Epidemiological analysis of gender violence in the European Union

anales de psicología / annals o psychology 2020, ol. 36, nº 3 (oc obe ), 380-385 h ps://doi.o g/10.6018/analesps.436281 © Copy igh 2020: Edi um. Se icio de Publicaciones de la Uni e sidad de Mu cia. Mu cia (Spain) ISSN p in edi ion: 0212-9728. ISSN online edi ion (h p:// e is as.um.es/analesps): 1695-2294. Online edi ion License C ea i e Commons 4.0: BY-SA - 380 - Epidemiological analysis o gende iolence in he Eu opean Union Ma ía Paz Be múdez, and Mon se a Meléndez-Domínguez Cen o de In es igación Men e, Ce eb o y Compo amien o (CIMCYC) Uni e sidad de G anada (Spain) Tí ulo: Análisis epidemiológico de la iolencia de géne o en la Unión Eu- opea. Resumen: Exis e una g an he e ogeneidad egional y desconocimien o de la si uación ac ual de la iolencia de géne o (VdG) en los di e en es países de la Unión Eu opea (UE-28). El obje i o del p esen e abajo es de e mi- na la p e alencia ac ual de la VdG y de eminicidios en la UE-28 y en pa - icula en España. Consis e en un es udio desc ip i o obse acional (análi- sis de documen os) seleccionando y analizando da os de las di e en es mo- dalidades de la VdG y de eminicidios en los 28 países de la UE. Le onia, Dinama ca, Reino Unido, Suecia, Bélgica, Finlandia, Eslo aquia y Luxem- bu go ienen asas más al as que la media de la UE en odos los ipos de VdG y Finlandia, Hung ía, I landa del No e y Le onia poseen las inciden- cias más al as en eminicidios. Con espec o a España, el 0.13% de las mu- je es ue on íc imas de VdG y se p oducen 2.3 eminicidios anuales po cada 1.000.000 muje es, si uándose España en e los países con asas más bajas. Se concluye que el mal a o psicológico es el más p e alen e en la UE-28, sin emba go, exis e una di icul ad pa a la compa ación de da os de los di e en es países debido a la inexis encia de una concep ualización legal común de la VdG. Palab as cla e: Violencia de géne o; Unión Eu opea; Epidemiología; e- minicidio. Abs ac : The e is a g ea egional he e ogenei y and igno ance o he cu - en gende iolence (GV) si ua ion in he di e en coun ies o he Eu o- pean Union (EU-28). The aim o his pape is o de e mine he cu en p e alence o GV and emicides in he EU-28 and in Spain in pa icula . This s udy consis s o an obse a ional desc ip i e s udy (documen analy- sis) which selec s and analyses da a belonging o he di e en modali ies o GV and emicides in he EU-28 coun ies. La ia, Denma k, Uni ed King- dom, Sweden, Belgium, Finland, Slo akia and Luxembou g possess highe a es han he EU a e age in all ypes o GV while Finland, Hunga y, No he n I eland and La ia possess highe incidences a es in emicide. Wi h espec o Spain, 0.13% o women we e ic ims o GV and 2.3 emi- cides pe yea occu o e e y 1.000.000 women, wi h Spain being among he coun ies wi h he lowes a es. I is he e o e concluded ha psycho- logical abuse is he mos p e alen wi hin he EU-28, howe e , i is di i- cul o compa e said da a om di e en coun ies due o he lack o a common legal concep ualisa ion o GV. Keywo ds: Gende -based iolence; Eu opean Union; Epidemiology; Fem- icide. In oduc ion Violence agains women is conside ed a uni e sal, complex and mul idimensional phenomenon ha a ec s all social classes (Menéndez, Pé ez, & Lo ence, 2013). Al hough he e is a widesp ead men ali y o ejec ing he jus i ica ions o iolence h oughou he wo ld (Pie o i, 2013), i is s ill a ma- jo p oblem. Wi h ega d o he exis ence o physical and/o sexual iolence owa ds women by hei pa ne , a global p e alence o 30% is collec ed (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion [WHO], 2013). Based on da a om he Uni ed Na ions (UN) collec ed in 2015 on he p e alence o physical iolence agains women by hei pa ne , he a e ages we e p epa ed by egion (see Table 1). Table 1. P e alence o physical iolence agains women by hei pa ne wo ldwide. Yea (%) Region 2014 Range A e age Oceania 7.6-61.1 37.6 Asia 4.5-64.6 22.5 A ica 5.6-56.9 32.7 Eu ope 3.6-39.7 19.7 Ame ica 7-61 28.2 No e. UN (2015) * Co espondence add ess [Di ección pa a co espondencia]: Ma ía Paz Be múdez. Cen o de In es igación Men e, Ce eb o y Compo - amien o (CIMCYC). C/ Campus de la Ca uja S/N, 18011, G anada (Spain). E-mail: [email p o ec ed] (A icle ecei ed: 19-05-2020; e ised: 27-05-2020; accep ed: 20-06-2020) Femicide is he mos ex eme exp ession o gende io- lence (GV). The In e na ional Cou o C imes agains Women i s p oposed he e m in 1976 o de ine he in en- ional killing o a woman by a man on accoun o being a woman (Vi es-Cases e al., 2016). In 2017, he e we e 87,000 in en ional homicides o women, 58% o hem we e ca ied ou wi hin he amily and 34% we e commi ed by hei pa ne (Uni ed Na ions O ice on D ugs and C ime [UNODC], 2018). The egion wi h he highes pe cen age o emicides in ela ion o he homicides o women ha oc- cu ed in 2017 was Oceania (42%), ollowed by A ica (38%) and Ame ica (35%). Asia (31%) and Eu ope (29%) we e be- low he global a e age. The da a show a homogeneous dis- ibu ion in ela ion o he p e alence o cases o physical i- olence de e mined by he UN in 2015. The in e es in he p e en ion o iolence and gende equali y is common in all he coun ies o he Eu opean Un- ion (EU-28), so in 2006 he Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende Equali y, EIGE (Eu opean Pa liamen , 2017) was c ea ed, in cha ge o he collec ion, analysis and dissemina ion o in- o ma ion on equali y and GV. In 2011, he Council o Eu- ope Con en ion on he p e en ion and igh agains io- lence agains women and domes ic iolence, known as he Is anbul Con en ion (Council o Eu ope, 2011) was es ab- lished. A icle 3 se s ou he de ini ion o GV and domes ic iolence ha mus be included by all he coun ies ha a i y he Con en ion. Thus, iolence agains women should be unde s ood as: Epidemiological analysis o gende iolence in he Eu opean Union 381 anales de psicología / annals o psychology, 2020, ol. 36, nº 3 (oc obe ) Viola ion o human igh s and a o m o disc imina ion agains women, and shall designa e all ac s o iolence based on gende ha imply o may imply o women damages o su e ings o a physical, sexual, psychological o economic na u e, including h ea s o pe o ming such ac s, coe cion o a bi a y dep i a ion o eedom, in public o p i a e li e. (Council o Eu ope, 2011, A ., 3a) Likewise, domes ic iolence will be unde s ood as any ac o abuse ha occu s in he amily o in he home, ega dless o whe he he pe pe a o sha es o has sha ed he same domicile as he ic im (Council o Eu ope, 2011, A ., 3b). A icle 11 se s ou he need o collec eliable and egula da a on GV aking in o accoun all he speci ica ions con- ained in he documen . Howe e , despi e he exis ence o a conclusi e legal basis, he e is a clea lack o knowledge abou he eal si ua ion o GV in he di e en coun ies o he EU-28. In Spain, o example, he e a e mul iple o ganiza ions ha collec igu es on GV. The Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e (INE) eco ded 31,286 ic ims o GV in 2018 (INE, 2019). Wi h espec o a ali ies, om 2003 o 2019 mo e han 1,033 ic ims we e coun ed (Go e nmen Delega ion agains Gen- de Violence, 2020). These da a a ec socie y's conce n abou he p oblem, e lec ing in he ba ome e ca ied ou by he Cen e o Sociological Resea ch (CFSR) in No embe 2019, in which 5.7% o esponden s a ed GV among he coun y’s h ee main p oblems (CFSR, 2019). The objec i e o his pape is o analyse he cu en p e - alence o GV and he incidence o emicides in he EU-28 and in de ail in Spain. Me hod Da a Bank In o de o collec GV p e alence da a in he EU-28 Membe S a es, he da a accumula ed by he Eu opean Un- ion Fundamen al Righ s Agency, FRA (2014) and he Eu o- pean S a is ics O ice (Eu os a ) we e used as he uni o analysis o his s udy, wi h da a upda ed in 2019 (Eu os a , 2019). Nex , o ha e a mo e de ailed analysis o Spain, popu- la ion da a (INE, 2020) and GV igu es om he INE (2019) and he Go e nmen Delega ion agains Gende Violence (2020) we e collec ed. Va iable coding Wi h ega d o he design, i is in he o m o an obse a- ional desc ip i e s udy (analysis o documen s and s a is ics) acco ding o he classi ica ion o Mon e o and Leon (2007) in o de o analyse he a iables ob ained om he di e en da abases consul ed. Fi s ly, he sea ch o upda ed epidemiological da a on GV in he EU-28 was ca ied ou in he elec onic eco ds o he FRA, Eu os a and EIGE. The igu es on he di e en ypes o GV we e ex ac ed om he s udy ca ied ou by he FRA in 2012 (published in 2014) in which 42,000 women om he 28 EU Membe S a es we e in e iewed. In he FRA da abase, in o de o collec he app op ia e in o - ma ion o he s udy, si ua ions ela ed o physical, sexual, psychological and economic iolence by a pa ne om 15 yea s o age we e il e ed (FRA, 2014). The igu es o in en ional homicides o women a he hands o hei pa ne we e collec ed om Eu os a (2019). Femicide a es in he di e en coun ies o he EU-28 we e calcula ed wi h he numbe o homicides (Eu os a , 2019) and he popula ion da a o women in each coun y collec ed by Eu os a (2020). Annual incidence was calcula ed as he numbe o cases in ha yea pe 1,000,000 women. Speci ying he si ua ion in Spain, he p e alence a es we e calcula ed aking in o accoun he o al numbe o GV cases in he coun y commi ed in 2018 and published by he INE (2019) and he popula ion census (INE, 2020). F om hese gene al da a, a di e en ia ion was made by age b ack- e s, calcula ing he pe cen age o emale ic ims o GV in Spain o e e y 1,000,000 women. The incidence o emicides o e e y 1,000,000 women in Spain was ob ained om he da a o women mu de ed by hei pa ne (Go e nmen Delega ion agains Gende Vio- lence, 2020) and he popula ion census o women in ha same yea (INE, 2020). Resul s The pe cen age o GV cases in he di e en EU-28 Membe S a es can be seen in Table 2. O he 42,000 women su - eyed who answe ed ques ions ela ed o GV su e ed since he age o 15, 40,192 had had a pa ne a some poin o hei li e. Conside ing he p e alence pe cen ages and he EU-28 a e age, 8 coun ies ha e a highe han a e age p e alence in all ypes o iolence: La ia, Denma k, he Uni ed Kingdom, Sweden, Belgium, Finland, Slo akia and Luxembou g; and 9 coun ies ha e lowe han a e age a es: Spain, Aus ia, C oa ia, Slo enia, Mal a, I eland, Cyp us, G eece and Po ugal. The coun y wi h he highes pe cen - age o women who had su e ed physical iolence a some poin in hei li es om hei pa ne was La ia (31%), ol- lowed by Denma k (29%), he Uni ed Kingdom (28%) and Finland (27%) while hose wi h he lowes pe cen ages o ic ims o his ype o iolence we e Spain, Aus ia, C oa ia, Slo enia and Poland (all o hem wi h 12%). The ype o io- lence wi h he lowes a e age pe cen age is sexual (7%), wi h Denma k, he Ne he lands and Finland p esen ing he high- es p e alence o his ype o iolence (11%). Psychological iolence is he ype o iolence wi h he highes pe cen ages (43%), wi h 15 coun ies abo e he a e age, wi h Denma k and La ia eaching 60% o women ic ims o psychological iolence. Rega ding economic iolence, all coun ies a e a ound he a e age (12%) wi h he highes p e alence in Bulga ia (17%) and he lowes in Po ugal (8%). 382 Ma ía Paz Be múdez and Mon se a Meléndez-Domínguez anales de psicología / annals o psychology, 2020, ol. 36, nº 3 (oc obe ) Table 2. Eu opean p e alence o he di e en ypes o GV. Type o iolence (%) Physical Sexual Psychological Economic Coun y Aus ia 12 6 38 11 Belgium 22 9 44 14 Bulga ia 22 9 39 17 Cyp us 14 4 39 10 La ia 31 9 60 15 Denma k 29 11 60 14 UK 28 10 46 14 Finland 27 11 53 14 F ance 25 9 47 11 Sweden 24 10 51 10 Li huania 24 4 51 15 Romania 23 5 39 12 Ne he lands 22 11 50 11 Slo akia 22 8 47 15 Luxembou g 21 9 49 13 Ge many 20 8 50 11 Hunga y 19 7 49 13 Es onia 19 7 50 14 Czech Republic 19 7 47 16 Po ugal 18 3 36 8 G eece 18 5 33 9 I aly 17 7 38 13 I eland 14 6 31 10 Mal a 13 6 37 11 Poland 12 4 37 12 Slo enia 12 4 34 9 C oa ia 12 3 42 11 Spain 12 4 33 9 EU-28 a e age 20 7 43 12 No e. The au ho , using da a om he FRA s udy (2014) The incidence o emicides o e e y 1,000,000 women in 2017 in he di e en EU coun ies is p esen ed in Table 3. 10 o he coun ies ha e no da a collec ed and 2 o hem (Cyp us and Mal a) poin o 0 emicides in 2017 Finland (6.1), Hunga y (5.3), No he n I eland (5.3) and La ia (4.7) a e he coun ies wi h he highes incidence o emicides. On he o he hand, G eece (1.3), Slo akia (1.4), and I aly (1.8) a e he coun ies wi h he lowes numbe o emicides pe 1,000,000 women, ollowed by Spain, he Ne he lands and Li huania (2). Table 3. Numbe and incidence o emicides in he EU-28 in 2017. Incidence 2017 Coun ies n Fo e e y 1,000,000 women Aus ia (-) (-) Belgium (-) (-) Bulga ia (-) (-) Cyp us 0 0 La ia 5 4.7 Denma k (-) (-) England and Wales * 63 2.4 Sco land* 7 2.5 No h I eland* 5 5.3 Finland 17 6.1 F ance 108 3.1 Sweden (-) (-) Li huania 3 2 Incidence 2017 Coun ies n Fo e e y 1,000,000 women Romania 52 5.2 Ne he lands 17 2 Slo akia 4 1.4 Luxembou g (-) (-) Ge many 153 3.7 Hunga y 27 5.3 Es onia (-) (-) Czech Republic 13 2.4 Po ugal (-) (-) G eece 7 1.3 I aly 56 1.8 mal 0 0 Poland (-) (-) Slo enia 3 2.9 C oa ia 9 4.2 Spain 47 2 No e. The au ho , based on he da a o in en ional homicides o women by hei pa ne in 2017 (Eu os a , 2019) and he popula ion a e o women (Eu os a , 2020). Boxes wi h (-) mean he e is no da a. * Eu os a sepa a es he Uni ed Kingdom in o England and Wales, Sco - land and No he n I eland, so he e is no o e all da a o he Uni ed King- dom. Analysing he abo e da a, Spain is one o he coun ies wi h he lowes p e alence a es in he EU-28, bo h in he di e en o ms o GV and in he a e o emicides. The epidemiological da a o GV in Spain, di e en ia ing age b acke s can be seen in Table 4, and he incidence o emicides in Spain is shown in Table 5. The age b acke s wi h he highes p e alence o bo h GV and emicide a e he age g oups be ween 18 and 49 yea s old. In GV, he g oups wi h he highes p e alence would be hose aged be ween 30 and 39 yea s (0.33%), 18 and 29 yea s (0.32%) and 40 and 49 yea s (0.2%). The age anges wi h he highes a es o emi- cides pe 1,000,000 women a e he g oups aged be ween 40 and 49 yea s (5.7), 18 and 29 yea s (3.5) and 30 and 39 yea s (3.2). The smalles pe cen age o ic ims o GV is obse ed in hose o e 60 yea s o age (155.6) and in emicides in hose unde 18 yea s o age (0.2). Global da a shows a p e a- lence in which a o al o 1,313.6 pe 1,000,000 women a e ic ims o GV and 2.3 women pe 1,000,000 we e killed by hei pa ne in 2019. Table 4. P e alence o GV ic ims in Spain pe 1,000,000 women. GV 2018 Age ange n Vic ims o GV pe 1,000,000 women % Unde 18 yea s 677 167.7 0.02 18 o 29 yea s 9,020 3,227.8 0.32 30 o 39 yea s 10,459 3,303.9 0.33 40 o 49 yea s 7,560 1,970.5 0.2 50 o 59 yea s 2,553 739 0.07 O e 60 1,017 155.6 0.02 To al 31,286 1,313.6 0.13 No e. The au ho , om he da a collec ed om he INE on GV (INE, 2019) and popula ion da a om he INE om July 1, 2018 (INE, 2020). Epidemiological analysis o gende iolence in he Eu opean Union 383 anales de psicología / annals o psychology, 2020, ol. 36, nº 3 (oc obe ) Table 5. Incidence o emicides in Spain pe 1,000,000 women. Feminicide 2019 Age n Feminicide pe 1,000,000 women Unde 18 yea s 1 0.2 18 o 29 yea s 10 3.5 30 o 39 yea s 10 3.2 40 o 49 yea s 22 5.7 50 o 59 yea s 7 2 O e 60 5 0.8 To al 55 2.3 No e. The au ho , based on da a collec ed om he Go e nmen Delega ion agains Gende Violence (2020) and popula ion da a om he INE om Janua y 1, 2019 (INE, 2020) Conclusions The highes p e alence a es o GV a e obse ed in Oceania and A ica espec i ely, compa ed o hem Eu ope is he wo ld egion wi h he lowes p e alence a e. E en so, 22% o women who ha e had an in ima e ela ionship wi h a man epo expe iencing physical and/o sexual iolence a some poin in hei li es, and 43% ha e su e ed some o m o psychological iolence om hei pa ne (FRA, 2014). The e a e impo an di e ences in he p e alence a es o he di e en EU-28 Membe S a es ha may be due o mul iple indi idual, poli ical and socio-cul u al ac o s. A e- cen me a-analysis on da ing iolence concludes ha ac o s ela ed o he socio-communi y en i onmen ( o example, belonging o dange ous neighbou hoods) a e closely associ- a ed wi h he pe pe a ion o da ing iolence (G acia-Lei a, Puen e-Ma ínez, Ubillos-Landa & Páez-Ro i a, 2019). Se - e al s udies show ha he e a e no signi ican di e ences be- ween GV agg esso s and o he male o ende s in e ms o he psychopa hological cha ac e is ics o he o ende s (Jua - os-Bas e e xea, He e o, Fe nández-Suá ez, Pé ez & Rod íguez-Díaz, 2018; Sjödin, Wallinius, Bills ed , Ho ande & Nilsson, 2017) o hei educa ional le el (Loinaz, Ma zbal & And és-Pueyo, 2018). Howe e , con ic - ed c iminals do ha e highe le els o accep ance o in ima e pa ne iolence han men in he gene al popula ion (Ma ín- Fe nández e al., 2018) and psychopa hic ai s ha ac as p edic o s o he GV commission (Fe nández- Suá ez, Pé ez, He e o, Jua os-Bas e e xea & Rod íguez-Díaz, 2018). A ecen s udy on he implica ions in he ea men o o end- e s, di e en ia ing be ween hose who ac ed iolen ly only agains he pa ne and gene ally iolen agg esso s, showed ha he men who bene i ed mos om psychological ea - men s we e hose who gene ally ac ed iolen ly, he e o e, i is concluded ha all c iminals, ega dless o he ype o c ime, bene i om ea men s agains GV (Can os, Kosson, Golds ein & O'Lea y, 2019). Rega ding young people, signi - ican bene icial e ec s ha e been ound in bo h agg esso s and ic ims who ha e unde gone he apeu ic in e en ions (Yanez-Peñuñu i, Ma ínez-Gómez & Rey-Anacona, 2019). F om he esul s ob ained, i is concluded ha Denma k and Finland ha e he highes epidemiological a es in all o ms o iolence excep economic iolence, wi h he Czech Republic and Bulga ia being he coun ies wi h he highes pe cen ages o his ype o iolence (FRA, 2014). The isk ac o s and o wha ex en hey in luence he phenomenon o GV a e no known exac ly. One o he mos s udied a i- ables has been gende equali y and disc imina ion. Howe e , his ac con adic s he No dic Pa adox, which e eals ha coun ies wi h a e y high sco e in he Equali y Index (EIGE, 2019) such as Sweden (83.6 poin s), Finland (73.6 poin s) and Denma k (77.5 poin s) ha e highe le els o GV han o he EU coun ies. No de e mining explana ion has been ound o why his is he case (G acia, Ma ín- Fe nández, Lila & I e , 2019; G acia and Me lo, 2016; Wem ell e al., 2019) bu he ela ionship be ween hos ile sexis a i udes and GV has been demons a ed (Jua os- Bas e e xea, O e all, He e o & Rod íguez-Díaz, 2019). Hos ile sexis a i udes also in luence heal h p o essionals who ha e a lowe le el o in ol emen in iden i ying women who a e ic ims o GV in hei wo kplace (No iega, Jua os- Bas e e xea & He e o, 2020). O he di e en o ms o GV, psychological iolence is he mos p e alen ype o abuse in all EU coun ies. In Spain, in 2015 he Mac o-su ey on Violence agains Women (Go e nmen Delega ion o Gende Violence, 2015) was published, which indica es ha psychological iolence, pa - icula ly con ol iolence (su eillance and es ic ion o hou s, places and con ac s o women wi h iends and ami- ly, among o he s) is he mos p e alen ype o abuse being su e ed by one in ou women (25.4%). This mani es a ion o iolence mus be conside ed wi h special a en ion due o he high equency in which psychological abuse, e bal ag- g ession and abuse by con ol a e no conside ed as GV by he popula ion (Go e nmen Delega ion o Gende Vio- lence, 2014) and because i is he ype o iolence wi h he highes p obabili y o occu ence when i is epea ed (López- Osso io, González, Buque ín, Ga cía & Buela-Casal, 2017). In adolescen s and young adul s, a ela ionship has been ound be ween high le els o emo ional dependence and he exis ence o psychological abuse, bo h in ic ims and in o - ende s (Ma ín & Mo al, 2019), wi h highe le els o emo- ional dependence in young men in he gene al popula ion (Valle & Mo al, 2018). The analyses ca ied ou on emicide show a he e ogene- ous dis ibu ion as in he s udy o he p e alence o GV cas- es. In his ega d, high a es a e obse ed in Finland, No h- e n I eland, Hunga y, Romania and La ia wi h incidences ha oscilla e annually be ween 4 o 6 cases pe 1,000,000 women, and compa ed o hem he g oup consis ing o Li h- uania, he Ne he lands, Spain, I aly, Slo akia and G eece wi h signi ican ly lowe incidence igu es anging om 1 o 2 cases pe 1,000,000 women. Al hough he p e alence a es o emicides in he EU appea o be low, in he con ex o he pa ne , women ha e a i e imes g ea e isk o being killed by hei in ima e pa - ne han men (UNODC, 2014). Spain, compa ed o he Eu- opean a e age, is one o he coun ies wi h he lowes a es o emicide. The policies implemen ed in he coun y ha e 384 Ma ía Paz Be múdez and Mon se a Meléndez-Domínguez anales de psicología / annals o psychology, 2020, ol. 36, nº 3 (oc obe ) allowed he c ea ion o specialized ins i u ions in he p e en- ion o GV and p omo e he p epa a ion o s udies on he subjec , such as, o example, he De ailed Re iew o he cases o emicides in Spain ha aims o s udy he psychoso- cial cha ac e is ics o emicides o unde s and and p e en his p oblem (González e al., 2018; González-Ál a ez e al., 201). In o de o pe o m a eliable ca ego iza ion o GV ag- g esso s, i is necessa y o ca y ou in o ma ion-ga he ing using sel - epo s and o icial eco ds (Webe , Taylo , Can- os, Amado & O’Lea y, 2019). One o he main p oblems o collec ing da a and com- pa ing hem in he di e en membe s o he EU, which in pa icula includes he annual GV igu es, is he lack o a common e minology in all Membe S a es, al hough he Is- anbul Con en ion included a de ini ion o GV and o do- mes ic iolence o be used by he coun ies ha a i ied he Con en ion. No all coun ies ha e laws o egula e and p e en GV (see Table 6). Acco ding o he compila ion o legal de ini- ions o he di e en EIGE membe s a es (2016), 10 EU coun ies do no ha e any law ha egula es GV o domes ic iolence and, o he 18 coun ies ha do ha e egula ions, only Sweden, Belgium, I eland and Spain di e en ia e GV om domes ic iolence. Likewise, he e is no uni ica ion o concep ualisa ion among he coun ies ha ha e egula ions, hus, he Czech Republic ecognises as domes ic iolence he mis ea men o people who li e in he same esidence wi h- ou ha ing o ha e any kinship ies. Spanish Law is he only one o all he Membe S a es ha includes in i s egula ions ha gende iolence mus be exe cised by men agains wom- en. These da a suppo he need o ca y ou a common con- cep ualiza ion o GV o all EU coun ies in o de o collec eliable and compa able da a. Table 6. Exis ence o legal concep ualiza ion o GV in he EU coun ies. Coun ies The e is a GV o domes ic iolence law Di e en ia es GV om domes ic iolence Aus ia Belgium X X Bulga ia X Cyp us X La ia Denma k UK X Finland F ance X Sweden X X Li huania X Romania X Ne he lands X Slo akia Luxembou g Ge many Hunga y Es onia Czech Republic X Po ugal G eece X I aly X Mal a X Poland X Slo enia X C oa ia X I eland X X Spain X X No e.The au ho , om he legal de ini ions o he EU Membe S a es col- lec ed in he EIGE (2020). 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