o he mos impo an po en ials o in e c opping in he wo kshop, po en ially e lec ing he cen al impo ance o ce eal diseases o yield quali y in Finland. Case-speci ic impac s om di e si ica ion acc ue due o he a ying biology and hos ange o he a ious pa hogens. Fo ins ance, soil-bo ne pa hogenic diseases we e educed in 30 ou o 36 s udies compa ing mixed c opping wi h sole c opping, and he se e i y o splash-dispe sed diseases was educed by in e c opping in 10 ou o 15 s udies e iewed in [ 49 ]. By combining esis an and suscep ible ice a ie ies in China, ungicide applica ions agains ice blas we e no longe needed [ 50 ], Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 8 o 13 encou aging he es ing o a ie y mix u es as well o pa hogen con ol. The mechanisms ope a ing o limi bio ic s esso s a e no well known, which u he complica es he assessmen o he e ec i eness o in e c opping in pes con ol; e.g., some specialis he bi o e pes s use hos -plan cues o o ien ing o a hos , and a mo e di e se canopy can in e e e wi h hei abili y o loca e hos s, whe eas gene alis eede s migh bene i om a mo e di e se hos ange [ 13 ]. The dilu ion o hos s can also di ec ly limi he sp ead o pes s and pa hogens in he canopy [ 13 , 49 ]. Addi ionally, weed p oblems a e o en educed in in e c op canopies ia added c op densi y and soil co e ime, inc eased compe i ion o g ow h esou ces and allelopa hy [51]. Legumes a e he mos o en s udied c ops in in e c opping [ 12 , 39 ]. They ix a mosphe ic ni ogen (N 2 ) symbio ically and hus educe he need o ni ogen e ilize s, which was a ed in ou wo kshop as one o he mos impo an p oduc ion- and economy- ela ed po en ials o a ms o bene i om in e c opping. Legumes also p o ide p o ein, and hei use suppo s he p o ein sel -su iciency o a ms. Legume c opping is also bene icial o he mi iga ion o g eenhouse gases because he ene gy inpu needed o manu ac u ing chemical e ilize s is conse ed [ 12 ]. Howe e , he legume- ixed ni ogen should be ensu ed o be used by he c ops, e.g., ia g ass-legume in e c opping a he han adding o ni ogen uno and g ea e N 2 O emissions [ 52 , 53 ]. I is known ha legumes bene i om in e c opping wi h ce eals due o educed lodging while he legume in e c op can suppo ce eal yield and p o ein quali y by laying educed compe i ion o ni ogen [ 39 ] and may enhance phospho us up ake in phospho us-de icien soils [ 16 ]. Legumes as a li ing mulch also sui well o unde sowing wi h win e c ops; e.g., a legume mix u e educed weeds by 20%–75% in win e oilseed ape [ 54 ]. Thus, he wo kshop indings on mul iple po en ials o e ed by legumes as in e c ops, including bo h annual g ain legumes and pe ennial species such as clo e s and luce ne wi h hei soil-suppo ing oo sys ems, co obo a es ea lie s udies on he mul i ace ed ole o legumes in clima e-sma ag icul u e [12]. The economic po en ials ecognized o using in e c opping ela ed o inc easing he p o i pe ac eage and educing inpu cos s. The p oduc ion e iciency pe ac eage and he economic p o i abili y o in e c opping ha e been ex ensi ely cha ac e ized by calcula ing land equi alen a ios ( a io o ac eages needed in monoc opping o p oduce he co esponding o al yields gained in in e c opping) and mone a y indices [ 11 ]. Bo h imp o ed land use e iciency and economic e u ns ha e o en been epo ed o indica e he imp o ed use o g ow h esou ces and he use o educed inpu s in in e c opping ( e iewed in [ 39 ]). Thus, he me hod can o e a me s’ gains in bo h p oduc i i y and economics when planned well. The mos impo an pe cei ed en i onmen al bene i s o in e c opping ela ed o he educed use o ag ochemical inpu s and he ca ch c ops p e en ing nu ien un-o and soil e osion. In e c opped unde sown ca ch c ops can be added wi h li le yield penal y o he main c op [ 55 ]. The addi ional bene i o in e c opping in ca ch c opping is complemen a i y, e.g., combining g asses ha ake up excess nu ien s and legumes ha o e biological ni ogen o g ow h. The alue o adding di e si y in o he ag oecosys em i sel was also men ioned as impo an . This ela es o aluing cul u al ecosys em se ices as well as suppo ing bene icial a h opods such as na u al enemies o he bi o es con e ing biological con ol and pollina o s, which links also o he conse a ion o na u al bio a and how i can be suppo ed by ag oecosys ems [ 9 ]. Such di e si ica ion by in e c opping can posi i ely impac he landscape and egional scale adap a ion o clima e change [7]. 4.2. S eng hening he Adap i e Capaci y o Fa me s: The Role o In e c opping Fa me s employ a ious adap a ions in hei e e yday li e as pa o hei decision-making on how o o ganize a m p ac ices and pu sue a m de elopmen . Clima e change adap a ions ypically ela e o in es ing on echnological inno a ions (i iga ion, bioene gy), di e si ica ion s a egies, al e ed managemen (i.e., selec ion o a ie ies and c ops o g ow, iming o sowing, e iliza ion) and he building o social ne wo ks (i.e., ield c op a m and animal husband y a ms collabo a ing, sha ed machine y) [ 29 ]. The abili y o a a me o employ ce ain adap a ions be o ehand o educe ad e se impac s by clima e change ela es o he gene al adap i e capaci y o he a m: he abili y o plan and Ag icul u e 2016,6, 34 9 o 13 use adap a ions p oac i ely [ 28 ]. Gene al adap i e capaci y has been cha ac e ized by, e.g., economic esou ces, echnological op ions, in o ma ion, ins i u ions, equi y, human and social capi al and isk a e sion abili y [ 56 ]. Based on ou wo kshop indings on he po en ials ecognized in in e c opping, he me hod can be used as a means o enhance he adap i e capaci y o a ms mo e gene ally. Thus, i ep esen s a way o employing physical esou ces and human and social capi al (knowledge, no el collabo a ions) o ace di e en ial challenges. Howe e , empi ical assessmen s a e needed o assess he ela ionship be ween speci ic in e c opping p ac ices and a m pe o mance ha mi o s a m adap i e capaci y o e ime in p ac ice. Designing in e c opping is a knowledge-in ensi e p ocess ha combines scien i ic and p ac ical expe ise [57]. As a i s s ep, he knowledge on he po en ial o he me hod among a me s, ad ise s and he whole ood p oduc ion chain needs o be imp o ed. A buckle e al. [ 20 ] ound ha he adop ion o co e c opping by a me s in Iowa was ela ed o he gained expe ience o hei bene i s, he p esence o acili a i e educa ional and echnological in as uc u e, and he de elopmen o isk aba emen s a egies o in e c op ials. Mo e a m-scale esea ch, as sugges ed also by ou wo kshop, should be conduc ed o assess he p os and cons o he me hod in p ac ice and p o ide mo e de ailed ins uc ions on how o employ, le e age and de elop he me hod. Many possibili ies exis o p ac icing in e c opping such ha guidelines and be e knowledge on how o selec he bes ype o in e c opping ( ow, s ip, mixed in e c opping), he species o a ie y geno ypes o combine, adjus ing he iming o sowing/plan ing and managemen and conside ing local and p oduc ion-speci ic goals a e ob iously needed. Accessibili y, i.e., he a ailabili y o he me hod o a me s is good because ela i ely li le addi ional economic in es men s a e ypically needed, and in con as , economic cos s can be educed ia educed inpu use [ 11 ]. As e ealed by he challenges ecognized o adop ion o he me hod mo e b oadly, he usabili y o he di e en spa io empo al ypes o in e c opping depends on he echnological and educa ional esou ces o he a m, ag icul u al policies, he ge mplasm a ailable by b eeding and ma ke s. 4.3. Ad ancing In e c opping The key ai s men ioned as impo an in in e c opping we e biological ni ogen ixa ion, imp o emen o he soil s uc u e by deep oo sys ems, pa hogen esis ance and he c op p ope ies ela ed o heal h bene i s in eed use. Bo h he quan i y and quali y (pala abili y) a e impe a i e o p oducing eed, and op imally selec ed mix u es could imp o e bo h. Be e knowledge on species and a ie ies in e ms o op imal ha es ing ime, quali y and pe o mance in mix u es was aised as impo an o designing op imal o age mix u es. This would allow he mos bene i o be gained: good quali y mul iple yields om he same ield wi h a single sowing. Mixing species o a ie ies ha possess di e ing de elopmen al cycles could help ully le e age he g owing season, which is pa icula ly impo an in no he n loca ions such as Finland. Va iabili y exis s in he sensi i i y o c op a ie ies o di e en ag oclima ic ac o s as epo ed ea lie o ba ley a ie ies [ 40 ] and he o age species and a ie ies [ 41 ] used in Finland. Such in o ma ion could be u ilized mo e when planning in e c op mix u es o secu e yields om win e damage and excess p ecipi a ion, which a e impo an in Finnish condi ions. B eeding o op imal pe o mance in mix u es, “adap ing he c ops o g ow well oge he ”, was an inno a i e sugges ion made a he wo kshop. To ou knowledge, in e c opping pe o mance has no been a cen al c i e ion o b eeding o da e. Howe e , especially conce ning he ai s ha a e sca cely add essed in adi ional b eeding, b eeding o op imal mix u es migh p o ide al e na i e ways o ad ancemen . Seed supplie s likely ha e an in e es in he expe imen al mixing o he exis ing geno ypes and he sea ch o no el ma ke s by di e si ying hei supply ia mo e ailo ed p oduc s in a as e pace his way. Howe e , o no he n la i udes, he selec ion o c op geno ypes o use is mo e es ic ed han o mo e sou he n egions, which pa ly educes he combina ions o be es ed. The a ailable ge mplasm ob iously de e mines much o he po en ial o be gained by in e c opping.