Evaluating the process of ecological restoration
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Nilsson, C., A. L. A ado i , D. Hagen, G. Halldó sson, K. Høegh, R. J. Mi chell, K. Raulund-Rasmussen, K. S a a sdó i , A.
Tol anen, and S. D. Wilson. 2016. E alua ing he p ocess o ecological es o a ion. Ecology and Socie y 21(1):41. h p://dx.doi.
o g/10.5751/ES-08289-210141
Resea ch, pa o a Special Fea u e on Ecological Res o a ion, Ecosys em Se ices, and Land Use
E alua ing he p ocess o ecological es o a ion
Ch is e Nilsson 1, Asa L. A ado i 2, Dagma Hagen 3, Guðmundu Halldó sson 4, Kenne h Høegh 5, Ru h J. Mi chell 6, Ka s en
Raulund-Rasmussen 7, K is ín S a a sdó i 4, Anne Tol anen 8 and Sco D. Wilson 9
ABSTRACT. We de eloped a concep ual amewo k o e alua ing he p ocess o ecological es o a ion and applied i o 10 examples
o es o a ion p ojec s in he no he n hemisphe e. We iden i ied h ee majo phases, planning, implemen a ion, and moni o ing, in
he es o a ion p ocess. We ound ha e alua ion occu ed bo h wi hin and be ween he h ee phases, ha i included bo h o mal and
in o mal componen s, and ha i o en had an impac on he pe o mance o he p ojec s. Mos e alua ions we e sho - e m and only
some pa s o hem we e p ope ly documen ed. Poo o sho - e m e alua ion o he es o a ion p ocess c ea es a isk ha ine icien
me hods will con inue o be used, which educes he e iciency and e ec i eness o es o a ion. To imp o e he es o a ion p ocess and
o ans e he knowledge o u u e p ojec s, we a gue o mo e o mal, sus ained e alua ion p ocedu es, in ol ing all ele an
s akeholde s, and inc eased and imp o ed documen a ion and dissemina ion o he esul s.
Key Wo ds: ecological es o a ion; e alua ion; No he n Hemisphe e; es o a ion implemen a ion; es o a ion moni o ing; es o a ion
planning
INTRODUCTION
The accele a ing deg ada ion o he wo ld’s ecosys ems has
os e ed a coun e -mo emen o mi iga e des uc i e impac s (Le
Houe ou 2000, No acek and Cleland 2001, Lal 2004, Be nha d
and Palme 2011). The opics o ecosys em es o a ion and
ecological es o a ion ha e hus ecei ed inc easing a en ion
wo ldwide (e.g., E win 2009, Schmu z e al. 2014, Ba al e al.
2015). Fo he las wo decades he Web o Science (WoS) epo s
2876 scien i ic pape s on “ecological es o a ion” by 7 Decembe
2015, bu only 36 pape s be o e ha ime. Pape s add essing
“ecological es o a ion” combined wi h “e alua ion” a e,
howe e , much less common—only 177 acco ding o he WoS, by
7 Decembe 2015; he i s one om 1995. S ill, ecological
es o a ion, de ined as an “in en ional ac i i y ha ini ia es o
accele a es he eco e y o an ecosys em wi h espec o i s heal h,
in eg i y and sus ainabili y” (SER 2004), equi es e alua ion o
documen p og ess and in o m adap i e managemen s a egies
(Williams 2011) in e ms o he cos -e iciency o he es o a ion
p ocess and he posi i e e ec s on he eco e y o deg aded
ecosys ems. This is pa icula ly impo an in complex sys ems
(Gunde son and Ligh 2006). I many yea s pass be o e a
es o a ion is e alua ed, and i he es o a ion has ailed, i ollows
ha eco e y will be delayed o ailed. Ecosys ems o en equi e
decades o cen u ies o eco e a e es o a ion has been ini ia ed,
especially in high la i ude and high ele a ion ecosys ems wi h
sho g owing seasons (Fo bes and McKend ick 2002, Campbell
and Be ge on 2012). Unde such ci cums ances, ailu es may be
cos ly i epea ed ials a e equi ed o es o e he ecosys em
(A adó i e al. 2013). To a oid p oblems a ising om lawed
design and implemen a ion o es o a ion, he moni o ing and
e alua ion o es o a ion should be gi en high p io i y.
A ecen e iew o es o a ion in he No dic coun ies indica es
ha ecological es o a ion p ojec s in he egion o en comple ely
lack o mal e alua ion (Halldó sson e al. 2012, Hagen e al.
2013). O he s udies also show his o be he case in o he pa s
o he wo ld (e.g., Be nha d e al. 2005, Suding 2011), al hough
he numbe o empi ical e alua ions has inc eased du ing ecen
yea s (Wo ley e al. 2013). I e alua ion s eps a e p ope ly
desc ibed and jus i ied, es o a ion p ocesses can be imp o ed in
e ms o cos -e iciency and ecosys em e ec s, and he lessons
lea ned can be mo e easily ans e ed o o he p ojec s (Nilsson
e al. 2015). T adi ionally, e alua ion has been equa ed o he
moni o ing o he pos es o a ion ou come, and such moni o ing
has o en been es ic ed o a single o a ew e en s (Kondol and
Micheli 1995, Zedle and Callaway 2000, Suding 2011). Such
limi ed e o s a e unlikely o p o ide a ull pic u e o he
es o a ion p ocess and i s ou comes. Fo mo e accu a e and
eliable esul s, es o a ion e alua ion should be a con inual
ac i i y ha is an ongoing pa o he en i e es o a ion p ocess
(Allen e al. 2002). In o he wo ds, e alua ion could consis o
di e en subac ions o s eps du ing he en i e es o a ion p ocess
om he beginning o he achie emen o he es o a ion goal
(Jungwi h e al. 2002, Hughes e al. 2011, Pande and Geis 2013).
Ano he d awback is ha he e alua ions may o en be oo simple
o allow eliable conclusions (Suding 2011, Mo andi e al. 2014).
These p oblems may back i e on he es o a ion i sel in ha
p ojec goals may no be eached and cos e iciency no secu ed,
and u u e es o a ions no conduc ed.
The es o a ion p ocess can be seen as consis ing o h ee phases:
planning, implemen a ion, and moni o ing (Hobbs and No on
1996, Tischew e al. 2010). Ac o s esponsible o each o hese
h ee phases should e alua e and imp o e hei “wi hin-phase”
wo k, a leas in o mally, o guide adap i e decision making, hus
educing isk o ailu e (Williams 2011, Lo in 2014). In addi ion,
he in e ac ions be ween es o a ion phases can also be e alua ed.
Fo example, he implemen a ion o es o a ion equi es ha
planne s communica e wi h p ac i ione s, i.e., he people
esponsible o he p ac ical wo k (“This is how we wan o
es o e”). Simila ly, he moni o ing bene i s om communica ion
be ween p ac i ione s and moni o ing expe s (“This is how we
es o ed”), and he moni o ing eams need o pass on hei
indings o he planne s (“This is wha happened”). We p opose
1Umeå Uni e si y, 2Ag icul u al Uni e si y o Iceland, 3No wegian Ins i u e o Na u e Resea ch, 4Soil Conse a ion Se ice o Iceland, 5Kujalleq
Municipali y, 6The James Hu on Ins i u e, Abe deen, UK, 7Depa men o Geosciences and Na u al Resou ce Managemen , Uni e si y o
Copenhagen, Denma k, 8Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland, Depa men o Ecology, Uni e si y o Oulu Finland, 9Depa men o Biology,
Uni e si y o Regina
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Table 1. Summa y o he in o ma ion used o e alua ion, how he e alua ion was made, and by whom in he six e alua ion s eps (Figs.
1 and 2).
E alua ion s ep Wha ype o in o ma ion was
used as a basis o e alua ion?
Wha was he in o ma ion
e alua ed agains ?
How was he e alua ion made? How, by whom, and a wha s ep
we e he esul s o he e alua ion
used?
1: Wi hin
planning
In o ma ion ha es o a ion
plan elied on
Ecological condi ions,
in e es s o landowne s,
unding agencies, and
scien is s
Mee ings, discussions, and
in o ma ion exchange be ween
planne s, scien is s,
p ac i ione s, and landowne s
Planne s used i o imp o e he
planning
2: Be ween
planning and
implemen a ion
Res o a ion plan,
en i onmen al and social
condi ions, expe ience om
p e ious es o a ion ac ions
Local en i onmen al and
social condi ions
Mee ings, discussions, and
in o ma ion exchange be ween
planne s, scien is s,
p ac i ione s, and landowne s
P ac i ione s used he e alua ion
ou come o e icien
implemen a ion. Planne s used i
o imp o e he planning
3: Wi hin
implemen a ion
Implemen a ion expe ience,
cul u al and na u al alues,
secu i y, budge , logis ics,
socie al iews, science
Plans and di ec i es,
en i onmen al impac
assessmen s, laws
Discussions, nego ia ions,
decisions
Con ac o s, planne s, p ojec
owne
4: Be ween
implemen a ion
and moni o ing
In o ma ion on accomplished
wo k, esul s o moni o ing,
in o mal obse a ions
Plans and con ac s,
es o a ion and pe o mance
a ge s
Did es o a ion esul in
de ia ions om plans and
con ac s? We e esul s on
a ge ?
P ac i ione s go eedback o allow
modi ica ions o me hods.
Moni o ing eams could adjus
hei me hods based on
in o ma ion abou implemen a ion
5: Wi hin
moni o ing
Da a om eplica ed and
s anda dized sampling, ield
isi s wi h pa ne s, pho os
Na i e ege a ion and
un es o ed plo s
E alua ion agains se goals o
e e ence si es
Scien is s used esul s o
communica ion abou u u e
es o a ions. P econcei ed ideas
abou ou comes could be di icul
o o e come
6: Be ween
moni o ing and
planning
Resul s o bio ic, physical-
chemical o socioeconomic
moni o ing o p ojec
ou comes
P ojec goals, e e ence si es,
un ea ed con ols
Types o communica ion
e alua ed
Feedback o planning and
implemen a ion phases. Well
documen ed e alua ion could
bene i new p ojec s
ha all hese h ee es o a ion phases can be imp o ed by
app op ia e, wi hin-phase as well as be ween-phase six-s ep
e alua ion (Fig. 1). In his pape , we discuss he ele ance and
use ulness o hese 6 s eps by analyzing 10 es o a ion p ojec s in
8 no he n coun ies. We ask he ollowing ques ions: (1) Does
he selec ed da a se o 10 p ojec s include examples o e alua ion
a each o he 6 s eps?; (2) A e he e examples, among he cases,
o s eps a which e alua ion had an impac wi h espec o
modi ica ion o cu en o u u e es o a ion p ojec s?; (3) Based
on he selec ed cases, wha a e he majo limi a ions in he
e alua ion o es o a ion p ojec s?
METHODS
We ook inspi a ion om he pape by Hagen e al. (2013) who
discussed ecosys em es o a ion in he No dic coun ies. We
sea ched o la ge, comple ed, o well-es ablished, long- e m
es o a ion p ojec s ep esen ing di e en ecosys em ypes, and
added G eenland, Sco land, and Canada o co e a la ge and
mo e di e se a ea wi h such es o a ion p ojec s. Among he
p eselec ed p ojec s we chose 10 p ojec s ha ul illed ou c i e ia
(Box 1). We included a a ie y o ecosys ems ypical o he
no he n hemisphe e. We hen analyzed he p ojec s wi h espec
o how e alua ion had been made a he six s eps, wi hin-phase
as well as be ween-phase as p esen ed in Fig. 1. This analysis was
made du ing an expe wo kshop whe e c i e ia o iden i ying
he di e en e alua ion s eps we e p oduced. We ag eed ha any
ype o alue-laden in o ma ion exchange wi hin and be ween
es o a ion phases could be ca ego ized as e alua ion. Because
he e we e no p e ious amewo ks a ailable o such analyses,
we cons uc ed a new amewo k o assis in he da a collec ion
(Table 1). Ou analysis hen elied on in o ma ion om scien i ic
li e a u e, epo s, websi es, o al communica ion wi h he
es o a ion communi y, and ou own knowledge abou he speci ic
p ojec s. I should be no ed ha he selec ed case s udies we e
chosen o illus a e he ool a he han o assess hem pe se.
Gi en he di e si y o es o a ion p ojec s examined, we do no
expec ano he choice o examples o p oduce e y di e en
esul s.
Fig. 1. Concep ual diag am showing he h ee majo es o a ion
phases and he six e alua ion s eps, h ee wi hin-phase (1, 3,
and 5) and h ee be ween-phase (2, 4, and 6), discussed in his
pape . E alua ion s eps a e u he desc ibed in he
In oduc ion and in Table 1. No e ha he e alua ion p ocess is
no a single-loop, one- ime p ac ice; ins ead e alua ion ac i i y
can go back and o h and be upheld du ing se e al yea s.
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Box 1: Res o a ion p ojec s analyzed in his pape .
Alpine hea hland, Do e Moun ains, No way. In 1999 he decision
was aken o es o e a 165 km² la ge mili a y a ea o alpine hea h,
mi es, and sh ub ege a ion, including he emo al o 90 km o
oads, 100 buildings, and la ge mili a y ins alla ions o “ ese he
a ea o ci ilian use and o es o e he ecosys em o i s o iginal
s a e and o u u e na u e conse a ion (Na ional Pa k)”
(Minis y o De ence 1998). The No wegian De ence Es a es
Agency is esponsible, and is bo h p ojec owne and planne .
Ad iso s in ecological es o a ion, pollu ion con ol, and
cons uc ion wo k ha e been in ol ed in planning,
implemen a ion, and moni o ing du ing all pa s o he p ojec .
The p ojec pe iod is 2008–2020 and his is so a he la ges
es o a ion p ojec in No way (Ma insen and Hagen 2010,
Hagen and E ju 2013).
Alpine hea hland, Nalunaq Goldmine, G eenland. Nalunaq Gold
Mine, in sou he nmos Wes G eenland, was app o ed in 2003,
and was ope a ional o he end o 2013 (Dominy e al. 2006, Bell
and Kolb 2013). A moni o ing p og am mainly concen a ed on
he e en ual pollu ion o di e en ha m ul elemen s. By
No embe 2013, he mine closed and a local con ac o om he
own o Qaqo oq conduc ed a clean-up and es o a ion o he
a ea, which was comple ed du ing he summe o 2014. The
es o a ion o he mining a ea was mainly a isible clean-up o
he si e, meaning emo al o all houses and physical ins alla ions,
including b idges and d ainage pipes. Res o a ion o ege a ion
was no conduc ed, he e o e he a eas wi h o me ac i i ies and
physical ins alla ions we e s ill ba en by he end o 2014.
En i onmen al moni o ing will con inue o a leas h ee yea s
a e he closu e (2014–2016).
Bi ch woodland, Hekluskóga , Iceland. This p ojec aims a
es o ing na u al woodlands on abou 900 km² o deg aded land
in he icini y o he olcano M Hekla in Sou h Iceland, o
inc ease he esilience o he a ea agains all-ou and seconda y
dis ibu ion o olcanic ash (A ado i 2007, Óska sson 2009a,
b). A ound 200 landowne s pa icipa e in he p ojec and he
es o a ion akes place pa ly on hei p ope ies, bu also o a
la ge ex en on public land. Ac ions in ol e es ablishmen o plan
co e and s a egic es ablishmen o seed sou ces o na i e bi ch
and willows o acili a e na u al dis ibu ion o woodlands.
Res o a ion ac i i ies and esul s a e egula ly moni o ed and
discussed wi h pa icipa ing landowne s (Óska sson 2009a,b,
2011).
Rangeland, Fa me s Heal he land (FHL), Iceland. This is a cos -
sha e e ege a ion p ojec aimed a enhancing es o a ion and
imp o ing angeland managemen and s ewa dship (A nalds
2005). Abou 600 landowne s pa icipa e in he p ojec and he
es o a ion akes place on hei p ope ies. FHL is o ganized by
he Soil Conse a ion Se ice o Iceland (SCSI), which p o ides
ex ension se ices, seed and unding o buy e ilize s, while he
a me s p o ide land, machine y, labo , and in some cases
addi ional e ilize s and mulch. SCSI o ice s make annual o
biennial isi s o all pa icipa ing a ms, du ing which es o a ion
ac i i ies a e planned, discussed, and subjec i ely assessed
(A nalds 2005, Be glund e al. 2013). Thus, he FHL ope a es as
an “umb ella,” bu much o he planning and moni o ing a e done
on an indi idual a m basis. In o ma ion abou es o a ion
ac i i ies is kep in he SCSI da abase and has been used in ad hoc
s udies ha in ol e mo e in-dep h e alua ion on a subse o he
FHL. Examples in ol e s udies on s akeholde in e ac ions and
expe iences (Schmid 2000, Be glund e al. 2013, Pe u sdo i e
al. 2013a), ege a ion succession (Elma sdo i e al. 2003,
Pe u sdo i e al. 2013b), and ca bon seques a ion (A adó i e
al. 2000).
Fo es and pea land in he G een Bel o Finland. G een Bel LIFE
p ojec encompassed es o a ion o 600 ha o o es , 362 ha o
pea land, o es oads, and qua ies in 13 Na u a 2000 a eas in
he eas e n Finnish egion o he Fennoscandian G een Bel zone
du ing 2004–2008. Es ablished es o a ion me hods de eloped o
p o ec ed a eas we e p incipally used, and some al e na i e
me hods we e expe imen ally es ed. In ensi e scien i ic
moni o ing was an essen ial pa o he p ojec , equi ing
con inuous discussion be ween manage s, planne s, and scien is s.
The p ojec is ep esen a i e o LIFE p ojec s a ge ed o o es
and pea land es o a ion in Finland. In o ma ion on he p ojec
was compiled om scien i ic (Laine e al. 2011, Similä and
Junninen 2012, Ta ainen e al. 2013, Hekkala e al. 2014a,b,
Similä e al. 2014, Hägglund e al. 2015, Ta ainen and Tol anen
2015) and public pape s (Similä and Junninen 2012, Similä e al.
2014), p ojec p oposals, es o a ion plans, maps, and p ac ical
expe iences.
G asslands, no he n G ea Plains, Canada. Millions o ha o
cen al No h Ame ica ha e been plan ed o low-di e si y, high-
p oduc i i y in oduced g asses, on bo h p i a e lands ( a ms,
anches) and public a eas (pa ks, common pas u es, oadsides).
Res o ing di e si y in ol es emo ing o dec easing hese species
and in oducing na i e species. Ongoing annual e alua ion
e ealed he su p ising pe sis ence o he in oduced g asses
(Bakke e al. 2003, Wilson and Pinno 2013). This challenge was
add essed by a change in a i ude: ins ead o comple ely emo ing
in oduced g asses, g azing was used o dec ease hei co e and
inco po a e hem a a low abundance in o he di e se communi y.
Mon ane g assland, T o e nish, Skye, Sco land. In esponse o
Sco ish Go e nmen conce ns ha excessi e numbe s o sheep
we e causing slope e osion on mon ane g assland, and we e
o e g azing g asslands wi hin he T o e nish Ridge Special A ea
o Conse a ion, a ege a ion and e osion moni o ing p og am
was se up in 1998. Small expe imen al plo s we e es ablished on
he s eep slopes o enable moni o ing o he e ec s o di e en
g azing ea men s on ege a ion s uc u e and e osion. The
esponse o g azing emo al was ound o be e y slow, wi h
moni o ing ex ended a e 11 yea s o a u he 6 yea s. Du ing
he ime o his p ojec o he ac o s we e also in luencing he
esul s: decline in numbe o a me s due o aging popula ion and
decline in sheep numbe s due o changes in EU subsidies (B own
and Bi nie 2012, Hewison e al. 2016).
Pea land, Cai hness and Su he land, Sco land. Res o a ion o
pea lands and blanke bogs is occu ing in many a eas in
Cai hness and Su he land. The es o a ion usually in ol es some
o m o d ainage blocking o es o e hyd ological egimes, and
whe e he a ea has been plan ed wi h comme cial o es y,
emo al o he ees. Changes in hyd ological egimes need o be
ca e ully planned and he impac s on neighbo ing land aken in o
accoun . Some o his wo k has been unded by EU-LIFE p ojec s
Ecology and Socie y 21(1): 41
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wi h he e alua ion o he p ojec occu ing in pa du ing he
epo ing p ocess o he p ojec s (Lun e al. 2010).
Ri e , Skje n Ri e , Denma k. In he 1960s he Skje n Ri e was
channelized and nea by meadows we e di ched o inc ease
ag icul u al p oduc ion. A e a ew decades pollu ion due o N
and P leaching and mobiliza ion o och e became ob ious and i
was decided o es o e he i e wi h a ocus on pollu an emo al.
Di e en me hods we e much deba ed in he mid-1980s. The
pa liamen decided in 1987 on a la ge es o a ion p ojec ocusing
no only on cleaning p ocesses bu also on habi a imp o emen s
and ec ea ion. The physical wo k, based on a cons uc ion law
and en i onmen al impac assessmen om 1998, was
implemen ed 1999–2002. A e wa d s akeholde s discussed he
use o he a ea and scien is s e alua ed he ou come. The en i e
p ojec is so a he la ges es o a ion p ojec in Denma k
(Pede sen e al. 2007a,b, Pede sen 2010).
Ri e , Vindel Ri e LIFE, Sweden. This p ojec , loca ed in
no he n Sweden, es o es he i e ne wo k a e he impac o
imbe - loa ing be ween he mid-1800s and 1976. Res o a ion
measu es include emo al o s uc u es like pie s and dams,
ec ea ion o ish spawning beds, and di e si ica ion o channel
mo phology by pu ing back coa se sedimen and ee unks in
channels. In some a eas, expe imen al es o a ion has in oduced
la ge boulde s om adjacen uplands in o he channels
(Ga des öm e al. 2013). The esul s o he es o a ion a e
moni o ed, especially wi h espec o ipa ian ege a ion and ish
(Hel ield e al. 2007, Palm e al. 2007, Pol i e al. 2014, Hasselquis
e al. 2015, Nilsson e al. 2015).
RESULTS
We summa ize ou majo indings on how he e alua ion was
made in he 10 chosen es o a ion p ojec s (Box 1, Appendix 1),
ollowing he 6 s eps in he concep ual amewo k model (Fig. 1,
Table 1). Fo consis ency, we s anda dized he names o he ac o s
iden i ied in each o he h ee phases o es o a ion, al hough we
ecognize ha hei ac ual oles and deno a ions a ied be ween
p ojec s and coun ies. Thus, in sho , planne s planned,
p ac i ione s implemen ed, and moni o ing eams moni o ed.
Ou amewo k o he e alua ion o es o a ion (Table 1) was
designed o maximize he in o ma ion gained om he es o a ion
p ojec s ha can be used o maximize he e ec i eness o u u e
es o a ions. We a e awa e ha some e alua ions encompass wo
o mo e o he six s eps. Fo he sake o simplici y, howe e , we
assigned hem o he s ep whe e hey had hei main ocus. I was
no possible o consis en ly collec in o ma ion on he ypes o
e alua ion me ics o quali a i e in o ma ion ypes used in he
di e en p ojec s. Fo his eason, he assignmen o sco es o
a ings o he quali y o e alua ions was no possible. On he
o he hand, a sco ing amewo k could add subs an ial alue o
he e alua ion p ocess. To make such a amewo k meaning ul,
howe e , es o a ion ac o s would be equi ed o documen hei
e alua ion s eps e y ca e ully, and his was no he case in he
chosen examples. I espec i e o he ype o e alua ion da a,
howe e , o al in e ac ion be ween ac o s was he mos common
and e ec i e way o sha ing in o ma ion. I should also be s a ed
ha ou goal was no o p o ide de ailed desc ip ions o he
e alua ions ha had been done. Ou main goal was o desc ibe
when and how e alua ion should be done, wi h examples o how
i in luenced es o a ion.
S ep 1: E alua ion wi hin planning
All p ojec s included some o m o e alua ion and adjus men o
o iginal ideas du ing planning. Howe e , he choice o pa ne s
in his p ocess di e ed be ween p ojec s. In mos cases e alua ion
in ol ed in e ac ion be ween es o a ion p ac i ione s and
landowne s. In a ew cases e alua ion and adjus men o plans
we e made by es o a ion p ac i ione s and expe s oge he (e.g.,
Do e Moun ains in No way and G een Bel LIFE in eas e n
Finland; LIFE is he EU’s inancial ins umen suppo ing
en i onmen al, na u e conse a ion and clima e ac ion p ojec s
h oughou he EU). The e we e examples when es o a ion
p ac i ione s in ol ed mo e pa ne s in addi ion o landowne s,
such as go e nmen al bodies, unding agencies, NGOs, scien is s,
and conse a ionis s (e.g., Skje n Ri e in Denma k). The e we e
se e al examples o changes made o he plan based on he
e alua ion. In he Vindel Ri e LIFE es o a ion p ojec in
Sweden, a dialogue wi h landowne s esul ed in ( empo a y)
wi hd awal o some landowne s om he p ojec . In he
Hekluskóga p ojec in Iceland, some a eas we e excluded om
he p ojec because o a me s being conce ned abou con inued
use o g azing commons. In he Skje n Ri e es o a ion p ojec ,
nego ia ions wi h landowne s and NGOs esul ed in
modi ica ions o plans o p o ec mig a ing salmon and ou . In
he No he n G ea Plains es o a ion p ojec in Canada,
scien is s we e in ol ed o deal wi h ques ions abou seed o igin,
seed ypes, seed na i eness, and sowing p ac ices. In he G een
Bel o es es o a ion p ojec , a dialogue wi h scien is s esul ed
in es ablishmen o con ol si es and speci ic s udies on he impac
o eindee g azing on plan egene a ion.
S ep 2: E alua ion be ween planning and implemen a ion
Many p ojec s used mee ings, wo kshops, and media o sha e
in o ma ion abou he p ac ical implemen a ion and o ecei e
eedback on he echniques and loca ion o es o a ion and i s
an icipa ed ou come. Fo example, in he pea land es o a ion
p ojec s in eas e n Finland (G een Bel LIFE) and Sco land
(Cai hness and Su he land), eedback om landowne s
in luenced he planning i es o a ion jeopa dized he economic
bene i s om o es y o g azing on neighbo ing, p i a e land.
The es o a ion plans we e hen modi ied o es o a ion ac i i ies
mo ed elsewhe e. The example om he Vindel Ri e LIFE
es o a ion p ojec shows ha in o ma ion and isi s o es o ed
si es s imula ed landowne s, who ea lie had ejec ed es o a ion
ac ions on hei land, o change hei decision. Res o a ion could
he ea e be implemen ed on hei land. In e es ingly, e en mo e
adical p ac ices han hose o iginally sugges ed we e hen used
because implemen a ion p ac ices had de eloped o e yea s based
on p e ious e alua ions. On he o he hand, es o a ion p ojec s
ini ia ed a high go e nmen al le els, such as pa liamen a y
decisions, may es ic he lexibili y o es o a ion plans as seen
in he example om he Skje n Ri e . Only mino adjus men s
we e made ollowing he manda o y en i onmen al impac
assessmen a e he ini ial p ojec plan. Al hough he Do e
Moun ains p ojec has clea obliga ions o he No wegian
pa liamen , and he No wegian De ense Es a e Agency had been
ully esponsible o he p ojec , bo h expe knowledge and
s akeholde opinions we e inco po a ed in o he inal
implemen a ion. In he No he n G ea Plains g assland
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es o a ion p ojec , scien i ic expe s we e pa ne s wi h he
Na ional Pa k s a and collabo a ed on he echnique and
loca ion o es o a ion, as well as e alua ion o i s e ec i eness.
Technical e alua ion o whe he he p ojec was implemen ed as
planned a ied among p ojec s. The G een Bel p ojec applied
simila p ocedu es o he Canadian p ojec o make su e ha he
size and numbe o es o a ion si es and he applied p ac ices
ollowed he es o a ion plan.
S ep 3: E alua ion wi hin implemen a ion
Mos p ojec s used al eady es ablished (“bes -p ac ice”)
es o a ion p ac ices. Howe e , because o e alua ion du ing he
implemen a ion s ep (“lea ning by doing”), adjus men s we e also
common. In he No he n G ea Plains g assland es o a ion
example, obse a ions du ing implemen a ion sugges ed a need
o allow soil-seed con ac by emo ing ex an ege a ion, which
led o highe success o ein oduced plan s. Imp o ed scien i ic
me hods we e also es ed: in he G een Bel pea land es o a ion
p ojec , a new and mo e expensi e me hod o wood emo al was
applied by he implemen e (a esea che ) wi hou ex a cos o
he p ojec owne . In cases o insu icien expe ience, possibili ies
o adjus men s we e inco po a ed in o he implemen a ion plan.
Fo example, in he long- e m Skje n Ri e es o a ion p ojec ,
ende s we e made s epwise o inco po a e ini ial expe iences in
la e phases o implemen a ion. E alua ions ook place in he
ield o as egula mee ings and included p ojec owne s, planne s,
and con ac o s. This also occu ed in he Do e Moun ains
whe e he p ojec owne and expe s egula ly me wi h he
machine ope a o s in he ield. This was also he case when public
o ice s and a me s in he p ojec Fa me s Heal he Land
discussed ield me hods. Such e alua ions we e o en in o mal
and p oduced limi ed documen a ion. The ou come o e alua ion
was seen as modi ica ions on a p ac ical le el, e.g., in se e al
p ojec s whe e dis ibu ion o plan s, u size, selec ed ype o
g a el, and echnical equipmen used, led o changes in
implemen a ion. La ge-scale modi ica ions we e also made, as in
he Skje n Ri e example whe e modi ica ions in he planned
mo emen o soil led o an enla gemen o an al eady planned
lake.
S ep 4: E alua ion be ween implemen a ion and moni o ing
In his s ep p ac i ione s passed in o ma ion o he moni o ing
eams abou he accomplished wo k and i s loca ion. De ia ions
om he o iginal plan we e highligh ed so ha moni o ing could
be conduc ed in he a eas whe e i made mos sense. Fo example,
in he es o a ion o mon ane g assland in Sco land, maps
showing which ype o ence (sheep only, o sheep and abbi ) and
hei loca ions we e passed on o he moni o ing eam. In he
G een Bel o es es o a ion p ojec , moni o ed si es had o be
mo ed because o mis akes made in he placemen o es o a ion.
In he Vindel Ri e , p ac i ione s upda ed he moni o ing eam
on changes in me hods o acili a e moni o ing. The bulk o
in o ma ion low in his s ep wen om he p ac i ione s o he
moni o ing eams. Howe e , he moni o ing could also eed back
o he p ac i ione s, po en ially esul ing in di ec modi ica ion
o ongoing wo k on he si e. This was he case a he alpine
hea hland es o a ion p ojec in Do e Moun ains, and in he
angeland es o a ion p ojec in Iceland, whe e he e we e clea
a enues o in o mal dialogue be ween he p ac i ione s and he
people ca ying ou he moni o ing. When he es o a ion wo k
was conduc ed as pa o an expe imen , such as he mon ane
g assland es o a ion in Sco land, he moni o ing eam had o
communica e wi h he p ac i ione s o ensu e ha he layou o
he plo s p o ided su icien eplica ion. E alua ion in his s ep
was o en ongoing h oughou he p ojec . The e we e also
examples when moni o ing s a ed be o e implemen a ion o he
es o a ion o ga he baseline da a, e.g., in he G een Bel pea land
and o es es o a ion p ojec s. In hese cases he implemen a ion
ac i i ies such as di ch-closing and logging we e planned o a oid
damaging he g oundwa e sampling wells and moni o ing gea .
S ep 5: E alua ion wi hin moni o ing
Fo mal moni o ing usually s a ed a e he p ac ical wo k was
inished. Some excep ions we e ound, howe e , as in he Do e
Moun ains alpine hea hland es o a ion p ojec whe e
moni o ing s a ed ou yea s be o e he ull-scale es o a ion was
implemen ed in o de o suppo he p ojec wi h ele an
backg ound in o ma ion and allow “be o e and a e ”
compa isons. In some cases, he chosen a iables did no show
much change. Fo example, e y li le bio ic change was ound in
he Vindel Ri e du ing he i s wo decades a e es o a ion. To
ensu e ha moni o ing succeeded in de ec ing an ex emely slow
esponse, moni o ing was con inued using he same a iables. In
he mon ane g assland es o a ion p ojec in Sco land, a simila
si ua ion was sol ed by adding 6 mo e moni o ing yea s o he
o iginal 11. Long- e m moni o ing also allowed he
documen a ion o es o a ion ailu e, e.g., he g assland
es o a ion p ojec in Canada in which na i e species we e
eplaced by successional wa es o exo ic in ade s o e 18 yea s.
To ensu e ha a lack o esponse was no caused by moni o ing
he w ong a iables, addi ional a iables we e some imes chosen
o moni o ing, bu moni o ing o he o iginal a iables was
main ained. In he Canadian g assland es o a ion p ojec , he
unexpec ed lowe ing o p ominen a ge species was quan i ied.
In o he cases, he es o a ion led o eme gence o new
mic ohabi a ypes, such as hose in di ches ollowing es o a ion
o d ained pea lands in Finland. In hese cases, new plo s we e
es ablished in addi ion o he o iginal ones in o de no o miss
any change in he es o ed si e.
S ep 6: E alua ion be ween moni o ing and planning
Moni o ing eams o en had double oles in ha hey epo ed
back o bo h es o a ion p ac i ione s and planne s. In bo h hese
cases, in o ma ion could be e alua ed (s eps 4 and 6, espec i ely).
An impo an pa o he epo s consis ed o mo e o less
s anda dized documen a ion o he p ojec esul s. Repo s o
planne s sugges ed modi ica ions o he plans and p ojec designs
ha could ei he be igno ed, le o conside a ion in u u e
p ojec s, o assimila ed in cu en p ojec s. We ound se e al
examples o moni o ing esul s being adop ed in cu en and
u u e p ojec s. Fo ins ance, in he Vindel Ri e , s udies showed
ha wa e was no slowed down du ing high lows because o he
lack o la ge elemen s such as big boulde s and ee unks. The
la ge elemen s we e consequen ly inco po a ed in he p ojec and
sugges ed o planne s o inclusion in u u e p ojec s. A simila
example comes om he emo al o mili a y oads in he Do e
Moun ains whe e moni o ing p o ided hands-on ad ice on how
o modi y he plans, a modi ica ion ha was also implemen ed.
In he g assland es o a ion in Canada, moni o ing showed ha
he o iginal plan o elimina e nonna i e plan s was un ealis ic,
and he ag eed comp omise was o keep hem bu manage he
land in such a way ha hey we e kep a a lowe abundance han
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be o e. In he Skje n Ri e , moni o ing led he p ojec owne s o
adjus he bounda ies o he es o ed si e and o compensa e he
landowne s economically. Moni o ing also led o changed g azing
s a egies in he es o ed a ea. In he Finnish o es es o a ion
and o he simila o es es o a ion p ojec s, moni o ing showed
ha ee cu ing was an ine icien me hod o ini ia e succession
o b ing back he desi ed h ea ened species and his in o ma ion
was used o make subsequen plans.
Ou esul s indica e ha e alua ion could ha e an impac in all
o he s eps, bu ha he impo ance a ied among s eps (Fig. 2).
Al hough he i s ou e alua ion s eps we e mos impo an o
ongoing es o a ion p ojec s, he las wo e alua ion s eps we e
mos likely o a ec u u e p ojec s.
Fig. 2. Po en ial o e alua ion o cause changes in p ojec
planning, implemen a ion, moni o ing, and u u e p ojec s.
Black = high po en ial; Da k g ay = mode a e po en ial
(modi ies some bu no all p ojec s); Ligh g ay = possible
changes on a e occasions bu lack o documen a ion (a leas
in he p ojec s analyzed in he p esen s udy); Whi e = changes
a e unlikely o happen. E alua ion s eps a e de ined in he
In oduc ion and in Table 1.
DISCUSSION
Ou analysis clea ly demons a es ha ecological es o a ion
p ojec s can include e alua ion h oughou he es o a ion
p ocess. In ou 10 case s udies, he h ee basic es o a ion phases,
planning, implemen a ion, and moni o ing, all in ol ed
componen s o e alua ion and e lec ion, wi hin as well as
be ween phases. Thus, we go a clea “yes” answe o ou i s
ques ion on whe he he selec ed da a se includes examples o
e alua ion a each o he six s eps. Ou case s udies also
demons a ed ha e alua ions can be o mal as well as in o mal,
and in many p ojec s bo h kinds occu ed. Fo mal e alua ions
we e usually linked o manda o y p ocesses such as en i onmen al
impac assessmen s, hea ings o land-use planning, esea ch and
scien i ic publica ion, o s ic p o ocols. Examples o in o mal
e alua ion included discussions and o he exchange o
in o ma ion be ween ac o s in ol ed in es o a ion, bu also
c i ical hinking by indi idual ac o s. No ac o was o mally
excluded om he e alua ion p ocess, bu he combina ions o
ac o s in ol ed a ied among phases and p ojec s. In gene al,
in o mal e alua ions we e poo ly documen ed, i a all, bu s ill
buil up impo an expe iences and knowledge among he ac o s
in ol ed.
In many o he case s udies, he in o mal e alua ion p ocesses
also led o impo an modi ica ion o he es o a ion wo k. This
means ha also he second ques ion on whe he he e a e s eps
a which e alua ion led o modi ica ion o p ojec s can be
answe ed “yes.” In gene al, he la ge EU p ojec s G een Bel LIFE
in Finland and Vindel Ri e LIFE in Sweden had mo e
manda o y e alua ion p ocesses han he o he p ojec s, which is
easonable gi en ha la ge p ojec s a e expensi e and may a ec
many peoples’ li es. This does no necessa ily mean, howe e , ha
he e alua ion is always sa is ac o y. Fo example, Mo sing e al.
(2013) analyzed 13 comple ed LIFE p ojec s in Denma k and
ound ha hei e alua ion was ocused on ecosys em s uc u es,
which was no conside ed su icien o assess he eco e y o
ecosys em p ocesses. Measu ing s uc u es is o en he key o
e alua e p ocesses because di ec quan i ica ion o p ocesses can
be a he di icul , al hough no impossible (Muo ka and
Laasonen 2002, Ruiz-Jaén and Aide 2005). Ecosys em p ocesses
ela ed o he nu ien cycling, such as decomposi ion and
mine aliza ion a es we e in ac moni o ed in he G een Bel
LIFE p ojec (Ta ainen e al. 2013), bu hese e alua ions we e
made using o he sou ces han he EU unding. As he basic
knowledge on he es o a ion impac s on he ecosys em s uc u e
is con inuously inc easing, es o a ion p ojec s can di ec mo e
unding o he e alua ion o ecosys em p ocesses in he u u e.
E alua ions in he analyzed p ojec s had h ee aims: (1) o assis
he es o a ion p ocess, (2) o judge he ou come o he es o a ion
wo ks, and (3) o ga he in o ma ion ha could se e as a basis
o deciding whe he expe iences om ecen p ojec s could be
used in u u e p ojec s. Wi h espec o he ou come, e alua ions
could ei he iden i y which es o a ion p ojec s had achie ed hei
goals, o iden i y weaknesses ha could lead o changes in one o
mo e o he planning, implemen a ion, and moni o ing phases,
o u u e p ojec s. To ully e alua e he ou comes, all ele an
a iables, including he social ones, should be included.
Ba hélémy and A mani (2015) no ed ha social p ocesses and
local expe iences a e o en igno ed in es o a ion p ojec s and
A onson e al. (2010) and Blignau e al. (2013, 2014) ound ha
he bene i s o es o a ion o socie y we e no gi en due a en ion.
In mos o ou case s udies, howe e , he social componen was
ai ly well included in he p ojec s. In o ma ion used in he p ocess
o planning e alua ion is especially in e es ing o he public,
because people end o esis change, including changes w ough
by es o a ion (O eg 2003). Howe e , al hough mos p ojec s deal
wi h social p ocesses, hese p ocesses we e seldom quan i ied.
Ins ead, he da a a ailable o judging he success o p ojec s we e
bio ic in mos o he case s udies. This is a po en ial weakness
because many s udies ha e ound ha bio ic a iables exhibi a
poo eco e y and ha an ea ly judgemen can lead o biased
conclusions (Palme e al. 2010, Nilsson e al. 2015). In such cases,
i is likely ha es o a ion ac o s will ha e o wai longe be o e
hey can d aw any conclusions om he e alua ion. I espec i e
o he esul s o e alua ions, hei quali y may a y conside ably.
Fo example, in an analysis o 62 Eu opean e alua ion s udies,
Kleijn and Su he land (2003) showed ha many e alua ions we e
oo poo ly designed o allow any conclusions abou whe he
p ojec s had eached hei goals. To a oid such ailu es, well-
designed, s anda dized p o ocols a e needed (Palme e al. 2005,
Ku h and Schi me 2014).
Ou inal ques ion was abou limi a ions o he e alua ion o
es o a ion. A majo challenge wi h ega d o e alua ion is how
i is documen ed and epo ed, i a all. I is ue ha e y ew
es o a ion p ojec s unde go o mal e alua ion (e.g., Kondol and
Micheli 1995, Be nha d e al. 2005, B ooks and Lake 2007), bu
i hey do, i usually esul s in some kind o w i en documen a ion
o pho og aphs. Ou analysis co obo a ed his iew. Mos o he
in es iga ed p ojec s included componen s o in o mal e alua ion
and hese we e a ely documen ed o epo ed, which means ha
Ecology and Socie y 21(1): 41
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lessons lea ned canno ully bene i u u e p ojec s unless hey a e
p ope ly communica ed be ween he espec i e g oups o
es o a ion ac o s. Such communica ion be ween o example
scien is s who ha e gene a ed knowledge and p ac i ione s who
a e expec ed o apply i is an in ica e ask (Hulme 2014). In ou
analysis, howe e , we we e able o unco e much in o mal
e alua ion simply because we had pe sonal knowledge abou he
p ojec s and expanded ou knowledge by collec ing mo e
in o ma ion om es o a ion ac o s in ol ed. E en i es o a ion
ac o s do no documen o epo hei indings, esul s can s ill
be p ese ed i he e a e in e es ed end-use s. This means ha he
esul s o some kinds o e alua ion can be gleaned om end-use s
and he public by way o ield isi s, websi es, media a icles,
eache educa ion, school isi s, oadside in e p e i e displays,
and museum exhibi s. Such e alua ions a e also impo an o
sha e wi h ac o s in u u e es o a ion p ojec s.
We we e also able o ge access o hidden examples o documen ed
e alua ion. The ac ha e alua ions a e documen ed does no
necessa ily mean ha hey a e made public. I published, his may
ha e been done in epo s o o he g ay li e a u e ha is poo ly
accessible o he wide scien i ic communi y (A ado i and
Hagen 2013). To make dissemina ion o all documen ed
in o ma ion possible, i should ideally be a chi ed in open,
sea chable da abases.
E en i es o a ion p ojec s unde go e alua ion and esul in
published epo s, we ound i di icul o ge a g asp o en i e
p ojec s by eading he dissemina ed wo k om he 10 s udied
cases. Ou analysis sugges s ha only he mos “in e es ing” and
“success ul” ou comes o he di e en e alua ion s eps a e widely
dissemina ed o he public. This is a gene al issue ha leads o
unde ep esen a ion o “ ailed” es o a ion p ojec s in he
li e a u e (c . Zedle 2007). The low accep ance a es o scien i ic
jou nals, and he ime equi ed o p epa e and submi a pape ,
discou age publica ion, especially o local and s a is ically
nonsigni ican esul s o o seemingly ailed p ojec s. The e o e,
making p ojec e alua ions public is a majo challenge.
Ou case s udies also p o ided examples o he impo ance o
public educa ion along-side e alua ion. In he Vindel Ri e
es o a ion p ojec landowne s who we e eluc an o es o e hei
s eams changed hei minds a e ha ing seen he esul o o he
es o a ion p ojec s (Ga des öm e al. 2013). In addi ion, i also
sugges s ha con idence be ween es o a ion ac o s and
landowne s can be buil i es o a ion p ojec s a e no ushed o
imposed on people (c . Bunn e al. 2010). O he examples o
educa ion include in o ma ion abou he ole o ecological
es o a ion and he impo ance o na i e biodi e si y (Hulme
2006) and s ic e con ols on in oduc ions o nonna i e species
( an Wilgen and Richa dson 2014).
Ano he impo an challenge is he pe sis ence o an e alua ion
esul . Fo mal e alua ions, i ca ied ou , usually apply o
moni o ing esul s ga he ed in s ep 5. Gene ally, such e alua ions
a e based on sho - e m moni o ing da ase s because mos
moni o ing p og ams do no supply he esou ces necessa y o
awai he long- e m e ec s o es o a ion (Suding 2011, Nilsson
e al. 2015). E alua ions based on es ic ed ime pe iods may
miss conside able amoun s o in o ma ion ha , p ope ly used,
could ha e led o modi ica ion o he en i e es o a ion p ocess
and hope ully be e es o a ion p ac ices in he u u e, i.e.,
adap i e managemen (Williams 2011). Ins ead, cookbook
solu ions (Hilde b and e al. 2005, F yi s and B ie ley 2009), o en
nonop imal, a e likely o become o e used. To sol e his p oblem,
a e ised app oach o unding and moni o ing is equi ed. An
example o such an app oach can be ound in no he n Sweden,
whe e a cou e dic o e a dispu ed ailway cons uc ion
h ough a Na u a 2000 a ea led o he unding o a 100-yea
moni o ing p og am (Länss y elsen Väs e bo en 2015). The
objec i es o his p og am a e o e alua e he long- e m e ec s o
he ailway and a numbe o compensa ion measu es on he
wildli e in he a ea, bu also o manage he a ea so i can main ain
i s wildli e alues. A special ounda ion boa d wi h ep esen a i es
om landowne s, NGOs, public au ho i ies, and scien is s is
esponsible o he managemen o he moni o ing and e alua ion
and also makes su e ha he collec ed in o ma ion is s o ed and
made a ailable o in e es ed use s (Länss y elsen Väs e bo en
2015).
We conclude ha ecosys em es o a ion p ac ices a e de eloping,
al hough slowly, because he ac o s in ol ed e alua e and modi y
hei p ac ices h oughou he es o a ion p ocess. In he majo i y
o cases, howe e , he e alua ion is in o mal and no documen ed,
meaning ha lessons lea ned can only be o wa ded i
communica ed among ac o s in ol ed o i es o a ion is
implemen ed by he same ac o who de eloped an e alua ion s ep.
To speed up he e ec i eness o ecological es o a ion, we
ecommend ha ac o s e lec abou hei p ac ices, documen
hei expe iences and sp ead he wo d abou hei indings, bo h
successes and ailu es. In addi ion o mo e adi ional ways o
in e ac ion, he mode n digi al wo ld o e s nume ous
possibili ies o sha ing he lessons lea ned. Ano he impo an
de elopmen would be an economic analysis o he cos -e iciency
o moni o ing and e alua ion. Inc eased knowledge in his espec
has he po en ial o os e a be e unde s anding o he
signi icance o budge ing o e alua ion in e e y es o a ion
p ojec .
Responses o his a icle can be ead online a :
h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/issues/ esponses.
php/8289
Acknowledgmen s:
This s udy was conduc ed unde he p ojec E Res - E alua ion o
Ecological Res o a ion in he No h, unded by he No dic Council
o Minis e s. We hank h ee e iewe s o aluable commen s.
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