Categorization of simulated diagnostic situations and the salience of diagnostic information

© 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) h ps://doi.o g/10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 O iginal A icle Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions and he salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion Concep ual amewo k Nils Mach s1 , Olga Che niko a2, Tho ben Jansen3 , Ma c Weidenbusch4 , F ank Fische 2, and Jens Mölle 1 1 Ins i u e o Psychology o Lea ning and Ins uc ion (IPL), Kiel Uni e si y, Ge many 2 Chai o Educa ion and Educa ional Psychology, Uni e si y o Munich (LMU), Ge many 3 Leibniz Ins i u e o Science and Ma hema ics Educa ion (IPN), Kiel Uni e si y, Ge many 4 Uni e si y Hospi al, Uni e si y o Munich (LMU), Ge many Abs ac : Simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions unc ion as lea ning en i onmen s and esea ch ools o deepen he unde s anding o diagnos ic p ocesses. In his concep ual pape , we p esen a amewo k ha ul ils wo pu poses. Fi s , we ca ego ize simula ions o diagnos ic si ua ions using six desc ip i e componen s: physical en i onmen , social embeddedness, diagnos ic asks, ac i i ies, in o ma ion, and decisions. Second, we disc imina e he salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion in o ou ace s: access, p ominence, simplici y, and cla i y. These ace s de e mine he likelihood ha pa icipan s in a simula ion will pe cei e and p ocess ele an diagnos ic in o ma ion owa d co ec o accu a e diagnos ic de- cisions. We use one simula ion o explain hese componen s and ace s in mo e de ail. Wi h his sys ema ic concep ualiza ion, we in end o deepen he unde s anding o how and why simula ions wo k in c ea ing au hen ic diagnos ic si ua ions, measu ing diagnos ic compe encies, and p o iding lea ning en i onmen s o he acili a ion o hese compe encies in highe educa ion. Keywo ds: diagnos ic compe encies, simula ions, lea ning en i onmen s Ka ego isie ung on Simula ionen diagnos ische Si ua ionen und die Bedeu ung diagnos ische In o ma ionen: Konzep ionelle Rahmen Zusammen assung: Simula ionen diagnos ische Si ua ionen dienen sowohl als Le numgebung als auch als Fo schungsins umen e zu Ve - ie ung des Ve s ändnisses on diagnos ischen P ozessen. In diesem konzep ionellen Papie s ellen wi einen Rahmen o , de zwei Zwecke e üll . E s ens ka ego isie en wi Simula ionen diagnos ische Si ua ionen anhand on sechs desk ip i en Komponen en: physische Umge- bung, soziale Einbe ung, diagnos ische Au gaben, Ak i i ä en, In o ma ionen und En scheidungen. Zwei ens un e scheiden wi die Salienz de diagnos ischen In o ma ionen in ie Face en: Zugänglichkei , Au älligkei , Ein achhei und Kla hei . Diese Face en bes immen die Wah - scheinlichkei , dass die Teilnehme _innen an eine Simula ion ele an e diagnos ische In o ma ionen wah nehmen und e a bei en, um ko - ek e ode genaue diagnos ische En scheidungen e en zu können. Wi e wenden eine Beispielsimula ion, um die Komponen en und Face - en nähe zu e läu e n. Mi diese sys ema ischen Konzep ualisie ung wollen wi das Ve s ändnis da ü e ie en, wie und wa um Simula ionen bei de Scha ung au hen ische diagnos ische Si ua ionen, de Messung diagnos ische Kompe enzen und de Be ei s ellung on Le numge- bungen ü die Fö de ung diese Kompe enzen in de Hochschulbildung unk ionie en. Schlüsselwö e : Diagnos ische Kompe enzen, Simula ionen, Le numgebungen In oduc ion Making p o essional decisions based on knowledge o o h- e people's cha ac e is ics is a c ucial ac i i y in many p o essional domains, such as diagnosing pa ien s in medi- cine, de e mining clien s' needs in counseling, o iden i y- ing lea ne s' misconcep ions in eaching. These ac i i ies equi e a ange o skills ela ed o collec ing, e alua ing, and u ilizing diagnos ic in o ma ion. T aining people in hese skills is one o he essen ial asks o highe educa ion (e. g., Che niko a, Hei zmann, Fink, e al., 2020). One me hod o acili a ing hei u he de elopmen is he im- h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 4 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) plemen a ion o simula ion-based lea ning (e. g., Cook, 2014; Che niko a, Hei zmann, S adle , e al., 2020; Ga - meie e al., 2015). Simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions a e equen ly used o in es iga e diagnos ic p ocesses in di - e en domains (Cod eanu e al., 2020; Kaise e al., 2013; Südkamp e al., 2008) and o e alua e he e ec i eness o lea ning and eaching s a egies (e. g., Che niko a, Hei z- mann, S adle , e al., 2020). Howe e , he e is no ame- wo k ha allows o c oss-domain compa isons o simula- ion ea u es, he gene alizabili y o he ob ained esul s, and he ans e o good p ac ices be ween domains. The e o e, we aim o de elop such a amewo k. In doing so, we ely on (1) he simila i ies in scien i ic easoning and a gumen a ion ha unde lie he diagnos ic p ocesses in medical and eache educa ion (see Fische e al., 2014) and (2) he e ec s o p oblem-sol ing on he de elopmen o diagnos ic compe ences ac oss domains (Che niko a, Hei zmann, Fink, e al., 2020). In spi e o all he possible di e ences be ween he con ex s o eal-li e diagnos ic si ua ions, simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions sha e se e al ea u es ac oss domains. A co e ea u e ha makes simula ions e ec i e ools o esea ch and educa- ion is ha hey o e a high le el o design con ol in e ms o he asks gi en o pa icipan s, he a ailable diagnos ic ac i i ies, and he diagnos ic in o ma ion ha pa icipan s ecei e. This con ol allows o esea ching and acili a ing diagnos ic compe encies in pa icula diagnos ic si ua- ions, such as si ua ions wi h a lo o unce ain y, a ely occu ing si ua ions, o si ua ions ocusing on indi idual diagnos ic ac i i ies. Howe e , gains in he in e nal alidi- y o such con olled condi ions can also inc ease hei a i iciali y, posing a h ea o aspec s o ex e nal alidi y (e. g., pe cei ed u ili y alue and au hen ici y) ha play a signi ican ole in he e ec i eness o simula ions (Che niko a e al., 2024). This makes i a delica e bu c u- cial ask o he designe s o simula ions o ind a balance be ween expe imen al con ol and he au hen ic ep esen- a ion o ac ual si ua ions. S udies ha u ilize simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions em- ploy di e en measu es o diagnos ic compe encies, such as judgmen accu acy (e. g., Kaise e al., 2017), o he sco - ing me hods o diagnos ic success (e. g., Klug e al., 2013; K on e al., 2021), and epo a ious measu es o he aining e ec s (Che niko a, Hei zmann, S adle , e al., 2020). A close look a speci ic applica ions o simula ions also e eals di e ences in how designe s ealize con ol o e elemen s o he simula ion. Fo example, he au ho s may decide o elie e pa icipan s om a diagnos ic ac i - i y, such as he e alua ion o diagnos ic in o ma ion, by labeling ele an pieces o in o ma ion, hus making i easie o a i e a co ec diagnos ic decisions. Al e na i e- ly, hey migh o e load pa icipan s wi h dis ac ing i el- e an in o ma ion, equi ing pa icipan s o ac i ely selec ele an in o ma ion. Ul ima ely, simula ions can be adap ed o a ious pu poses, bu simila e ec sizes can yield di e en meanings depending on he simula ion de- sign. Exis ing concep ual amewo ks desc ibe he na u e o diagnos ic ac i i ies, indi idual p e equisi es, ins uc ion, and con ex (Che niko a e al., 2022; Hei zmann e al., 2019; Loibl e al., 2020); howe e , hey do no p o ide a sys ema ic b eakdown o di e ences be ween how a ious diagnos ic si ua ions a e applied o simula ions, especially in e ms o he p esen a ion o diagnos ic in o ma ion and he ways o p ocessing hem. Consequen ly, we hope o es ablish a concep ual amewo k o accoun o hese di - e ences so ha we can sys ema ically ca ego ize simula - ed diagnos ic si ua ions, explain a iances in hei esul s, and ul ima ely p o ide a common language o he design p inciples o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions used o meas- u e and acili a e diagnos ic compe encies. Ou app oach en ails wo s eps. Fi s , we es ablish an ou e amewo k o he s uc u al componen s o simula - ed diagnos ic si ua ions. Exis ing modeling app oaches p o ide insigh s in o he s uc u al elemen s o diagnos ic si ua ions in eal-li e con ex s (Fiske & Neube g, 1990; Ka s e al., 2017; Loibl e al., 2020). Ou amewo k builds on hese exis ing concep s; howe e , is clea ly o ien ed o- wa d wha Loibl e al. (2020) call he ex e nal aspec s o he diagnos ic si ua ion, as hese aspec s a e modi iable h ough simula ion design p inciples. Second, we es ablish a ocus on diagnos ic in o ma ion, elabo a ing on why i ep esen s he co e componen o a diagnos ic si ua ion as he basis o each diagnos ic decision. In doing so, we u i- lize he psychological e m salience – he p ope y o s imu- li o s and ou and be likely o d aw a pe cei e s' selec i e a en ion (Higgins, 1996) – o classi y he p esen a ion o ele an diagnos ic in o ma ion in a simula ion. Gene ally, ou app oach implies ha a highe salience o ele an in- o ma ion inc eases he likelihood o pa icipan s making co ec o accu a e diagnos ic decisions (Che niko a e al., 2024). Then, wi h ou concep es ablished, we p esen an example o how he amewo k can be applied o he e- sea ch design o an exis ing simula ed diagnos ic si ua- ion. Finally, we discuss ou concep using a esea ch agen- da ou line deduced om i s applica ion possibili ies, including he in e play be ween con ol o e he salience o in o ma ion and he pe cei ed au hen ici y o a simula- ion. Simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions Fo his amewo k, we de ine diagnos ic si ua ions om a minimalis pe spec i e. In o he wo ds, we aim o iden i y h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions 5 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) he necessa y and su icien componen s o diagnos ic si ua ions ac oss domains, as well as he addi ional com- ponen s ha con ibu e o he a iabili y o such si ua- ions. We also build ou amewo k on he p emise o be- ing able o ec ea e a diagnos ic si ua ion accu a ely in a simula ion. Acco dingly, in e e ence o he ecen ly in o- duced DiaCoM model o diagnos ic si ua ions (Loibl e al., 2020), indi idual diagnos icians' cha ac e is ics a e o second na u e o he p oposed gene al s uc u e o a diag- nos ic si ua ion. O he wise, ou app oach sha es s uc u al simila i ies, whe eby we shi he ocus owa d inding amilies o echnical componen s ha simula ion design- e s exe cise con ol o e . We p opose ha he gene al s uc u e o diagnos ic si u- a ions mus necessa ily include – in he b oades sense – diagnos icians who (a) iden i y diagnos ic in o ma ion on diagnos ic a ge s and (b) apply his in o ma ion o ensu- ing diagnos ic decisions. In addi ion o hese necessa y el- emen s, mos diagnos ic si ua ions include objec i es o pe o ming diagnos ics and a diagnos ic p ocess ha in- cludes a ious diagnos ic ac i i ies o accomplish hese objec i es. Finally, diagnos ic si ua ions un old unde spe- ci ic physical condi ions and a e embedded in some o m o social in e ac ion o social ele ance. In simula ions o diagnos ic si ua ions, designe s c ea e ep esen a ions o such si ua ions using a ying se s o ools and deg ees o p oximi y o examples om eal li e (G ossmann e al., 2009). Two impo an esea ch ields o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions in highe educa ion a emedicine and educa ion, which – despi e ob ious dis- pa i ies – sha e he gene al s uc u e o diagnos ic si ua- ions (Hei zmann e al., 2019). A main di e ence among simula ion designs conce ns whe he pa icipan s in e ac wi h simula ed pe sons and de i e in o ma ion a leas pa ly om his in e ac ion, o whe he hey acqui e ac- cess h ough documen ed in o ma ion (Hei zmann e al., 2019). Bo h he medical and educa ional ields o e ep e- sen a ions o hese wo gene al design app oaches. Fo ex- ample, in he educa ional ield, Kaise e al. (2017) used simula ed s uden s in a simula ed class oom. Pa icipan s in he ole o a eache applied a ques ion-answe schema as a o m o simpli ied ins uc ion o ga he ing in o ma- ion on hei s uden s' lesson pe o mance by in e ac ing wi h hem. In he medical ield, Liaw and Huang (2013) used a pa ien simula o ha p esen ed espi a o y and ca dio ascula dis ess symp oms, and pa icipan s pe - o med acu e ca e managemen based on hei in e ac- ions wi h he pa ien simula o . Al e na i ely, in ano he example om he educa ional ield, Jansen e al.'s (2021) pa icipan s had access o mul iple s uden ex s and had o make a ious judgmen s on he quali y o hese ex s by p ocessing he documen ed in o ma ion a di e en ana- ly ical le els. In a simila example om he medical ield, Chambe land e al. (2015) p esen ed pa icipan s wi h clinical cases o jaundice ha included he pa ien 's chie complain ; backg ound in o ma ion; and indings om his- o y- aking, a physical examina ion, and labo a o y es s. The pa icipan s hen had o p ocess he documen s o make diagnos ic decisions abou he unde lying diseases. In bo h basic simula ion design p inciples, he close ela ionship be ween con en and lea ning scena ios in highe educa ion ins i u ions and eal-wo ld p o essional si ua ions helps suppo u u e p o essionals in acqui ing p ac ice-o ien ed p o essional knowledge, skills, and com- pe ences (Blömeke e al., 2015). Al hough sys ema ic e- sea ch has e ealed he la ge posi i e e ec s o simula ion- based lea ning in di e en domains o highe educa ion (Cook e al., 2013; Theelen e al., 2019), analyses ha e also e ealed la ge he e ogenei y in he e ec s, indica ing ha simula ion-based lea ning en i onmen s and he included ins uc ional suppo measu es di e in hei e ec i eness (Che niko a, Hei zmann, S adle , e al., 2020). A emp s o explo e di e en ea u es o simula ion-based en i on- men s – such as he use o echnology, ins uc ional sup- po , and lea ne s' p e equisi es (Che niko a, Hei zmann, S adle , e al., 2020) – s ill lea e much o his a iance un- explained. I is impo an o conside he ex en o which simula- ions ep esen ac ual p ac ice in e ms o he lea ne 's de- mands, he na u e o he simula ed si ua ion and he en i- onmen , and he pa icipan s in ol ed (Allen e al., 1991). Hams a e al. (2014) also emphasized he impo ance o dis inguishing be ween he physical esemblance and unc ional co espondence o a ask o scena io. Howe e , simula ed en i onmen s also o e he oppo uni y o se- lec and modi y ep esen a ions o eali y (G ossman e al., 2009). As such, simula ions allow o ocusing on speci ic aspec s o ac ual asks and p ocesses, hus enabling he in es iga ion o speci ic e ec s unde expe imen al con- ol and he inclusion o a ge ed aining in e en ions. Es ablishing a clea concep ualiza ion o such modi ica- ions should hus allow o he pinpoin ing o he wo king mechanisms o simula ions and he iden i ica ion o which modi ica ions a e necessa y and which may h ea en a simula ion's pe cei ed u ili y alue and au hen ici y. In wha ollows, we expand on Loibl e al.'s (2020) and Hei zmann e al.'s (2019) amewo ks and p opose he sys- ema ic ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions ac oss six componen s, emphasizing he componen o di- agnos ic in o ma ion. We u he es ablish a concep o salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion and ca ego ize ou ac- e s. This concep ualiza ion e eals ha di e en simula- ions p o ide di e en oppo uni ies o in es iga e and acili a e he alidi y o diagnos ic decisions in e ms o pa icipan s gaining access o ele an in o ma ion, ocus- ing on ele an in o ma ion, managing complex decision h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 6 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) s uc u es, and dealing wi h ambiguous in o ma ion. Wi h ou example, we show ha ou p oposed componen s can be smoo hly applied o diagnos ic si ua ions and ha he p esen ed diagnos ic in o ma ion can be classi ied com- p ehensi ely using he ace s o salience. Wi h his concep ual amewo k, we lay he g oundwo k o a be e heo e ical unde s anding o he he e ogenei y o he e ec s o di e en ly simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions (see Che niko a, Hei zmann, S adle , e al., 2020). The amewo k can also se e as a common e e ence and lan- guage o desc ibe simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions and, hus, sys ema ize esea ch. A be e unde s anding o and mo e sys ema ic esea ch on simula ions can ul ima ely help de i e design p inciples o simula ions o di e en p o essional diagnos ic si ua ions and o pa icipan s wi h di e en p e equisi es. Concep ual amewo k Componen s o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions Al hough simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions ha e undamen- al di e ences in e ms o hei basic design p inciples, hey also ha e clea pa allels ac oss di e en domains and applica ions (Che niko a, Hei zmann, Fink, e al., 2020). In his chap e , we ou line six componen s ha enable he sys ema ic desc ip ion and di e en ia ion o simula ed di- agnos ic si ua ions (see Figu e1). Beyond he ca ego iza- 1 Fo example, in a co e diagnos ic si ua ion, a eache may ecei e a s uden answe and he simula ion may ask o an es ima ion ega ding whe he he s uden unde s ood he opic. Nei he he diagnos ic ask no ac i i y a e equi ed o his co e si ua ion. ion o di e en simula ions, hese componen s should also p o ide a clea isualiza ion o whe e in a simula ion designe s ha e he oppo uni y o c ea e a ia ions and implemen in e en ions o in es iga e and inc ease lea n- ing gains in measu es o diagnos ic success h ough he ins uc ional applica ion o such simula ions. I is impo - an o no e ha by ocusing on he design choices in simu- la ions, we exclude indi idual pa icipan s' cha ac e is ics and s a es om he componen s o he simula ed diagnos- ic si ua ion. This leads o a clea dis inc ion be ween his amewo k o diagnos ic si ua ions and he DiaCoM mod- el (Loibl e al., 2020). The gene al idea is as ollows: A simula ion o a diagnos- ic si ua ion has a physical en i onmen and is socially em- bedded bo h wi hin and ou side i sel . The inne pa ep- esen s he ac ual simula ion and mus always include he co e componen s o diagnos ic si ua ions: diagnos ic in- o ma ion and diagnos ic decisions.1 Addi ionally, i usu- ally includes diagnos ic asks and ac i i ies. The logical p ocess o a simula ion en ails se ing he ask, s a ing he ac i i ies, ending wi h a pool o in o ma ion, and conclud- ing wi h a diagnos ic decision. Ne e heless, i is easy o imagine a diagnos ic p ocess ha includes e ined asks a la e s ages o he simula ion and p elimina y diagnos ic decisions in he cou se o diagnos ic ac i i ies. Conse- quen ly, he ou componen s wi hin he simula ion o e - lap while main aining hei logical o de . In he ollowing sec ions, we desc ibe he six compo- nen s in mo e de ail o es ablish he ou e amewo k o ou ocal concep o he salience o he p esen ed diagnos- ic in o ma ion. Social Embeddedness Physical En i onmen Diagnos ic Tasks Simula ion Timeline Diagnos ic In o ma ion •Access •P ominence •Simplici y •Cla i y Diagnos ic Ac i i ies Diagnos ic Decisions Co e Componen s Figu e 1. Componen s o simula ions o diagnos ic si ua ions h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions 7 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) Physical en i onmen The physical en i onmen o simula ions conce ns he physical and echnical condi ions wi hin he simula ion i - sel and he ex e nal se up o he simula ion. I in ol es he design app oach (e. g., documen analysis o in e ac- ion wi h simula ed pe sons o g oups), he simula ion o - ma (e. g., compu e simula ion, ole-play, o ideo i- gne es), and he ex e nal applica ion o he simula ion (e. g., in a class oom o labo a o y se ing). In summa y, i e e s o how in o ma ion is p esen ed o he pa icipan s and how hey a e enabled o in e ac wi h pa s o he sim- ula ion. Social embeddedness The social embeddedness o simula ions conce ns he so- cial, emo ional, and mo i a ional condi ions bo h wi hin he simula ion i sel and wi hin i s ex e nal se up. I in- ol es ele an pe sons (e. g., employe s, ins uc o s, s u- den s, o collabo a i e pa ne s), a ewa d s uc u e (e. g., pa icipa ion allowances o gami ica ion elemen s), eed- back mechanisms (e. g., eedback abou co ec diagnoses a e comple ion o he assigned asks), o pe sonal ele- ance (e. g., pa icipa ing in he simula ion o acqui e a ce i ica e) and e e s o why and wi h whom one should pa icipa e. I is impo an o s ess ha he echnical com- ponen o social embeddedness conce ns he condi ions ou lined in he design and applica ion o he simula ion. Ac ual measu es o emo ional and mo i a ional s a es a e dependen a iables o hese condi ions. Howe e , such measu es can alida e wha he simula ion design wan s o achie e. Diagnos ic asks Diagnos ic asks conce n he ins uc ion pa icipan s e- cei e in he ini ial o ansi ional phases o a simula ion. These asks can include he ini ial in o ma ion om which diagnos ic decisions ollow and he p omp ing o ecom- menda ion o ele an diagnos ic ac i i ies. Diagnos ic asks mus ini ia e diagnos ic ac i i ies; hus, we do no conside he di ec eques o make diagnos ic decisions a e acqui ing diagnos ic in o ma ion o be a diagnos ic ask. Ob iously, diagnos ic asks p esen an excellen op- po uni y o in e en ional expe imen al-con olled de- signs in simula ions by gi ing g oups o pa icipan s di e - en ins uc ions conce ning hei ac i i ies du ing he simula ion (e. g., ins uc ions may ad ise an expe imen al g oup o sys ema ically collec in o ma ion on mul iple a ge cha ac e is ics, whe eas a con ol g oup may ecei e no such ins uc ion). Diagnos ic ac i i ies Diagnos ic ac i i ies a e wha he pa icipan s do du ing he simula ion and include bo h ac ions as well as cogni- i e p ocesses. In acco dance wi h ou minimalis ic de ini- ion o diagnos ic si ua ions, diagnos ic ac i i ies mus en ail iden i ying diagnos ic in o ma ion o suppo subse- quen diagnos ic decisions. In addi ion, many simula ions equi e pa icipan s o gene a e diagnos ic in o ma ion h ough a ious a ailable ac ions. Fu he diagnos ic ac- i i ies can include es ablishing diagnos ic objec i es o u u e ac ions, gene a ing hypo heses ha may in luence u he engagemen wi h diagnos ic asks, and e alua ing collec ed diagnos ic in o ma ion. Simula ions can exe cise con ol o e a ange o hese cogni i e ac i i ies (e. g., by modi ying he p esen ed in o ma ion, o by p omp ing speci ic ac i i ies). Simula ions can also explica e o he - wise unobse able cogni i e ac i i ies (e. g., by allowing o equi ing pa icipan s o documen hei ac i i ies o hei acqui ed diagnos ic in o ma ion), hus making hese ac i i ies a ailable as dependen a iables. Conside ing ha we excluded pa icipan s' emo ional and psychologi- cal s a es as a componen o he amewo k bu included diagnos ic ac i i ies, we may appea o be walking a hin line, as bo h a e o some ex en dependen a iables. How- e e , he ange o possible ac ions associa ed wi h diag- nos ic ac i i ies is na u ally cons ained by he design o each simula ion; his makes hese ac i i ies a genuine am- ily o con olled elemen s despi e he possibili y ha ac u- ally pe o med diagnos ic ac i i ies could be es ablished as mode a o s and media o s o measu es o diagnos ic success. Diagnos ic in o ma ion Diagnos ic in o ma ion conce ns s imuli ha a e pe cei - able by he pa icipan s du ing he simula ion and ha pe ain in any way o a diagnos ic a ge (e. g., a s uden 's answe on a es o a pa ien 's e bal desc ip ion o a symp- om). Diagnos ic in o ma ion is also an essen ial compo- nen o diagnos ic si ua ions, as i cons i u es he ounda- ion o he ensuing diagnos ic decisions. Thus, i is he ocal poin o his amewo k, and he di e en ace s o i s salience a e u he elabo a ed upon in he sec ion a e he nex . Na u ally, complex s imuli o en con ain smalle pieces o in o ma ion, which simula ion designe s can modi y sepa a ely (e. g., ea u es o long s uden essays o eco ded con e sa ions). To p o ide a comp ehensi e de i- ni ion o in o ma ion p esen ed in a simula ion, we di e - en ia e be ween diagnos ically ele an and i ele an in- o ma ion: ele an pieces o in o ma ion suppo accu a e diagnos ic decisions o in e es in some way, while i ele- an in o ma ion does no . Especially when a simula ion equi es mul iple diagnos ic decisions pe a ge , pieces o in o ma ion can be ele an o one decision and i ele an o ano he . We limi his amewo k o he concep ualiza- ion o ele an in o ma ion; howe e , i should also be ex endable o i ele an in o ma ion, en ailing a mo e h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 8 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) complex in es iga ion o he in e play o ele an and i - ele an in o ma ion ha exceeds he scope o his pape . Diagnos ic decisions Diagnos ic decisions conce n he pa icipan s' indi idual diagnos ic p oduc s. They can include diagnoses (e. g., naming a medical illness o deciding on a s uden miscon- cep ion), judgmen s (e. g., es ima ing a s uden 's compe- ence), p edic ions (e. g., p edic ing he cou se o an illness o es ima ing u u e pe o mance), and ollow-up ac ions (e. g., choosing a he apy o p o iding s uden counseling). Following ou de ini ion, a diagnos ic si ua ion mus al- ways include a leas one explici decision om ei he ca - ego y; howe e , i does no necessa ily include mul iple explica ions (e. g., choosing explici ollow-up ac ions wi hou p eceding explici judgmen s). I mo e han one explica ion is included, he logical o de will be o a i e a an assessmen and hen o make a p edic ion o choose a ollow-up ac ion acco dingly. In simula ions, pa icipan s usually epo diagnos ic decisions in an open o closed ques ionnai e o ma ; howe e , e bal epo s o ac ual pe o mances o ollow-up ac ions a e also possible in spe- ci ic simula ions (e. g., ole play). In e ms o measu ing diagnos ic compe encies beyond knowledge es ing, diag- nos ic decisions ep esen dependen a iables and lead o he calcula ion o sco es h ough compa ison o success c i e ia. Salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion Salience is he p ope y ha makes s imuli s and ou and be likely o d aw he pe cei e s' selec i e a en ion (Hig- gins, 1996). Visual examples o en include mul iple s imu- li, whe eby salien s imuli s and ou om o he s. Ea ly esea ch e ealed ha pe cei e s ecall mo e in o ma ion abou salien s imuli (McA hu & Ginsbe g, 1981) and ha hese s imuli ecei e disp opo iona e weigh ing in subsequen judgmen s (Taylo & Fiske, 1978). Howe e , while esea che s ha e ound ha people gen- e ally ag ee on which pa s o a pic u e o scene a e salien (T eisman & Gelade, 1980; Wol e, 1997), indi iduals' a - en ion can be di ec ed h ough many di e en means. Thus, an impo an dis inc ion is whe he salience pe - ains only o he quali ies o he s imulus o whe he sali- ence is a hypo he ical cons uc o an indi idual's cogni- i e p ocesses when pe cei ing s imuli. While Taylo and Fiske (1978) emphasized he impo ance o he indi idual poin o iew in hei de ini ion o salience, Higgins (1996) ied o di e en ia e be ween he gene alizable a ibu es o s imuli and indi idual cogni i e p ocesses. In a simula- ion, he gene alizable p ope ies o s imuli, he guiding o cogni i e p ocesses h ough ins uc ional design, and he pa icipan s' indi idual di e ences in pe cei ing he simu- la ion come oge he . Consequen ly, we need a concep u- aliza ion o salience ha allows o he gene alizable ca e- go iza ion o he simula ion design while main aining he possibili y o including pa icipan s' indi idual di e ences as mode a o s. To achie e his, we chose o es ablish a e y b oad con- cep o salience ha includes mul iple ace s, a ge ing cogni i e p ocessing in diagnos ic si ua ions h ough he p esen a ion o di e en kinds o in o ma ion du ing a simula ion. Ou lis o he ou ace s o salience includes he o he wise dis inc concep s o access, p ominence, simplici y, and cla i y, whe e p ominence ep esen s sali- ence in a na owe sense. Because we wan o concep ual- ize how pa icipan s' a en ion is di ec ed in simula ions h ough he p esen a ion o in o ma ion, we coalesce hese o he wise dis inc e ms o exhaus he a ge ed cog- ni i e p ocesses. These aspec s a e simila o Funde 's (1995) ealis ic accu acy model, which p oposes ou ac- e s o diagnos ic in o ma ion ha lead o an accu a e judg- men : ele ance, a ailabili y, de ec ion, and u iliza ion. Funde 's aspec s o a ailabili y and de ec ion sha e ea- u es wi h ou aspec s o access and p ominence. Howe e , we ea ele ance as a p econdi ion o conside ing a piece o in o ma ion o be diagnos ic in ou amewo k, keeping i in mind o a possible ex ension ha includes a model o he in e play o ele an and i ele an in o ma- ion. Finally, we conside he u iliza ion o diagnos ic in- o ma ion as an ou come o i s salience and, hus, a de- penden a iable in ou app oach. Access Simila o Funde 's (1995) concep o a ailabili y, access de e mines whe he ele an in o ma ion becomes physi- cally a ailable o pa icipan s du ing a simula ion. Fo a single piece o in o ma ion, access is dicho omous: i is ei he o e ly ep esen ed a one poin in he simula ion, o i emains hidden. Each diagnos ic c i e ion – ep esen ing co ec o accu a e diagnos ic decisions – can ha e a popu- la ion o ele an in o ma ion, bu a simula ion design may o may no p o ide access o his in o ma ion. High access en ails ha pa icipan s a e likely o iden i y he mos ele- an in o ma ion du ing he simula ion, whe eas low ac- cess en ails ha a subs an ial amoun o ele an in o ma- ion is likely o be wi hheld om o no e ie ed by he pa icipan s. As we conside access in a physical sense and no in a cogni i e sense, in o ma ion can be physically ac- cessible bu likely o be missed. Cogni i e accessibili y mo e so ac o s in o he o he ace s o salience. P ominence P ominence de e mines whe he ele an in o ma ion s ands ou and is likely o d aw pa icipan s' a en ion du - h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions 9 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) ing a simula ion. In Funde 's (1995) e minology, p omi- nence is he d i ing ac o behind in o ma ion de ec ion. I can be igge ed by audio isual ma ke s o he pieces o in- o ma ion and hei con ex ual p esen a ion; empo al po- si ioning o du a ion o p esen a ion; and simula ion plo sequencing. Addi ionally, diagnos ic asks, such as p o id- ing p omp s on how o p oceed wi h diagnos ic in o ma- ion, can enhance i s p ominence. In con as , he densi y o possibly i ele an in o ma ion can dec ease p omi- nence du ing a simula ion. Fo a single piece o in o ma- ion, p ominence is nei he ca ego ical no de ini e. To de- e mine he p ominence o ele an in o ma ion, we need o es ima e i ei he heo e ically (e. g., by asking simula ion expe s) o empi ically (e. g., by asking he pa icipan s). Consequen ly, in e -indi idual di e ences conce ning he p ominence o pieces o in o ma ion can be a h ea o he eliabili y o i s es ima ion. The lowe he ag eemen on whe he a piece o in o ma ion in a simula ion is p omi- nen , he less eliable he poin es ima e o i s p ominence is. Ne e heless, indi idual di e ences in he pe cep ion o salience can lead o in e es ing esea ch ques ions. One pe son may ind a piece o in o ma ion e y ala ming, whe eas ano he pe son may ba ely no ice i . Thus – in ad- di ion o i s manipula ion ia simula ion design – explica - ing pa icipan 's pe cep ions o he salience o s imuli makes p ominence a dependen a iable ha can be used in media ion and mode a ion analyses. O e all, a high p ominence o ele an in o ma ion means ha ele an pieces o in o ma ion will s and ou and pa icipan s will likely ac i ely pe cei e i , whe eas low p ominence en ails ha ele an in o ma ion will be p esen ed in a way ha makes i mo e likely o pa icipan s no o ac i ely engage he in o ma ion and possibly o e look o o ge i . Simplici y Simplici y desc ibes he amoun and complexi y o ele- an in o ma ion in combina ion wi h he numbe o diag- nos ic decisions. The amoun and complexi y esul om he numbe o decodable pieces o in o ma ion (e. g., a long s uden essay can be decoded in o a e y high numbe o single pieces, whe eas a single es sco e is a e y simple piece o in o ma ion). The numbe o diagnos ic decisions esul s om he numbe o a ge s (e. g., he numbe o s uden s in a class oom o he numbe o pa ien s ha mus be diagnosed in a ound) and he numbe o deci- sions pe a ge (e. g., he numbe o compe encies o es i- ma e pe s uden o he equi ed numbe o di e en ial diagnoses pe pa ien ). High simplici y en ails a ew sim- ple pieces o ele an in o ma ion combined wi h ew a - ge s and ew decisions pe a ge . Low simplici y en ails a hea y load o complex pieces o in o ma ion ha pa ici- pan s mus a ibu e o mul iple diagnos ic decisions, pos- sibly anging ac oss mul iple a ge s. Cla i y Cla i y de e mines whe he ele an in o ma ion in he simula ion objec i ely leads o p ecise and unambiguous diagnos ic decisions. As such, i conce ns he eliabili y o mapping ele an in o ma ion in he simula ion on o he espec i e decisions. In line wi h es heo y, single pieces o in o ma ion ha e ela i ely low eliabili y; howe e , his does no imply ha a la ge pool o in o ma ion necessa i- ly leads o unambiguous esul s. In o ma ion pa e ns may e en seem o en ail clea diagnos ic decisions o pa ici- pan s bu may be objec i ely ambiguous. Fo example, a diagnos ic si ua ion could include highly simila diagnos- ic in o ma ion o wo a ge s ha equi e undamen ally di e en diagnos ic decisions. Like p ominence, cla i y is nei he ca ego ical no de ini e; hus, i mus be es ima ed. This es ima ion could include using he ag eemen o ex- pe s on diagnos ic alloca ions o decisions based on spe- ci ic in o ma ion. High cla i y en ails ha ele an in o - ma ion will p oduce clea , unambiguous esul s when p ocessed co ec ly, whe eas low cla i y en ails he oppo- si e. Example: The simula ed class oom in Kaise e al. (2013) In his sec ion, we in oduce one published example o a simula ed diagnos ic si ua ion – Kaise e al.'s (2013) simu- la ed class oom – and ca ego ize i using he in oduced concep ual amewo k. In his s udy, he au ho s in es i- ga ed he in e play o s uden s' lesson pe o mance and lesson engagemen in pa icipan s' judgmen s in a simu- la ed class oom en i onmen o a sample o (n = 40) eache candida es. A u he desc ip ion o he simula ed diagnos ic si ua ion is embedded in he ca ego ies o ou amewo k. Ou ocus is on explo ing he salience o diag- nos ic in o ma ion unde he ou sepa a e headings be- low. I is impo an o no e ha wi hin his ocus, we apply heu is ic wo ding ca ego ies o he ou salience ace s; we hope ha his will p o ide an ini ial app oach o de i ing sys ema ic scales in he u u e. The physical en i onmen o his simula ed class oom was an in e ac i e compu e applica ion ha led pa ici- pan s h ough a simula ion using onsc een ins uc ions. S a ic pic u es and names ep esen simula ed s uden s. The pa icipan s in e ac ed wi h hese s uden s using a ques ion-answe schema. They clicked on ques ions in a gi en pool, and he s uden s eac ed by signaling ha hey wan o p o ide an answe . Pa icipan s hen clicked on any one s uden , and an answe appea ed on he sc een. A e he simula ed lesson was o e , he pa icipan s made diagnos ic decisions o each s uden by u ilizing judg- men scales. In e ms o he ex e nal se up in he epo ed h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 10 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) sample, he esea che s in i ed pa icipan s o a labo a o y o pe o m he simula ion on local compu e s in a s and- a dized se ing. The social embeddedness o his simula ed class oom is explained in wha ollows. The pa icipan s in e ac ed wi h he simula ed s uden s in a simpli ied manne . The simu- la ed s uden s we e no pe sonally in oduced, and social in o ma ion was gained only om pic u es, names, and answe s. The e was no ewa d s uc u e o eedback mechanism wi hin he simula ion. The ex e nal se up in- cluded s anda dized ins uc ion om an expe imen e , and he ex e nal ewa d s uc u e in ol ed paymen o pa icipa ion. Unsys ema ic eedback indica ed ha he pa icipan s el he simula ion was a mode a ely ele an ep esen a ion o hei la e p ac ice. The diagnos ic asks assigned a he ou se o his simula- ion we e o comple e a lesson wi h a simula ed class by selec ing on- opic ques ions, add essing hese ques ions o he class, calling upon s uden s, and making judgmen s abou he s uden s a he end o he lesson. The asks we e no epea ed o elabo a ed upon un il diagnos ic decisions we e eques ed a e he lesson. The diagnos ic ac i i ies in his simula ion included he iden i ica ion and gene a ion o diagnos ic in o ma ion, along wi h he a ailable ac ions o choosing ques ions and selec ing s uden s o answe hese ques ions. On a cogni- i e le el, i was ad an ageous o pa icipan s o memo- ize s uden s' answe s and signaling equency o make accu a e judgmen s a e he lesson; he ac i e documen- a ion o diagnos ic in o ma ion was p ohibi ed. Pa ici- pan s we e asked nei he o gene a e addi ional diagnos ic objec i es no o o mula e hypo heses abou he s uden s du ing he simula ion p ocess. As s uden s' answe s we e al eady ma ked in e ms o whe he hey we e co ec o inco ec , he diagnos ic ac i i y o e alua ing he in o - ma ion was no equi ed. The salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion is a he co e o ou examina ion. Thus, we p esen de ails conce ning he ou ace s o salience – access, p ominence, simplici y, and cla i y – in subsec ions ollowing he nex pa ag aph. Gene ally speaking, he ele an diagnos ic in o ma ion in his simula ion was he s uden s' signals a e he pa ici- pan s di ec ed ques ions o he class and he co ec ness o he s uden s' answe s when hey we e called upon. Addi- ional i ele an in o ma ion likely a ose om he s u- den s' names and pic u es. The diagnos ic decisions in his simula ion in ol ed judg- men s o he s uden s' lesson pe o mance and engage- men . Using a pe cen age scale, he pa icipan s we e asked o epo o each s uden he ela i e equency o co ec esponses in compa ison o inco ec esponses and he ela i e equency o signals in compa ison o he numbe o ques ions asked du ing he lesson, espec i ely. Access Access o ele an diagnos ic in o ma ion was high in his simula ion, al hough his was due o he speci ic na u e o he judgmen s. As desc ibed abo e, lesson pe o mance was ope a ionalized as he ela i e equency o he co - ec answe s o each s uden . Lesson engagemen was op- e a ionalized as he ela i e equency o he signals o each s uden . Pa icipan s called upon he s uden s hem- sel es and we e shown whe he he s uden 's esponses o each ques ion we e co ec . They we e also shown each s uden 's signal. Thus, pa icipan s had access o e e y piece o in o ma ion ha cons i u ed he diagnos ic c i e- ia, as he c i e ia we e based on he diagnos ic in o ma- ion he pa icipan s gene a ed. Ne e heless, one can eas- ily imagine how he simula ed class oom could be used di e en ly. Fo example, judgmen s could be eques ed ega ding s uden s' unde lying compe encies o abili ies, while he limi ed numbe o calls on he s uden s would es ic access o ele an in o ma ion on he judgmen c i- e ia (i. e., ewe calls would en ail less access o ele an in o ma ion). P ominence As desc ibed abo e, he p ominence o he ele an diag- nos ic in o ma ion mus be es ima ed. In his case, we es i- ma e he p ominence o diagnos ic in o ma ion in he simula ion o be mode a e. The s uden s' signals and an- swe s we e cen al o he main diagnos ic ac i i y o gene - a ing diagnos ic in o ma ion wi hou in e e ing wi h he in o ma ion. Addi ionally, s uden s' signals we e isually highligh ed on he compu e sc een using colo ed ames, and s uden s' answe s ecei ed addi ional colo ed high- ligh ing based on whe he hey we e co ec o inco ec . Howe e , he pa icipan s had o agg ega e s uden an- swe s in o hei pos -lesson summa i e judgmen wi hou documen a ion and based only on memo y. Thus, he p ominence o each answe and i s co ec ness likely di- minished h ough he agg ega ion p ocess un il he end o he lesson. Simplici y The simplici y o he ele an diagnos ic in o ma ion in his simula ion was mode a e. Al hough he s uden s' sig- nals and he co ec ness o he s uden s' answe s had a simple and o e dicho omous na u e, he pa icipan s di- ec ed a ious ques ions o he class du ing one lesson, e- sul ing in a espec i e amoun o answe in o ma ion. Ad- di ionally, he pa icipan s ecei ed signaling in o ma ion o each ques ion and o each simula ed s uden , esul ing in a mul i ude o pieces o signaling in o ma ion. This amoun o in o ma ion was combined wi h wo dis inc judgmen s made on each o nine s uden s. Consequen ly, a high amoun o e y simple in o ma ion had o be a ib- h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66 N. Mach s e al., Ca ego iza ion o simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions 11 © 2023 The Au ho (s) Dis ibu ed as a Hog e e OpenMind a icle Zei sch i ü Pädagogische Psychologie (2024), 38 (1–2), 3–13 unde he license CC BY 4.0 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0) u ed o a mode a ely high numbe o o e all 18 diagnos ic decisions, which we conside o be mode a ely simple. Cla i y The cla i y o he ele an diagnos ic in o ma ion in his simula ion was e y high due o he na u e o i s design. The asks used o he ques ion-answe schema had solu- ions ha we e clea ly co ec o inco ec , and s uden answe s we e lagged acco dingly in he simula ion. This in o ma ion was used o he agg ega ed diagnos ic c i e- ion o lesson pe o mance. Fu he mo e, he s uden s immedia ely signaled a e a ques ion was di ec ed a he class. This signaling in o ma ion was used o he agg e- ga ed diagnos ic c i e ion o lesson engagemen . Addi- ionally, he e was no sou ce o objec i e un eliabili y o ambigui y in mapping he diagnos ic in o ma ion o he diagnos ic c i e ia. I p ocessed co ec ly, he diagnos ic in o ma ion would lead o an exac diagnos ic decision. Discussion In he p e ious sec ions, we ou lined ou concep ual amewo k o ca ego izing simula ed diagnos ic si ua- ions, ocusing on he salience o he diagnos ic in o ma- ion in such simula ions. We elabo a ed on six concep ual componen s – physical en i onmen , social embedded- ness, diagnos ic asks, diagnos ic ac i i ies, diagnos ic in- o ma ion, and diagnos ic decisions – and p oposed ha he e a e ou ace s o he salience o he diagnos ic in o - ma ion p esen ed in simula ions: access, p ominence, sim- plici y, and cla i y. We u he used one in-dep h example o demons a e how o desc ibe and ca ego ize he design o a simula ed diagnos ic si ua ion on a concep ual le el and in e ms o he salience o i s diagnos ic in o ma ion. The applica ion o simula ions o diagnos ic si ua ions includes esea ch on he s uc u e and measu emen o diagnos ic compe encies and on how hei design as lea n- ing en i onmen s a ec s he ad ancemen o such compe- encies. Fo bo h pu poses, he exis ing s udies and con- cep ual amewo ks ha e me ely ouched upon simula ion design p inciples conce ning he p esen a ion o diagnos- ic in o ma ion (Che niko a e al., 2022; Hei zmann e al., 2019), while also epo ing he e ogenei y be ween he co- e icien s o diagnos ic compe encies and he e ec sizes o simula ions used as lea ning en i onmen s. Cu en me a-analy ical esea ch (Che niko a e al., 2024) indi- ca es ha he salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion can go beyond he exis ing indings ela ed o o he mode a o s in explaining he a iance o lea ning gains in measu es o diagnos ic success. The p esen ed concep ual amewo k enables a clea desc ip ion and ca ego iza ion o simula- ions o diagnos ic si ua ions and opens up possibili ies o iden i y p ecisely how hese simula ions p esen diagnos- ic in o ma ion o pa icipan s. The amewo k should p o- ide oppo uni ies o he sys ema ic manipula ion o he salience o ele an in o ma ion in simula ions and o a - ge ing he diagnos ic ac i i ies in ol ed in dealing wi h mo e o less salien in o ma ion h ough in e en ions. Fo example, in e en ions could aim (1) o guide pa ici- pan s o gain be e access o ele an in o ma ion, (2) o make impo an in o ma ion mo e p ominen , o (3) o e- ie e diagnos ic in o ma ion ha p oduces objec i ely clea e diagnos ic esul s. A possible agenda o u u e esea ch includes he ol- lowing: a. he ca ego iza ion o exis ing simula ed diagnos ic si u- a ions o conclusi e summa ies in a me a-analysis; b. he applica ion o his amewo k o he design o new simula ions o communica e on common g ound con- ce ning he applica ion o simula ions o diagnos ic si u- a ions; c. he ealiza ion o sys ema ic salience a ia ions in exis - ing and new simula ions o diagnos ic si ua ions o in- es iga e on an expe imen al le el which aspec s o in- o ma ion salience a e esponsible o di e ences in measu es o diagnos ic compe encies; and d. he alida ion o in e en ions a ge ing in o ma ion sa- lience o de i e ecommenda ions o he acili a ion o diagnos ic compe encies. O e all, we conside simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions o be e ec i e ools o esea ch on he s uc u e and meas- u emen o diagnos ic compe encies and on he e ec s o he design o lea ning en i onmen s on he ad ancemen o such compe encies. Howe e , he espec i e e ec s o simula ions exhibi la ge a ia ions ha exis ing me a- analyses and amewo ks canno ully add ess. In his pape , we p esen an app oach o d i e he esea ch on simula ed diagnos ic si ua ions o wa d by enabling he sys ema ic ca ego iza ion o design p inciples, ocusing on he salience o diagnos ic in o ma ion – a opic ha has no ye ecei ed any sys ema ic a en ion. Wi h ou ame- wo k, we o e o he au ho s a e e ence o hei simula- ion designs and sugges ha ailing o conside he sali- ence o diagnos ic in o ma ion in speci ic s udies o lea ning en i onmen s can lead o se ious misin e p e a- ions o he epo ed coe icien s. Re e ences Allen, J., Bu a di, L., & Hays, R. (1991). The ela ionship o simula- o ideli y o ask and pe o mance a iables. h ps://econ en .hog e e.com/doi/pd /10.1024/1010-0652/a000364 - Monday, Sep embe 09, 2024 5:00:49 AM - Uni e si ä sbiblio hek Kiel IP Add ess:134.245.6.66